THE   SPIRIT   OF   ISLAM 


AMI 


THE 

SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

A  HISTORY  OF  THE  EVOLUTION  AND 
IDEALS  OF  ISLAM 

WITH  A    LIFE   OF   THE   PROPHET 
BY 

AMEER  ALI,  SYED,  P.G.,  LL.D.,  D.L.,  CLE. 

MEMBER  OF  THE  JUDICIAL   COMMITTEE  OF   HIS   MAJESTY'S   PKIVT   COUNCIL 

AUTHOR  OF    'a  SHORT  HISTORY   OF  THE  SARACENS' 

'.MOHAMMEDAN   LAW,'   ETC. 


"  What  matters  it  whether  the  words  thou  utterest  in 
prayer  are  Hebrew  or  Syrian,  or  whether  the  place  in 
which  thou  seekest  God  is  Jabalka  or  Jabalsa."— -Sandi 


LONDON 

CHRISTOPHERS 

22   BERNERS    STREET,    W.  : 


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R   FROM   HIS   LATE   MAJESTY,    NASIR-UD-DIN   SHAH. 


TO   MY   WIFE 


50  I  uJ 


PREFACE 

[N  the  following  pages  I  have  attempted  to  give  the  history 
of  the  evolution  of  Islam  as  a  world-religion  ;  of  its  rapid 
spread  and  the  remarkable  hold  it  obtained  over  the  con- 
ience  and  minds  of  millions  of  people  within  a  short  space  of 
me.     The  impulse  it  gave  to  the  intellectual  development  of 
le  human  race  is  generally  recognised.     But  its  great  work  in 
le  uplifting  of  humanity  is  either  ignored  or  not  appreciated  ; 
or  are  its  rationale,  its  ideals  and  its  aspirations  properly 
nderstood.      It  has  been  my  endeavour  in  the  survey  of 
lam  to  elucidate  its  true  place  in  the  history  of  rehgions. 
he  review  of  its  rationale  and  ideals,  however  feeble,  may  be 
help  to  wanderers  in  quest  of  a  constructive  faith  to  steady 
le  human  mind  after  the  strain  of  the  recent  cataclysm  ;    it 
also  hoped  that  to  those  who  follow  the  Faith  of  Islam  it 
lay  be  of  assistance  in  the  understanding  and  exposition  of 
le  foundations  of  their  convictions. 

My  outline  of  the  life  and  ministry  of  the  Prophet  is  based 
the  Sirat-ur-Rasul  of  Ibn  Hisham,  who  died  in  213  a.h. 
28-9  A.c),  barely  two  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  the 
rophet,  supplemented  by,  among  other  works,  Ibn  ul-Athir's 
onumental  history,  the  Chronicles  of  Tabari,  the  Insdn 
Uyun  of  al-Halabi  (commonly  known  as  Sirat-iil-Halahia). 
wo  new  chapters  have  been  added  in  this  edition  :  one  on 
le  Imdmate  ("The  Apostolical  Succession"),  the  other 
'  The  Idealistic  and  Mystical  Spirit  in  Islam."  Considerable 
iw  matter  has  also  been  included  in  the  Introduction  and 


viii  PREFACE 

Chapter  X.,  Part  II.  I  take  this  opportunity  of  expressing 
my  gratitude  to  my  esteemed  friend,  Professor  E.  G.  Bro\vn( 
of  Cambridge,  one  of  our  foremost  OrientaHsts,  for  his  mosi 
valuable  criticisms  on  the  last  chapter,  and  to  Mr.  Mohammec 
Iqbal,  Government  of  India  Research  Scholar  at  Cambridge 
for  his  careful  revision  of  the  proofs  and  the  compilation  o: 
the  Index.  I  also  desire  to  express  my  acknowledgments  tc 
Mr.  Abdul  Oayum  Malik  for  transcribing  for  the  Printers  the 
Arabic  quotations  for  the  new  chapters  and  verifying  th( 
Koranic  references,  and  to  the  Publishers  for  their  unvarying 
courtesy  and  patience  over  a  difficult  publication. 

The  work  has  been  carried  through  the  Press  under  heav} 
pressure  of  pubUc  duties,  and  I  claim,  on  that  ground,  the 
indulgence  of  my  readers  for  any  mistake  that  may  have  passed 
uncorrected.  I 

N.B. — A  few  words  are  necessary  to  explain  the  system  of  translitera- 
tion adopted  in  this  work.  I  have  tried  to  adhere  with  small  modificatior 
to  the  system  I  have  pursued  in  my  previous  publications.  The  lettei 
Cj  (pronounced  by  the  Arab  with  a  lisp  like  tb  in  thin)  to  a  non-Aral 
conveys  a  sound  almost  identical  with  s  in  sin,  and  he  accordingl} 
pronounces  it  as  such.  Nor,  unless  an  Arabic  scholar,  does  he  percei\( 
any  difference  between  O  and  sii:  or  ^  (sdd).  He  pronounces 
them  all  alike.  Similarly  3  (z^l),  \  (Zay),  ,^  [Zdd — pronouncet 
by  the  Arab  something  like  dhad),  and  Jo  [zoi),  convey  to  the  non- 
Arab  almost  identical  sounds  ;  certainly  he  cannot  help  pronouncing 
them  identically.  He  also  perceives  no  difference  between  ^y  (soft  t] 
and  Aj  {toi),  or  between  the  hard  aspirate  _.  (in  Ahmed,  Mohammed, 
Mahmud,  etc.)  and  the  softer  used  in  Harun.  I  have  therefore  nol 
attempted  to  differentiate  these  letters  by  dots  or  commas,  which 
however  useful  for  purposes  of  translation  into  Arabic,  Persian,  Turkist 
or  Urdu,  is  only  bewildering  to  the  general  reader  unacquainted  with  the 
Arabic  alphabet  and  pronunciation.  I  have  given  the  words  as  commonly 
pronounced  by  non- Arabs.  In  the  case  of  words  spelt  with  a  o  in 
common  use  in  India  and  Persia  such  as  hadis,  masnaui,  I sn  a-' ash  aria, 
etc.,  I  have  not  considered  it  necessary  to  denote  the  Arabic  pro- 
nunciation with  a  ih. 


.1 


PREFACE  ix 

The  ordinary /a/Aa  I  have  represented  by  a  (pronounced  as  ii  in  '  cut  ' 

Hi  'but'),  excepting  in  such  words  as  are  now  commonly  written  in 

Inglish  with  an  e,  as  Seljuk  (pronounced  Saljiik),  Merwan  (pronounced 

larw&n),  etc.  ;   the  ordinary  zamma  by  u  pronounced  like  u  in  '  pull,' 

,   r  in  Buldan  ;  the  ordinary  kasra  with  the  letter  i,  as  in  Misr.     A  liph 

dth  thefatha  is  represented  by  a,  as  in  '  had  '  ;    Aliph  with  the  zamma, 

y  M  as  in  Abdul-Muttalib ;   with  a  kasra  by  i  as  in  Ibn  Abi'l  Jawari. 

^'■Vaw  (with  a  zamma)  by  o  and  sometimes  by  6.     Although  like  Kufa 

t(bd  several  other  words,   the  last  syllables  in  Mahmud.   Harun  and 

ttifilamun  are  spelt  with  a  waw,  to  have  represented  them  by  an  o  or  <5 

a  ;ould   have   conveyed  a  wholly  wrong  notion  of  the  pronunciation, 

hich  is  like  oo  ;    I  have,  therefore,  used  m  to  represent  waw  in  such 

ords.     Waw  with  a  fatha  I  have  represented  by  an,  as  in  Maudud. 

'a  with  a  kcisra,  when  used  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  I  have  represented 

vjly  i,  as  in  Arish.     But  in  Ameer  I  have  kept  the  classical  and  time 

thj  onoured  ee.     Ya  with  a.  fatha,  similarly  situated  by  ai  as  in  Zaid.     Ya 

ith  a  fatha  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  represented  by  ye,  as  in 

'ezid  ;     with  a  zamma  by  yu,  as  in  Yusuf.      Excepting  such  names 

s  are  commonly  known  to  be  spelt  with  an  'ain  (c),  as  Ahd  in  Abdul 

ira  lalik,  Abdur  Rahman,  Arab,  Abbas,  Aziz,  Irak,  etc.,  I  have  used  the 

iverted  comma  to  denote  that  letter. 

With  regard  to  names  which  have  become  familiar  in  certain  garbs 
have  made  no  alteration,  such  as  Kaaba,  Omar,  Abdullah,  Basra, 
pelt  with  a  sdd,  etc.  Chain  (p.)  is  represented  by  gh  ;  but  I 
ave  not  attempted  to  differentiate  between  e)  and  fj,  and  made 
o  alteration  in  the  time  honoured  spelling  of  the  Koran.  The  com- 
lon  g  (the  Persian  gdf)  and  p  have  no  place  in  the  Arabic  alphabet, 
nd  therefore  the  Persian  g  and  p  are  transformed  in  Arabic  into  _;  or 
and  h  ox  ph   (/),  as   in  Atabek  and   Isfahan.     ^   is  represented   by 

leii  1  The  /  of  al  when  occurring  before  certain  letters  (technically  called 

jjjiamstM)    is  assimilated  with  them  in  sound,  as  ash-Shams,  ad-din, 

jjjlr-Riza,  as-Salat,  etc.     I  have  used  the  word  "  Moslem  "  in  preference 

iislr  "  ^^uslim,"  as  most  Europeans  unacquainted  with  Arabic  pronounce 

j]j  be  "  u  "  in  "  Muslim  "  as  in  pubUc. 

idI; 

lii 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

he  continuity  of  religious  development — Bactiia  (Balkh)  supposed 
to  be  the  original  seat  of  the  human  race — Dispersion  of  the  races — 
Fetishism  and  Pantheism — The  Eastern  and  Western  Aryans — The 
Assyrians — Babylon  and  the  Jews — Hinduism — Zoroastrianism 
—The  Cult  of  Isis  and  of  Mythra — Judaism — Christianity — 
Gnosticism — Manich^ism— Degradation  of  the  earlier  creeds — • 
The  tribes  of  Arabia,  their  origin,  their  diversity  of  culture  and 
religious  conceptions — Idolatry  among  the  Arabs— The  folk-lore 
of  Arabia — The  advent  of  Mohammed,  a  necessity  of  religious 
development] 


PART  I 
i  THE  LIFE  AND  MINISTRY  OF  THE  PROPHET 

CHAPTER  I 

MOHAMMED  THE  PROPHET 

Iecca,  its  foundations — Kossay,  his  descendants — Abdul  Muttalib 
— The  Meccan  decemvirs — The  Abyssinian  invasion — The  Era  of 
the  Elephant — The  biith  of  Mohammed — 'Okaz — The  depravity 
of  the  Arabs — Mohammed's  marriage — Formation  of  the  League 
of  the  Fuzul — Mohammed's  designation  of  Al-Amin — The  period 
of  probation,  of  communion,  of  inspiration — Commencement  of 
the  Ministry — Persecution  by  the  Koreish — Moral  evidences  of 
Mohammed's  Mission — Koreishite  hostility — The  year  of  mourning  i 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  HEGIRA 

hs\t  to    Tayef — Ill-treatment — Return    to    Mecca — First    pledge    of 
'Akaba — Vision  of  the  Ascension — Second  pledge  of  'Akaba — The 
days  of  persecution — The  departure  for  Medina  (the  Hegira)     -         41 
S.I.  xi  b 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  PROPHET  AT  MEDINA 

PAGES 

Erection  of  the  first  Mosque  in  Islam — The  preachings  of  the  Prophet 

— His  personality  ---_-..         --5( 

CHAPTER  IV 

HOSTILITY  OF  THE  KOREISH  AND  THE  JEWS 

Three  parties  in  Medina — Moslems,  MunSfikin,  Jews — The  charter 
of  the  Prophet — Attack  by  the  Koreish — Battle  of  Badr — Victory 
of  Islam — Ideas  regarding  angels  in  Islam  and  in  Christianity     -         56 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  INVASION  OF  MEDINA  | 

Battle  of  Ohod — Defeat  of  the  Moslems — Barbarities  of  the  Koreish —  i 

Jewish     treachery — The    Bani-Kainuka',     their    expulsion — The 
Bani   Nazir,   their  banishment  —  Coalition    against  the  Moslems  - 

— Beleagurement   of    Medina — Bani  Kuraizha,    their   defection —  | 

Success  of  the  Moslems — Punishment  of  the  Kuraizha         -         -         6t 

CHAPTER  VI  j| 

THE  PROPHET'S  CLEMENCY 

Charter  granted  to  the  monks  of  St.  Catherine — Cruelty  prohibited — 
Peace  of  Hudaibiya — The  Prophet's  message  to  Heraclius  and 
Parviz — Murder  of  the  Moslem  envoy  by  the  Christians 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  DIFFUSION  OF  THE  FAITH 

Continued  hostility  of  the  Jews — Expedition  against  Khaibar — The 
Jews  sue  for  forgiveness — Pilgrimage  of  Accomplishment — 
Violation  by  the  Meccans  of  the  Treaty  of  Hudaibiya — Fall  of 
Mecca — Treatment  of  the  Meccans — Diffusion  of  the  Faith   -         -         Q 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  YEAR  OF  DEPUTATIONS 

Deputations  to  Medina — Apprehension  of  a  Greek  Invasion — Ex- 
pedition to  Tabuk — Conversion  of  Orwa — His  martyrdom — The 
Bani  Tay,  their  conversion  —  Adoption  of  the  Faith  by  Ka'b 
Ibn-Zuhair — His  eulogium  of  the  Prophet — Idolaters  prohibited 
from  visiting  the  Kaaba      -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -i( 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  IX 

FULFILMENT  OF  THE  PROPHET'S  WORK 

PAGES 

IHis   superiority   over   his   predecessors — His    appeal    to    reason — His 
I         Sermon  on  the  Mount — Instructions  to  the  governors — The  false 

prophets — Last  illness  of  the  Prophet  ;   his  death — His  character  -       109 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION 

The  Imamate — The  Sunni  doctrine  of  the  Caliphate — The  title  of  the 

OsmanU  Sultans  to  the  Cahphate -       122 


PART  II 
THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM 

'slam,  its  signification — The  ethical  principles  of  Islam — Idea  of  God- 
head among  the  different  religionists  of  the  world — Mariolatry 
I  and  Christolatry — Modern  idealistic  Christianity — Koranic  con- 
ception of  God — Primary  aim  of  the  new  dispensation — Its  morality       137 

I  CHAPTER  n 

1  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

ts  practical  duties — Conception  of  prayer — Among  the  Mago-Zoro- 
astrians  and  Sabeans,  Jews,  Christians — Islamic  conception  of 
prayer — Of  moral  purity — Institution  of  fasting — Of  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca — Their  raison  d'etre — Intoxication  and  gambling  for- 
bidden— Ethical  code  of  Islam,  its  disciplinary  rules— The  Islam 
of  Mohammed,  its  aims  and  aspirations — Faith  and  Charity — 
Reprobation  of  hypocrisy  and  falsehood — No  difference  between 
?  true  Christianity  and  true  Islam — Reason  of  their  present  diverg- 
ence— Defects  of  modern  Mohammedanism  -  -  -  -  159 
Sumptuary  regulations  of  Mohammed  (Note  I.)  -         -         -       187 

CHAPTER  HI . 

THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM 

he  idea  of  a  future  existence,  result  of  development — The  idea  of 
future  existence  among  the  Egyptians,  the  Jews,  the  Zoroastrians 
—The  Jewish  belief  in  a  personal  Messiah — Real  origin  of  this 


CONTENTS 

belief — Character  of  the  Christian  traditions — Strongly-developed 
idea  of  an  immediate  kingdom  of  heaven  in  the  mind  of  Jesus  and 
the  early  disciples— Paradise  and  Hell,  according  to  the  traditional 
words  of  Jesus — The  millenarian  dream — How  it  has  died  away 
— The  Islamic  conception  of  a  future  existence— The  parabolic 
character  of  many  verses  of  the  Koran — Progressive  development 
a  necessity  of  human  nature — The  Koranic  conception  of  present 
and  future  happiness     --------- 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM 

Its  wars  purely  defensive — Toleration  in  Islam — Intolerance  of  the 
Jews,  Christians,  Mago-Zoroastrians  and  Hindus — Islam  opposed 
to  isolation  and  exclusiveness — Wars  of  Islam  after  the  Prophet — 
The  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Moslems  compared  with  its 
capture  by  the  Crusaders       - -         - 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM 

Polygamy,  its  origin — Practised  by  all  the  nations  of  antiquity — Poly- 
gamy among  the  Christians — Opinion  of  St.  Augustine  and  the 
German  reformers — Polygamy  among  the  Arabs  and  the  Jews^ — 
The  Prophet's  regulations — Monogamy,  result  of  development — 
Compatibility  of  the  Koranic  rule  with  eveiy  stage  of  develop- 
ment— Mohammed's  marriages  examined — Status  of  women  in 
early  Christianity — Conception  of  Jesus  about  marriage — Divorce 
among  the  Romans  and  the  Jews — Among  the  Christians — 
Regulations  of  the  Prophet  on  the  subject — Concubinage  forbidden 
— Custom  of  female  seclusion — Idealisation  of  womanhood — 
Prophecy  and  chivalry,  offspring  of  the  desert — The  women  of 
Islam — Improvement  effected   by  the  Prophet   in   the  status  of 


CHAPTER  VI 

BONDAGE  IN  ISLAM 

Slavery  existed  among  all  ancient  nations — Position  of  slaves  among  the 
Romans  and  the  Jews — Slavery  among  the  Christians — Regulations 
of  the  Prophet  about  slavery — Slavery  abhorrent  to  Islam    - 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Degraded  conditions  of  humanity  at  the  time  of  the  Prophet's  advent 
— Serfdom  and  villeinage — Absence  of  human  liberty  and  equality 
■ — Intolerance  of  Christianity — The  Charter  of  Mohammed — The 


CONTENTS  XV 

message  of  the  Prophet  to  the  Christians  of  Najran — ^The  char-    paces 
acter  of  the  early  RepubUc — Administration  of  the  CaHphs  Abu 
Bakr  and  Omar — Equahty  of  men  inculcated  by  Islam — Spain 
under  the  Arabs .         .         .         .       268 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS  OF  ISLAM 

Owed  their  origin  to  clannic  and  desert-feuds,  fostered  by  dynastic 
disputes — Osman's  partiality  for  the  Ommeyj-ades — His  death — 
Accession  of  Ali — Revolt  of  JMu'awiyah — The  battle  of  Siffin — The 
arbitrament  of  Amr  ibn-ul-'As  and  Abu  Musa  al-Asha'ri — Assas- 
sination of  Ali — The  usurpation  of  Mu'avviyah — The  butchery  of 
Kerbela — The  triumph  of  paganism — The  sack  of  Medina — The 
rise  of  the  Abbasides — The  origin  of  the  Sunni  Church — Mamun — 
The  question  of  the  Imamate — Shiahism — Sunnism — The  principal 
Shiah  sects — The  Zaidias — The  Isina'ilias — The  Isnd-'asharias 
— The  Paulicians — The  doctrine  of  Abdullah  ibn-Maimijn  al- 
Kaddah — The  Grand  Lodge  of  Cairo — The  assassins  of  Alamut 
— The  Isna-'Asharias  divided  into  Usiilis  and  Akhbaris,  their 
respective  doctrines — The  Sunnis  divided  into  Hanafts,  Malikts, 
Shdfeis,  and  HanbaJh — The  Khdrijis — Bdbism       -         -         -         -       290 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

The  Arabian  Prophet's  devotion  to  knowledge  and  science — His  precepts 
— The  Caliph  All's  sayings — Learning  and  arts  among  the  primi- 
tive Moslems — The  school  of  Medina — Imam  Ja'far  as-Sadik 
— The  foundation  of  Bagdad — Mamun,  the  Augustus  of  the 
Saracens — Al-Mu'iz  li-din-illah — The  Ddr-nl-Hikmat  of  Cairo — 
Astronomy  and  mathematics  among  the  Arabs — Architecture — ■ 
Histor}'^ — Poetry — The  Koran — The  intellectual  achievements  of 
the  Moslems — Their  present  stagnation,  its  causes — the  terrible 
destruction  committed  by  the  Tartars— the  result  of  the  Crusades 
— The  Usbegs  and  Afghans  --------       360 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT 
OF  ISLAM 

rhe  Koranic  teachings  about  free-will  and  divine  government — The 
Prophet's  sa>nngs — The  exposition  of  the  Caliph  Ali  and  of  the 
early  descendants  of  the  Prophet — The  Jabarias  or  predestinarians 
— The  Sijdtias — The  Mu'tazilas — Mu'tazilaism  the  same  as  the 
teachings  of  the  philosophers  of  the  family  of  the  Prophet — Ration- 
alism in  Islam — The  reign  of  Mamun — Philosophy  among  the 
Moslems — Avicenna  and  Averroes — The  fall  of  rationaUsm  and 


xvi  CONTENTS 

philosophy     in     Islam — Its     causes — Mutawakkil — His     alliance    paces 
with    patristicism — The   triumph   of   patristicism — Abu'l   Hassan 
Ali   al-Asha'ri — His  retrogressive   teachings — Abu   Hanifa,   Malik 
Shafe'i,  and    Ibn    Hanbal — Ilm-ul-Kalam — The    Ikhwan  us-Safa 
("  The  Brethren  of  Purity ") — Their  teachings       -         -         -         -       403 


CHAPTER  XI 

IDEALISTIC  AND  MYSTICAL  SPIRIT  IN  ISLAM 

Its  origin  traceable  to  the  Prophet — The  Koranic  ideas — The  Caliph 
Ali's  Enunciation— Neo-Platonism — The  Early  Mystics — Imam  at 
Ghazzali — His  life  and  work — The  Later  Mystics — The  Brother- 
hoods and  Lodges — Moslem  IdeaHsm 455 

Appendices 479 

General  Index  499 

Bibliographical  Index 513 


I 


INTRODUCTION 
U.     ^j»;li>i    Uw    ^ — xfe  j^    iS     v_fl 


Tr~MIE  continuity  of  religious  progress  among  mankind 
I  is  a  subject  of  enthralling  interest  to  the  student 
-*-  of  humanity.  The  gradual  awakening  of  the  human 
ind  to  the  recognition  of  a  Personality,  of  a  Supreme  Will 
rershadowing  the  universe  ;  the  travails  through  which 
dividuals  and  races  have  passed  before  they  arrived  at 
le  conception  of  an  Universal  Soul  pervading,  regulating, 
id  guiding  all  existence, — furnish  lessons  of  the  deepest 
iport.  The  process  by  which  humanity  has  been  lifted 
om  the  adoration  of  material  objects  to  the  worship  of 
od,  has  often  been  retarded.  Masses  of  mankind  and 
dividuals  have  broken  away  from  the  stream  of  progress, 
ive  listened  to  the  promptings  of  their  own  desires,  have 
{ven  way  to  the  cravings  of  their  own  hearts  ;  they  have  gone 
lick  to  the  worship  of  their  passions,  symbolised  in  the  idols 
(  their  infancy.  But  though  unheard,  the  voice  of  God  has 
{ways  sounded  the  call  to  truth,  and  when  the  time  has 
i  rived  His  servants  have  risen  to  proclaim  the  duties  of  man  to 
Imself  and  to  his  Creator.     These  men  have  been  the  veritable 


xviii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

"  messengers  of  Heaven."  They  came  among  their  people 
as  the  children  of  their  time  ;  they  represented  the  burning 
aspirations  of  the  human  soul  for  truth,  purity,  and  justice. 
Each  was  an  embodiment  of  the  spiritual  necessities  of  his 
age  ;  each  came  to  purify,  to  reform,  to  elevate  a  degraded 
race,  a  corrupted  commonwealth.  Some  came  as  teachers  of 
a  smaller  culture,  to  influence  a  smaller  sphere  ;  others  came 
with  a  world-wide  message — a  message  not  confined  to  one  race 
or  nation,  but  intended  for  all  humanity.  Such  was 
Mohammed.  His  mission  was  not  to  the  Arabs  alone.  He 
was  not  sent  for  one  age  or  clime,  but  "  for  all  mankind  to  the 
end  of  the  world."  The  advent  of  this  great  Teacher,  whose 
life  from  the  moment  of  his  Ministry  is  a  verifiable  record,  was 
not  a  mere  accident,  an  unconnected  episode  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  The  same  causes,  the  same  crying  evils,  the  same 
earnest  demand  for  an  "  assured  trust  "  in  an  all-pervading 
Power,  which  led  to  the  appearance  on  the  shores  of  Galilee, 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  Caesar,  of  a  Prophet  whose  life  is  a! 
tragedy,  operated  with  greater  force  in  the  seventh  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  The  beginning  of  the  seventh  century, 
as  has  been  rightly  said,  was  an  epoch  of  disintegration- 
national,  social,  and  religious  :  its  phenomena  were  such  as 
have  always  involved  a  fresh  form  of  positive  faith,  to  recall  j 
all  wandering  forces  to  the  inevitable  track  of  spiritual  evolution ! 
"towards  the  integration  of  personal  worship."  They  all  pointed 
to  the  necessity  of  a  more  organic  revelation  of  divine  govern- 
ment than  that  attained  by  Judaism  or  Christianity.  The  holy 
flames  kindled  by  Zoroaster,  Moses,  and  Jesus  had  been, 
quenched  in  the  blood  of  man.  A  corrupt  Zoroastrianism, 
battling  for  centuries  with  a  still  more  corrupt  Christianity, 
had  stifled  the  voice  of  humanity,  and  converted  some  of  the 
happiest  portions  of  the  globe  into  a  veritable  Aceldama. 
Incessant  war  for  supremacy,  perpetual  internecine  strife, 
combined  with  the  ceaseless  wrangling  of  creeds  and  sects,! 
had  sucked  the  life-blood  out  of  the  hearts  of  nations,  and  thei 
people  of  the  earth,  trodden  under  the  iron  heels  of  a  lifelessj 
sacerdotalism,  were  crying  to  God  from  the  misdeeds  of  theiij 
masters.  Never  in  the  history  of  the  world  was  the  need  sc 
great,  the  time  so  ripe,  for  the  appearance  of  a  Deliverer.     Ir 


lurniD 
ustici 
of  hi 
grade 
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icam 
iiera( 
1  wa 
e.  H 
totl 
whffi 
i,m 
listoi 
esai 
vai 
jaliei 
feis 
entui 
intiin 
itioD' 
ucha 
ireca 
Jutii 
wind 
oven 
leho! 
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strift 
sect 
nd* 
lifelei 
ftte 
d- 

r   I 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

order,  therefore,  to  appreciate  thoroughly  the  achievement 
of  Mohammed  in  the  moral  world,  it  is  necessary  to  take  a 
rapid  survey  of  the  rehgious  and  social  condition  of  the  nations 
of  the  earth  previous  to,  and  about  the  time  of,  the  Islamic 
Dispensation. 

The  high  table-land  of  Bactria,  appropriately  styled  by  Arab 
geographers  Unun  iil-Bildd,  or  "  mother  of  countries,"  is 
supposed  to  be  the  cradle  of  humanity,  the  original  birth-place 
of  creeds  and  nations.  Through  the  faint  and  shadowy  light, 
which  comparative  ethnology  throws  on  the  infancy  of  man- 
kind, we  perceive  groups  of  families  congregated  in  this  primeval 
home  of  the  human  race,  gradually  coalescing  into  clans  and 
tribes,  and  then  forced  by  the  pressure  of  increasing  popula- 
tion, issuing  in  successive  waves  to  people  the  face  of  the 
globe.  The  Hamitic  branch  were  apparently  the  first  to 
leave  their  ancient  habitations.  They  were  followed  by  the 
Turanians,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  the  Ugro-Finnish 
tribes,  supposed  to  be  an  offshot  of  the  Japhetic  family.  Some 
of  them  apparently  proceeded  northwards,  and  then  spreading 
themselves  in  the  East,  founded  the  present  Mongolian  branch 
of  the  human  race.  Another  section  proceeded  westward 
and  settled  in  Azarbaijan,  Hamadan,  and  Ghilan,  countries 
to  the  south  and  south-west  of  the  Caspian,  better  known  in 
ancient  history  as  Media.  A  portion  of  these  descending 
afterwards  into  the  fertile  plains  of  Babylonia,  enslaved  the 
earher  Hamitic  colonies,  and  in  course  of  time  amalgamating 
with  them,  formed  the  Accadian  nation,  the  Kushites  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures.  This  composite  race  created 
Babylon,  and  gave  birth  to  a  form  of  religion  which,  in  its 
higher  phases,  was  akin  to  natural  pantheism.  In  its  lower 
phases,  with  its  pan-daemonism,  its  worship  of  the  sun-gods 
and  moon-gods,  closely  associated  with  the  phallic  cult  and 
the  sexual  instincts,  the  sacrifice  of  children  to  Baal  and 
Moloch,  of  virginity  to  Beltis  and  Ashtoreth,  it  marks  an 
epoch  when  high  material  civilisation  was  alhed  to  gross 
licentiousness,  and  cruelty  was  sanctioned  by  religion. 

The  Semites  were  the  next  to  leave  the  primeval  home. 
They  also,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Turanians,  migrated 
towards  the  West,  and  apparently  settled  themselves  in  the 


XX  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ( 

northern  part  of  the  Mesopotamian  Delta.  Increasing  in 
numbers  and  strength,  they  soon  overthrew  the  Babylonian 
kingdom,  and  founded  a  far-reaching  empire  which  wielded 
its  sway  over  all  the  neighbouring  States.  In  their  seat  of 
power  between  the  two  great  rivers  of  Western  Asia,  the 
Assyrians  at  times  rose  to  a  positive  monotheistic  conception. 
Their  system  of  celestial  hierarchy  furnishes  indications  of  a 
distinct  recognition  of  one  Supreme  Personality. 

Whilst  the  main  body  of  the  Semitic  colony  was  developing 
itself  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  Delta,  a  small  section  had 
penetrated  far  into  a  district  called  Ur,  within  the  boundaries  ■ 
of  the  Chaldaean  monarchy.^     The  patriarch  of  this  tribe,  whose  i 
self-imposed  exile  and  wanderings  have  passed  into  the  religious 
legends  of  more  than  one  creed,  became  the  father  of  the  , 
future  makers  of  history. ^  ■ 

The  Japhetic  family  seems  to  have  tarried  longest  in  its  ' 
ancient  habitation.     Whilst  the  other  races,  which  had  broken 
away  from  the  original  stock,  were  forming  empires  and  evolving 
creeds,  the  Japhetic  branch  underwent  a  development  peculiar  ; 
to  itself.     But  the  march  of  nations  once  set  on  foot  was  • 
never  to  cease  ;   actuated  by  that  spirit  of  unrest  which  works  \ 
in  barbarous  tribes,  or  influenced  by  the  pressure  of  population  | 
and  the  scarcity  of  space  in  their  old  haunts  for  the  pursuit  i 
of  their  pastoral  avocations,  tribe  after  tribe  moved  away 
towards  the  West.     Among  the  first  were  the  Pelasgians  and 
the   Celts.     Other  tribes  followed,   until  the   Aryans  proper  '■ 
were  left  alone  in  the  old  haunts.     One  section  apparently  • 
had  its  abode  near  Badakhshan,  the  other  towards  Balkh  i 
proper,  where  for  centuries  they  lived  almost  isolated  from ; 
the  neighbouring  nations,  unaffected  by  their  wars  or  their  '■ 
movements.     The  light  of  history  which  has  dawned  on  the 
Western  races,  the  founders  of  kingdoms  and  civilisations,  also 
falls  upon  these  ancient  dwellers  of  the  earth,  and  reveals, 
though    indistinctly    and    as    through    a   mist,    several    clans 
gathered    together    on    that    plateau  ;     just    emerged    from 

^  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Monarchies,  p.  23.  I 

*  In  the  Arabian  traditions  the  father  of  Abraham  is  called  Azar,  which  isj 

evidently  the  same  as  Asshur  ;   and  the  beautiful  idols  of  Azar  are  frequently! 

referred  to  in  Moslem  litei-ature.     These  traditions  confirm  the  belief  thatj 

Abraham  was  of  Assyrian  origin. 


I 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

^§  in  Isavageness  into  barbarism,  they  are  becoming  alive  to  the  sense 
oniaD  jof  an  Universal  Ideality.  Innumerable  idealities  are  taking  the 
'fWed  iplace  of  the  natural  objects,  hitherto  worshipped  with  fear  and 
^t  ol  trembling.  With  some  of  them  the  host  of  abstractions  and 
personifications  of  the  powers  of  nature  are  subordinated  to 
two  comprehensive  principles — Light  and  Darkness.  The 
sun,  the  bright  harbinger  of  life  and  light,  becomes  the  symbol 
of  a  beneficent  Divinity,  whose  power,  though  held  in  check, 
is  eventually  to  conquer  the  opposing  principle  of  Evil  and 
Darkness.  With  others,  the  idealities  which  they  now  impress 
daries  on  the  fetish  they  worshipped  before,  merge  in  each  other  ; 
at  one  time  standing  forth  as  distinct  personal  entities,  at 
another  time  resolving  themselves  into  a  hylozoic  whole. 
Gradually  the  clouds  lift,  and  we  see  the  tribal  and  clan- 
formations  giving  way  to  monarchical  institutions  ;  agriculture 
taking  by  slow  degrees  the  place  of  pastoral  avocations  ; 
primitive  arts  being  cultivated  ;  the  use  of  metals  gaining 
ohing  Iground,  and,  above  all,  the  higher  conception  of  a  Supreme 
;ciilar  ■  Personality  forcing  itself  upon  the  yet  unopened  mind. 
t  was  iKaiumurs,  Hoshang,  and  the  other  old  kings  of  whom  Firdousi 
works  sings  with  such  wondrous  power,  are  types  of  an  advancing 
ilatioo  'civihsation.  The  introduction  of  the  monarchical  institutions 
lursuit  lamong  the  Aryans  proper  seems  to  be  coeval  with  that  religious 
away  'conflict  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Aryan  family  which 
IS  and  [led  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Eastern  branch  from  their  Bactrian 
proper  jhome.  A  powerful  religious  revolution  had  been  inaugurated 
jentl)'  jamong  the  Western  Aryans  by  a  teacher  whose  name  has  been 
galli  [preserved  in  the  literature  of  his  religion  as  Citama  Zarathustra. 
[  jroiB  |The  sharp  religious  conflict,  which  resulted  from  this  move- 
-  tjieii  iment,  has  left  its  mark  in  the  deep  imprecations  heaped  by 
pjj  tjie  [the  Vedic  hymn-singers  on  the  enemy  of  their  race  and  creed, 
ijjlsojthe  Djaradashti  of  the  Vedas.  The  attitude  of  the  Vedic 
hymn-singers  towards  the  reformed  faith,  even  more  than  the 
extraordinary  coincidence  in  names,  furnishes  the  strongest 
proof  that  the  religious  divergence  was  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  split  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Aryans  proper. 
In  this,  probably  the  first  religious  war  waged  among  man- 
kind, the  Western  dualistic  clans  were  successful  in  driving 
their   half-polytheistic,   half-pantheistic    brethren    across  the 


ffbicM 

eqiiently 
lief  that 


xxii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Paropamisadae.     The  Eastern  Aryans  burst  into  India,  driving 
before  them  the  earher  black  races,  massacring  and  enslaving 
them,  treating  them  always  as  inferior  beings,  Dasyus  and  I 
Sudras,  slaves  and  serfs.     The  difference  between  the  Vedic 
and  the  Zoroastrian  religions  was,  however,  purely  relative. 
Zoroastrianism  substituted  for  the  worship  of  the  phenomena, 
the  adoration  of  the  cause.     It  converted  the  gods  of  the 
Vedas  into  demons  and  the  deva-worshippers  into  infidels ; 
whilst  the  Vedic  hymn-singer,  on  his  side,  called  the  Ahura  of  I 
the  Avesta  an  evil  god,  an  Asura,  a  power  hostile  to  the  gods,  . 
and  heaped  burning  maledictions  on  the  head  of  Djaradashti. 

Whilst  the  place  and  time  of  the  early  Zoroaster's  birth  | 
are  enwrapt  in  mystery,  under  Darius  Hystaspes  arose  another 
teacher,  who,  under  the  same  name,  revived,  organised,  and  . 
enlarged  the  basis  of  the  ancient  teachings. 

Retracing  our  steps  for  a  moment,  we  see  the  tide  of  Aryan 
conquest  in  India  flowing  eastward  and  southward  for  centuries. 
The  old  Aryan  religion,  which  the  invaders  had  brought  from 
their  ancient  homes,  consisted  chiefly  in  the  worship  of  the 
manes  and  the  adoration  of  the  powers  of  Nature  symbolised 
in  visible  phenomena.  In  the  land  of  the  Five  Rivers  the 
spiritual  conception  developed  further  ;  we  can  read  in  the 
Vedas  the  march  of  progress  until  we  arrive  at  the  zenith 
of  Hindu  religious  ideas  in  the  Upanishads,  which  often  in  the 
intensity  of  spiritual  yearning  approach  the  highest  monotheism. 
The  Upanishads  dwell  not  only  on  the  immanence  of  God,  a 
conception  which  gave  birth  in  later  times  to  the  material 
pantheism  of  India  ;  but  also  teach  that  the  Supreme  Spirit 
is  the  protector  of  all  beings  and  sovereign  over  all  creation, 
that  he  dwells  in  the  hearts  of  men,  and  finally  absorbs  the 
individual  soul  in  infinity  "  as  the  ocean  absorbs  the  river  "  ; 
when  that  absorption  takes  place  the  human  soul  loses  all 
consciousness  of  its  experience  in  the  earthly  frame.  But 
these  interesting  records  of  human  progress  contained  within 
themselves  unquestioned  germs  of  spiritual  decadence  which 
soon  reversed  the  process  of  evolution  ;  and  thus  instead  of 
observing  a  further  uplifting,  we  see  a  progressive  declension. 
The  Upanishads  make  way  for  the  Puranic  cults,  which  again 
succumb  to  the  power  of  the  Tantric  worship. 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

The  idea  to  which  the  Upanishads  frequently  give  expression 
that  the  Supreme  Spirit  manifests  Himself  in  various  forms 
gave  rise  to  the  conception  of  the  Avatars  or  incarnations. 
Just  as  in  the  Western  pagan  world  philosophy  failed  to  satisfy 
the  craving  of  the  popular  mind  for  a  personal  God  who  had 
dwelt  among  mankind  and  held  famihar  discourse  with  them, 
the  theistic  aspirations  of  the  Upanishads  did  not  appeal  to 
the  heart  or  touch  the  emotions  of  the  masses  of  India.  And  a 
hero-god  was  soon  found  in  a  member  of  the  warrior  caste, 
who  came  before  long  to  be  identified  with  the  Supreme  Spirit 
and  to  be  regarded  in  his  earthly  existence  as  an  incarnate 
god. 

The  development  of  the  Krishna-cult,  like  that  of  its  rival,  the 
worship  of  the  "  dread  Mother,"  illustrates  forcibly  not  merely 
the  religious  welter  which  prevailed  in  India  in  the  seventh 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  but  also  the  gulf  which  divided 
the  minds  of  the  philosophers  who  composed  the  Upanishads 
and  the  Bhagavad-Gita  ;  "the  Song  of  Faith,"  ^  from  the 
thoughts  and  feeHngs  of  the  populace.  It  is  abundantly  clear 
that  long  before  they  burst  into  Hindustan  proper,  the  Aryan 
settlers  in  the  Punjab  or  their  priests  and  rehgious  teachers 
made  the  most  stringent  rules  to  prevent  the  intermixture  of 
the  invaders  and  their  descendants  with  the  races  they  had 
conquered  and  enslaved  in  their  steady  and  prolonged  march 
towards  the  East.  The  touch  of  the  latter,  who  were  turned 
into  the  lowest  and  servile  caste,  was  pollution  ;  all  the 
religious  rites  peculiar  to  the  three  higher  castes  were  strictly 
forbidden  to  them. 

Among  all  the  flow  and  ebb  of  Aryan-Hindu  thought  in 
the  region  of  pantheism  the  worship  of  the  manes  has  always 
clung  to  the  Hindu  mind  as  an  essential  part  of  his  rehgio- 
social  system.  The  Sudra  was  permitted  to  offer  oblations  to 
his  dead  ancestors,  but  no  Brahman  could  officiate  at  the  rites 
without  incurring  the  heaviest  penalties.  If  a  Sudra  over- 
heard a  Brahman  reciting  the  Vedas,  he  was  to  be  punished  by 
having  molten  lead  poured  into  his  ears  ;  if  he  happened  to 
sit  on  the  same  bench  with  the  Brahman  he  was  liable  to  be 

^  A  recent  writer  remarks  that  the  Bhagavad-Gita  no  doubt  shows  traces  of 
theism,  but  this  theism  is  blended  with  other  and  non-theistic  elements. 


XXIV  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

branded.  Whilst  unions,  legitimate  or  illegitimate,  between; 
the  "  twice  born,"  as  the  three  superior  castes  were  caUed.i 
and  the  Sudras  were  interdicted  under  the  cruellest  penalties. 
No  legislation,  however,  could  prevent  their  religious  ideas 
and  practices  being  inlEluenced  by  the  primitive  beliefs.  In 
course  of  time  the  divinities  of  the  pre-Aryan  tribes  and  races 
were  incorporated  into  the  Hindu  pantheon,  and  their  worship 
became  part  of  the  Hindu  daily  ritual.  The  amalgamations 
of  diverse  beliefs  of  unequal  growth  and  varying  tendencies 
had  their  inevitable  result  in  the  debasement  of  the  complex 
and  abstruse  pantheism  the  philosophers  were  endeavouring 
through  ages  to  evolve. 

Before  the  followers  of  Islam  lifted  the  veil  behind  which 
India  had  lived  enshrouded  in  mystery  for  thousands  of  years,' 
she  possessed  no  history.  It  is  impossible  to  say  when  Vasu- 
deva-Krishna  lived,  or  to  judge  of  his  personality.  There  are 
innumerable  legends  which  verge  on  the  absurd  and  puerile, 
legends  evidently  manufactured  by  the  priests,  who  had 
become  the  equals,  if  not  the  superiors,  of  the  gods  ;  and  whose 
interest  it  was  to  keep  the  minds  of  the  vulgar  fascinated  and 
enthralled.  The  place  which  Vasudeva-Krishna  occupies  in 
the  Hindu  pantheon  is  that  of  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu, 
and  as  such  he  forms  the  central  figure  in  the  devotional  part 
of  the  Bhagavad-Gita.  He  is  evidently  a  composite  divinity  ; 
one  of  the  man-gods  associated  with  him  being  the  gay  here 
who  hved  among  the  cowherds  of  Gokul  and  disported  him- 
self in  the  famous  groves  of  Brindabun  with  his  merr}; 
companions.  1 

The  cult  of  Vasudeva-Krishna  inculcated  absolute  dharma^ 
or  faith  as  the  key  to  salvation  ;  the  believer  in  this  incarnate: 
Vishnu,  whatever  his  conduct  in  life,  was  assured  of  eternal; 
happiness.  ; 

The  doctrine  of  perfect  faith  gave  birth  to  practices  andl 
beliefs   which    are   still   current   in    India.     As   righteousness; 

1  Krishna  is  usually  called  the  Gopala-Krishna  or  Cowherd  Krishna  ;  hiV 
female  companions  are  called  the  gopis,  the  "  milkmaids."  Many  a  prettj; 
legend  is  woven  round  the  adventures  of  this  hero-god  of  the  Ahirs,  the  cow! 
herd  caste  of  Upper  India.  Krishna  has  been  somewhat  inaptly  called  thdj 
Apollo  of  the  fiindus,  though  it  is  difficult  to  clothe  him  with  the  poetrj 
which  generally  envelopes  the  Greek  god. 


INTRODUCTION 


etwee  consists  in  the  concentration  of  the  mind  in  one's  self  as  identical 
callel  with  the  Supreme  Spirit  represented  in  Krishna,  the  gymno- 
naltie  50phic  ascetic  practices  acquired  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  a 
5  idea  Superlative  merit.  To  sit  for  years  in  the  forest  with  the 
is.  li  eyes  fixed  on  one  spot  of  the  human  body  and  the  mind  on 
drace  tKrishna  ;  to  stand  for  years  on  one  leg  ;  to  be  swung  round  by 
vorsliij  iliooks  fixed  in  the  flesh  were  acts  of  devotion  which  cured  all 
natioi  sins.  To  expiate  a  sin  or  to  fulfil  a  vow  a  man  might  be 
dencif  employed  to  measure  by  the  length  of  his  body  the  distance 
ompla  from  the  abode  of  the  penitent  to  the  temple  of  the  deity. 
vouriij  jTo  read  the  Bhagavad-Gita  wdth  true  faith  or  to  bathe  in  the 
[Ganges  or  any  holy  pool,  absolved  every  man  or  woman  from 
1  whid  ^11  breaches  of  the  moral  laws. 

i{year> !  It  is  difficult  to  tell  when  Sakt'ism  acquiied  the  predominant 
nVasi  'hold  it  now  possesses  on  large  masses  of  the  Hindu  population. 
lereatjThe  Sakti  is  the  female  half  and  active  creative  side  of  each 
puerilt  jHindu  deity.  The  Sakti,  or  spouse  of  Siva,  is  the  dread  goddess 
ho  \i  jknown  under  various  names,  such  as  Parbati,  Bhavani, 
j\^,li()Sj  jKali,  Maha-Kali,  Durga,  Chamunda.  The  worship  of  this 
yjni  goddess,  as  described  in  the  drama  of  Bhavabhuti,  written 
ipies  1!  pLpparently  in  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era,  was 
Yijlijij  belebrated  with  human  sacrifices  and  other  revolting  rites, 
^ji]pj[, There  is  nothing  of  the  "mater  dolorosa"  in  the  spouse  of 
[j^.j^jy  iSiva,  by  whatever  name  she  is  invoked  or  in  whatever  form  she 
j,jj(  p  worshipped  ;  she  possesses  none  of  the  attributes  of  human 
'^j  [jjj,,  pity  or  sympathy  with  human  suffering,  the  Alexandrian 
,  j^^g^  worshipper  associated  with  Isis  "  the  goddess  of  myriad  names." 
This  awe-inspiring,  not  to  say,  awful  concept  of  a  decadent 
religious  mind,  evidently  borrowed  from  the  pre-Aryan  races, 
,who  delights  in  human  blood  and  revels  in  human  misery, 
nas  few  parallels  in  the  paganism  of  the  world  ;  for  even 
Cybele,  the  7nagna  mater  of  the  Romans,  was  not  so  merciless 
^jpr  took  so  much  pleasure  in  inflicting  pain  as  the  Sakti  of  the 
^'  God  of  destruction  "  ^  This  deity  is  worshipped  according 
!to  the  ritual  of  the  Tantras,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
^lij  bible  of  Sakt'ism.  Many  of  the  Taniric  hymns  are  imbued 
yaprettiwdth  Considerable  devotional  spirit,  and  the  invocations  ad- 
■^'J^"J  dressed  to  the  goddess  often  appeal  to  her  pity  ;  but  whatever 


ncarnat! 


ices 


the  pofttJ 


Siva. 


xxvi  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

mystical  meaning  the  Tantras  may  possess  for  the  philosopher, 
the  people  commonly  accept  the  worship  in  its  most  literal 
sense.  ^ 

From  the  two  great  epics,  one  of  which  tells  the  story  of  the 
war  between  the  Pandus  and  the  Kurus,  and  the  other  the  legend 
of  the  abduction  of  Sita  by  the  king  of  Ceylon,  we  can  form  a 
fairly  accurate  idea  of  the  popular  creeds  of  the  time.  Both 
represent  a  developed  society  and  considerable  material 
progress  combined  with  great  moral  decadence.  Thus  long 
before  the  appearance  of  Gautama,  the  founder  of  Buddhism, 
religious  worship  among  the  masses  of  India  had  sunk  into 
mere  mechanical  performance  of  sacrifices  and  oblations  at 
which  the  ability  of  the  ministering  priest,  without  whose 
services  their  observance  was  not  permissible,  to  perform  the 
"  god-compelling "  rites  with  the  appropriate  incantations, 
rather  than  the  conduct  or  piety  of  the  worshipper,  supplied 
the  test  of  merit.  The  revolt  of  Gautama  and  of  Mahavira 
(Mahabir)  represented  the  natural  uprise  of  the  Hindu  mind 
against  a  selfish  sacerdotalism.  Both  deny  a  Creative  Principle 
and  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Intelligence  governing  and 
regulating  the  universe,  both  affirm  the  eventual  annihilation 
of  individual  life  ;  both  dwell  on  the  merit  of  work  in  bringing 
about  this  blissful  consummation.  But  whilst  Jainism  has 
hung  on  to  the  skirts  of  Brahmanism  and  is  now  practically 
a  Brahmanical  sect,  Buddhism  struck  out  boldly  a  new  path 
for  itself.  It  placed  Karma  in  the  forefront  of  its  scheme  of 
salvation  ;  and  its  great  teacher  tried  to  fulfil  its  claims  in 
his  own  life.      Its  conception  of  the  destiny  of  man  after 

^  There  are  two  chief  divisions  of  Tantric  worshippers :  the  Dakhshina- 
chari  and  Vamachari,  or  right  and  left  hand  rituaHsts  ;  the  worship  of  the 
former  is  pubUc,  and  not  otherwise  noticeable  than  as  addressed  to  other 
goddesses,  such  as  Lakshmi  or  ]\Iahalakshini,  the  Sakti  of  Vishnu.  In  the 
left  hand  worship,  specially  called  Tantrikn,  the  exclusive  object  of 
adoration  is  Kali.  This  worship  is  private  and  is  said  to  be  celebrated 
with  impure  practices.  This  particular  cult  has  an  enormous  number  of 
followers  all  over  India  and  branches  into  various  subdivisions.  In  the 
season  of  the  Ditrga  Pitja,  which  is  usvially  celebrated  in  the  month  of  August, 
the  image  of  Durga  is  carried  about  seated  on  a  throne.  In  Upper  India  she 
is  painted  as  yellow  of  complexion  ;  in  Bengal  she  is  represented  as  absolutely 
black,  with  four  hands,  seated  on  a  tiger.  In  the  temple  of  Kalighat  (from 
which  Calcutta  derives  its  name)  dripping  skulls  might  be  seen  hanging  from 
her  neck.  In  one  of  the  temples  at  Jeypore  the  goddess  may  be  seen  with  her 
head  twisted  round  ;  the  tradition  is  that  the  lady  turned  her  face  in  disgust 
when  a  goat  was  offered  to  her  in  sacrifice  instead  of  a  human  being. 


INTRODUCTION  xxvii 

death  was  quite  opposed  to  Brahmanical  doctrines  ;  and 
:  its  occult  mysticism  soon  passed  into  other  creeds.  But 
in  the  land  of  its  birth,  after  a  short  but  glorious 
existence  Buddhism  met  with  a  cruel  fate  ;  and  the 
measure  of  punishment  that  was  meted  out  to  it  by  a 
triumphant  Brahmanism  is  depicted  on  the  temples  of  Southern 
India.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  in  its  pristine 
garb  Buddhism  did  not  possess  the  attractions  Hinduism 
offered  to  its  votaries.  It  never  claimed  to  be  a  positive 
religion,  and  its  "  rewards  "  and  "  sanctions,"  its  promise  of 
bliss  in  a  future  existence,  its  penalties  for  failure  to  perform 
duties  in  this  life,  were  too  shadowy  to  stir  the  heart  of  the 
masses.  It  had  soon  to  abandon  its  contest  with  the  outside 
world  or  to  arrive  at  a  compromise  with  the  religion  it  had 
ip;  tried  to  supplant ;  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  religion  that 
,i;/  Buddha  preached  had  to  allow  its  lay- votaries  to  substitute 
prayer-wheels  for  pious  work,  or  to  take  to  Tantrism  to  supple- 
ment its  own  barren  efforts.  Its  failure  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances  in  the  land  of  its  nativity  sealed  its 
fate  as  a  rousing  religious  system,  although  in  some  of  its 
.  ,  mystical  aspects  it  exercised  considerable  influence  on  the 
philosophies  of  Western  Asia  and  Egypt. 

On  the  expulsion  of  Buddhism  from   India,   Brahmanism 

regained  its   supremacy  ;    the   long  shadow  under  which  it 

had  lived  whilst  the  religion  of  Buddha  dominated  the  country 

had  brought   no   improvement   in   its   spiritual  conceptions  ; 

and  the  lifeless  formahsm  against  which  Buddha  had  revolted 

,.    was  now  re-established  on  a  stronger  foundation  ;    the  lives 

of  men   and  women   were   under  the   restored   Brahmanical 

regime  regulated  more  closely  than  ever  by  a  sacrificial  cult 

which  appealed  to  their  senses,  perhaps  to  their  emotions,  rather 

than  to  their  spiritual  instincts.     Among  the  masses  religious 

;;.  vvorship  became   a   daily  round   of  meaningless  ritual.     For 

* 'I  jthem  "  the  chief  objects  of  worship  were  the  priests,  the  manes 

Anjiist,  and,  for  form's  sake,  the  Vedic  gods."     Fetishism,  as  a  part 

"jj*:  iDf  the  aboriginal  belief,  was  never  eradicated  from  the  Indian 

it;iroiJ  continent  by  philosophical  Hinduism  or  by  practical  Buddhism. 

^""A""  i[t  now  entered  into  the  inner  life  of  all  castes  ;    trees,  stones 

-^i*1  md  other  natural  objects,  along  with  the  idols  in  which  the 


xxviii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

family  gods,  the  household  penates  and  the  ancient  divinitie 
were  symbolised,  shared  the  adoration  of  the  populace.  Th 
great  Code  of  Manu,  of  which  Hinduism  is  justly  proud,  an( 
which  became  in  later  centuries  the  model  for  the  legal  doctrine 
of  other  Eastern  races,  represents  a  legislation  for  a  state  c 
society  where  a  great  advance  in  material  civilisation  wa 
combined  with  the  absolute  domination  of  the  priestly  cast 
and  an  astonishing  moral  decadence  amongst  the  masse: 
Like  the  priest  the  king  was  now  a  divinity.  In  the  secon 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  whilst  Manu's  Code  was  still  he] 
in  reverence  and  treated  as  the  final  authority,  its  place  wj 
taken  by  the  Commentary  of  Yajnavalkya,  "  the  Contemplati-\^ 
Master."  To  him  caste  was  as  iron-bound  as  to  Manu  ;  arj 
the  Sudra  as  impure  as  in  early  times.  ] 

Female  infanticide,  as  among  the  pagan  Arabs,  was  commo 
There  is  no  record  when  widow-burning  was  first  intrj) 
duced,  but  it  must  have  been  common  in  the  seventh  centuj 
of  the  Christian  era.  To  the  widow  death,  however  terrib/, 
must  have  been  a  welcome  release,  for,  unless  she  was  t' 
mother  of  children  her  lot  was  one  of  dire  misery. 

A  woman  was  debarred  from  studying  the  Vedas  or  parti  - 
pating  in  the  oblations  to  the  manes,  or  in  the  sacrifices  to  tji 
deities.  The  wife's  religion  was  to  serve  her  lord  ;  her  eterijl 
happiness  depended  on  the  strict  performance  of  that  du|. 
And  the  faithful  wife,  who  sacrificed  herself  on  the  lunejl 
pyre  of  her  dead  spouse,  found  a  niche  in  the  hearts  of  all  l|e 
votaries  of  Hinduism  as  one  of  the  best  and  noblest  of  her  se;; 
and  often  became  herself  the  object  of  worship.  j 

Whilst  thinking  minds  saw  in  the  puerile  practices  of  i'e 
religion  a  deeper  meaning;  whilst  their  souls  floated  far  above  '.e 
ceremonialism  of  the  creed  they  professed,  not  one  philosopjr 
or  priest  viewed  with  horror  the  cruel  immolations  of  ;ie 
helpless  widow,  usually  no  more  than  a  child.  Religiis 
associations,  generally  composed  of  both  sexes  and  not  alw/s 
remarkable  for  austerity  of  life,  had  already  sprung  up  ;  i'id 
numerous  celibate  brotherhoods  worshipping  different  diviniies 
had  come  into  existence.  They  invariably  congregated :in 
monasteries  into  which  women  were  admitted  as  lay  memb's. 
Among  them,  as  among  the  mendicant  fraternities  that  vie 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

established  about  the  same  time,  the  professed  ceUbacy  was 
more  nominal  than  real,  honoured  in  its  breach  rather  than 
in  its  observance.  Large  numbers  of  the  mendicant  brother- 
hoods lived  in  comfort  and  ease  in  temples  and  muths.  Others, 
like  the  begging  friars  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  vulgar  cynics 
of  the  Flavian  period,  wandered  in  search  of  merit  from  the 
doles  of  the  devout.  Their  sole  recommendation  to  the 
charity  of  the  pious  consisted  in  their  matted  locks,  their 
unkempt  beard,  the  ochre-coloured  shirt  that  hung  over  their 
shoulders,  the  ash-covered  naked  bodies  and  the  inevitable 
beggar's  gourd  and  staff. 

As  the  divinities  loved  music  and  dancing,  a  large  number 
of  dancing  girls  were  attached  to  the  temples,  who  were  by  no 
means  vestal,  and  whose  services  were  at  the  disposal  of  the 
ministrants  of  the  cult.  Women  occupied  a  very  inferior 
position  in  early  Hindu  legislation,  and  Manu's  extreme 
denunciation  of  the  sex  can  be  compared  only  to  the  fanatical 
pronouncement  of  the  Christian  Saint  Tertullian,  "  Women," 
says  Manu,  "  have  impure  appetites  ;  they  show  weak  fiexi- 
bihty  and  bad  conduct.  Day  and  night  must  they  be  kept  in 
subjection." 

As  regards  the  Sudras,  he  declared,  almost  in  the  words  of 
the  Pandects,  that  the  Creator  had  made  them  slaves  and  that 
a  man  belonging  to  that  caste,  even  when  he  is  emancipated 
by  his  master,  cannot  be  free  ;  for  bondage  being  natural  to 
him,  who  can  deliver  him  from  it  ? 

Such  in  brief  was  the  rehgious  and  social  condition  among 
the  people  of  one  of  the  most  gifted  sections  of  the  Arj^an  race 
at  the  time  when  the  Prophet  of  Islam  brought  his  Message  to 
the  world. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  Persia — a  country  which,  by  its  proximity 
to  the  birthplace  of  Islam,  and  the  powerful  influence  it  has 
always  exercised  on  Mohammedan  thought,  not  to  speak  of 
the  character  and  tone  it  communicated  to  Judaism  and 
Christianity,  deserves  our  earnest  attention. 

Consolidated  into  a  nation  and  with  a  new  spiritual  develop- 
ment, the  western  Aryans  soon  burst  their  ancient  bounds,  and 
spread  themselves  over  the  regions  of  modern  Persia  and 
Afghanistan.     They  appear  to  have  conquered  or  destroyed 


XXX  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

most  of  the  Hamitic  and  Kushite  races  inhabiting  those  tracts, 
and  gradually  reached  the  confines  of  the  Caspian,  where  they 
found  the  more  tenacious  and  hardy  Turanians  settled  in 
Media  and  Susiana.  Before,  however,  they  had  succeeded  in 
subjugating  the  Turanians,  they  themselves  fell  under  the 
yoke  of  a  foreign  invader,  Kushite  or  Assyrian,  more  probably 
the  latter,  under  whose  iron  sway  they  remained  for  a  consider- 
able time.^  With  the  expulsion  of  the  foreigners  commenced 
that  conflict  between  Iran  and  Turan  which  lasted  with  varying 
fortunes  for  centuries,  and  ended  with  the  partial  subjugation 
of  the  Turanians  in  Media  and  Susiana.^  The  frequent  contact 
of  the  followers  of  Afrasiab  and  Kai-Kaus  in  the  field  and  the 
hall  exercised  a  lasting  effect  on  the  Persic  faith.  The  extreme 
materialism  of  the  Turanians  did  not  fail  to  degrade  the  yet 
undeveloped  idealism  of  their  Iranian  rivals  and  neighbours, 
who,  whilst  they  succeeded  in  superimposing  themselves  on 
the  ancient  settlers  of  Media,  had  partially  to  incorporate 
Turanian  worship  with  their  own.  And  thus,  whilst  in  Persia, 
Ormuzd  alone  was  adored  and  Ahriman  held  up  to  execration, 
in  Media,  the  good  and  the  evil  principle  were  both  adored 
at  the  altars.  Naturally,  the  Turanian  population  was  more 
inclined  to  worship  their  ancient  national  god  than  the  deity 
of  their  Aryan  conquerors  ;  and  in  the  popular  worship, 
Ahriman,  or  Afrasiab,  took  precedence  of  Ormuzd. 

The  Assyrian  empire  had  fallen  before  a  coalition,  the  first 
of  its  kind  known  in  history,  of  the  Medes  and  the  Babylonians, 
but  the  rehgion  of  Asshur,  from  its  long  domination  over  many 
of  the  parts  occupied  by  the  Aryans,  left  an  ineffaceable  mark 
on  the  conceptions  of  the  Zoroastrians.  The  complex  system 
of  celestial  co-ordination  and  the  idea  prevalent  among  the 
Assyrians  of  a  divine  hierarchy  engrafted  itself  on  Zoroastrian- 
ism.  Ormuzd  was  henceforth  worshipped  as  a  second  Asshur  ; 
and  the  Persian's  symbol  of  the  God  of  light,  the  all-beneficent 
power,  became  a  winged  warrior,  with  bow  and  lifted  hand, 
enclosed  in  the  world-circle.     Their  symbol  of  growth  also, 

1  According  to  the  Persian  traditions,  Zahhak  ruled  over  Iran  for  over  a 
thousand  years,  and  this  is  supposed  by  several  scholars  to  represent  the  exact 
period  of  Assyrian  domination.  The  rise  of  Faridun  would,  according  to 
this  view,  be  synchronous  with  the  downfall  of  Nineveh. 

2  Lenormant,  Ancient  Hist,  of  the  East,  p.   54. 


!l 


INTRODUCTION  xxxi 

the  tree  with  the  candelabra  branches  ending  upwards  in  the 
pine-cone,  was  converted  into  the  Persian  fir-cone.  Before 
the  rise  of  Cyrus  in  Farsistan  and  his  consohdating  conquests, 
the  symbohc  worship  in  vogue  among  the  early  emigrants 
and  settlers  became  degraded  among  the  masses  into  pyrolatry, 
or  took  the  form  of  Chaldseo-Assyrian  Sabaeism. 

The  city  of  Asshur, — which  had  ruled  Western  Asia  up  to 
the  confines  of  India  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  and  almost 
wrested  from  the  Pharaohs  the  empire  of  Egypt, — the  city 
of  the  mighty  Sargon  and  the  great  Sennacherib,  had  fallen 
before  the  combined  forces  of  the  Babylonian  and  the  Mede,i 
never  again  to  raise  its  head  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 
Babylon,  which  after  its  early  rivalry  with  Nineveh  had  been 
reduced  to  a  dependency  of  Assyria,  became  again  the  centre 
of  Asiatic  civilisation.  She  gathered  up  the  arts  and  sciences 
of  a  thousand  years  of  growth,  and  the  product  of  "  interfused 
races  and  religions,  temples  and  priesthoods,"  and  supplied 
the  connecting  link  between  the  inorganic  faiths  of  antiquity 
and  the  modern  beliefs.  Assyria  had,  with  the  civilisation 
and  literature  of  the  early  Accadians,  also  borrowed  much  of 
their  religion.  Babylon,  rising  into  more  potent  grandeur 
from  the  ashes  of  Nineveh,  centred  in  herself  the  essence  of 
the  Assyrian  and  Chaldaean  cults.  Under  Nebuchadnezzar 
the  empire  of  Babylonia  attained  the  zenith  of  its  power  ; 
Judaea  fell,  and  the  flower  of  the  nation  was  carried  into  cap- 
tivity to  lament  by  the  waters  of  Babylon  the  downfall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Jehovah.  The  mighty  conqueror  penetrated  into 
Arabia,  and  overwhelmed  and  nearly  destro3^ed  the  Ishmaelites; 
he  smote  the  T^/rians,  and  broke  the  power  of  the  Egyptian 
Pharaoh.  In  spite  of  the  maledictions  heaped  upon  her  head 
by  the  Hebrew  patriot,  Babylon  was  by  no  means  such  a  hard 
taskmaster  as  Egypt. ^  The  Israelites  themselves  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  generosity  of  their  treatment.  Not  until  the 
redeemer  was  nigh  with  his  mighty  hosts,  marching  to  the 
conquest  of  the  doomed  city,  did  the  children  of  Israel  raise 
their  voice  against  Babylon.  Then  burst  forth  the  storm  of 
imprecations,  of  predictions  of  woe,  which  displayed  the 
characteristics  of  the  race  in  its  pristine  savagery.     "  By  the 

^  606  B.C.  *  Jer.  xlix.  27  to  29. 


xxxii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

rivers  of  Babylon,  there  we  sat  down  ;  yea,  we  wept  when  we 
remembered  Zion.  O  Daughter  of  Babylon  !  happy  shall  he 
be  who  dasheth  thy  little  ones  against  the  stones."  ^ 

Under  Nebuchadnezzar,  Babylon  was  indisputably  the 
centre  of  all  existing  civilisations.  And  the  influence  wielded 
by  her  priesthood  did  not  cease  with  the  empire  of  Babylonia. 
The  mark  of  the  Babylonian  conceptions  is  traced  in  unmis- 
takable characters  in  both  the  Judaical  and  Christian  systems. 
The  long  exile  of  the  Jews  among  the  Chaldaean  priesthood, 
the  influence  which  some  of  the  Hebrews  obtained  in  the  court 
of  the  Babylonian  king,  and  the  unavoidable  interfusion  of 
the  two  peoples,  tended  to  impart  a  new  character  to  later 
Judaism.  They  were  carried  to  Babylon  in  a  state  of  semi- 
barbarism  ;  they  returned  to  Zion  after  their  long  probation 
in  the  land  of  exile  a  new  people,  advanced  in  faith  and  doctrine, 
with  larger  aspirations  and  their  political  vision  extended. 

With  the  conquest  of  Babylon  begins  a  new  era  in  religious 
development.  Henceforth  the  religion  of  dualism  holds  the 
empire  of  Asia.  The  grand  toleration  which  Cyrus  extended 
towards  the  Jews  naturally  led  to  his  exaltation  as  "  the 
Messiah,"  "  the  Redeemer,"  "  the  anointed  Saviour  of  the 
world."  The  captivity  of  the  Hebraic  tribes,  and  their  enforced 
settlement  near  the  seat  of  Persian  domination,  and  their  sub- 
sequent intermixture  under  Cyrus  with  the  Persians,  most 
probably  gave  impetus  to  that  religious  reform  among  the 
Zoroastrians  which  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Darius  IJys- 
taspes.  There  was  mutual  action  and  reaction.  The  Israelites 
impressed  on  renovated  Zoroastrianism  a  deep  and  abiding 
conception  of  a  Divine  Personality  overshadowing  the  universe. 
They  received  from  the  Iranians  the  notion  of  a  celestial 
hierarchy,  and  the  idea  of  a  duality  of  principles  in  the  creation 
of  good  and  evil.  Henceforth  it  is  not  the  Lord  who  puts  a 
lying  spirit  into  the  mouths  of  evil-doers  ;  Satan,  like 
Ahriman,  from  this  time  takes  a  prominent  part  in  the  religious 
and  moral  history  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  reign  of  Cyrus  was  one  of  conquest,  hardly  of  organisation. 
The  reign  of  Darius  was  one  of  consolidation  ;  stern  worshipper 
of  Ormuzd,  to  whom  he  ascribes  all  his  victories,  he  endeavoured 

^  Ps.  cxxxvii. 


INTRODUCTION  xxxiii 

to  purify  the  faith  of  Zoroaster  of  all  its  foreign  excrescences, 
to  stamp  out  the  Magism  of  the  Medes  from  its  stronghold, 
and  to  leave  Aryan  Persia  the  dominant  power  of  the  civilised 
e  world.  Nothing,  however,  could  arrest  the  process  of  decay. 
d  Before  a  hundred  years  had  gone  by,  Zoroastrianism  had 
i  imbibed  to  the  full  the  evils  which  it  had  fought  against  in  its 
y  infancy.  The  scourgers  of  idolatry,  the  uncompromising 
s,  iconoclasts,  who,  in  their  fiery  zeal,  had  slaughtered  the 
],  Egyptian  Apis  and  overturned  its  shrine,  soon  absorbed  into 
ri  the  worship  of  Ormuzd  the  Semitic  gods  of  their  subject  states. 
oi  The  old  Magian  element-worship  was  revived,  and  Artaxerxes 
er  r  jMnemon,  one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Darius,  introduced 
li-  !  among  the  Zoroastrians  the  worship  of  that  androgynous 
Mythra — the  Persian  counterpart  of  the  Chaldsean  Myhtta  or 
Anaitis,  with  its  concomitant  phallic  cult.  The  development 
of  this  Mythra-cult  into  the  gorgeous  worship  of  the  beautiful 
)U5  .  |Sun-God  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  history.  The  resplendent 
the  ISun  ascending  over  the  cleft  mountains,  chasing  the  Bull  into 
jjd  :  jits  lair  and  with  its  blood  atoning  human  sins,  is  a  conception 
^jie  ■  {which  has  left  its  ineffaceable  mark  on  one  of  the  dominant 
tjjg  jrehgions  of  the  world.  This  worship  of  Mythra  was  carried 
(-gj  Iby  the  Roman  legionaries  from  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates 
yl).  ito  the  furthest  corners  of  Europe,  and  in  the  reign  of 
^Pjj  ,  iDiocletian  it  became  the  state-religion  of  Rome. 
jljg  I  Never  was  the  condition  of  woman  so  bad,  never  was  she 
I  ,j.  i  peld  under  greater  subjection, — a  slave  to  the  caprice  of  man, — 
than  under  the  Mago-Zoroastrians.  The  laws  of  Manu  imposed 
!:ertain  rules  of  chastity,  and  the  stringency  of  primitive  ex- 
;)gamy  exercised  a  restraining  effect  upon  human  passions. 
jrhe  Persian  in  the  relations  of  the  sexes  recognised  no  law 
JDut  that  of  his  own  will.  He  could  marry  his  nearest  kindred, 
iind  divorce  his  wives  at  his  pleasure.  The  system  of  female 
■Jj^g  iieclusion  was  not  confined  to  the  Persians  alone.  Among  the 
onic  Greeks,  women  were  confined  within  the  gynaikonitis, 
>ften  kept  under  lock  and  key,  and  never  allowed  to  appear 
n  public.  But  the  Greek  gynaikonomoi  were  not,  until  later 
imes,  mutilated  specimens  of  humanity.  In  Persia,  the 
pustom  of  employing  eunuchs  to  guard  the  women  prevailed 
rem  the  remotest  antiquity.     As  in  Greece,  concubinage  was 


xxxiv  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

a  recognised  social  institution,  and  was  interwoven  with  the 
foundations  of  society.  The  Persian,  however,  never  allowed 
lewdness  to  be  incorporated  with  the  national  worship.  He 
worshipped  no  Aphrodite  Pandemos  ;  nor  was  Zoroastrian 
society  tainted  with  that  "  moral  pestilence,"  ^  the  most 
degrading  of  all  vices,  which  was  universal  in  Greece,  which 
spread  itself  afterwards  in  Rome,  and  was  not  even  rooted  out 
by  Christianity. 

With  the  downfall  of  the  Achaemenian  Empire  ended  the 
vitality  of  Zoroastrianism  as  a  motive  power  in  the  growth 
of  the  world.  The  swarms  of  conquerors,  who  swept  like 
whirlwinds  over  the  face  of  Persia,  destroyed  all  social  and 
moral  life.  The  Macedonian  conquest,  with  the  motley 
hordes  which  followed  on  its  footsteps,  the  influx  of  aU  the 
dregs  of  Lesser  Asia,  Cilicians,  Tyrians,  Pamphylians,  Phr3'gians, 
and  various  others,  half  Greeks,  half  Asians,  obeying  no  moral 
law,  the  hasty  and  reckless  temper  of  the  conqueror  himself, — 
aU  led  to  the  debasement  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith.  The  Mobeds, 
the  representatives  of  the  national  life,  were  placed  under  the 
ban  of  persecution  by  the  foreigner,  the  aim  of  whose  life  was 
to  heUenise  Asia. 

Alexander's  career  was  splendidly  meteoric.  Shorn  of  the 
legends  which  have  surrounded  his  life  and  turned  it  into  an 
epopee,  he  stands  before  us  a  man  of  gigantic  conceptions  and 
masterly  purposes,  possessed  of  a  towering  ambition,  a  genius 
which  overpowered  aU  opposition,  and  a  personality  which 
enabled  him  to  mould  the  minds  of  all  around  him  according 
to  his  own  will.  His  was  a  nature  full  of  contradictions.  A 
disciple  of  Aristotle,  who  aimed  at  the  hellenisation  of  Asia, 
with  himself  as  the  central  figure  in  the  adoration  of  the  world, 
an  associate  of  philosophers  and  wise  men,  his  life  was  dis- 
graced by  excesses  of  a  revolting  type.  "  The  sack  of  Tyre 
and  the  enslavement  of  its  population,  the  massacres  and 
executions  in  India  and  Bactria,  the  homicide  of  Clytus,  the 
death  warrants  of  Philotas  and  the  faithful  Parmenio,  the 
burning  of  Persepolis  and  the  conflagration  of  its  splendic 
library  at  the  instigation  of  a  courtezan,  are  acts,"  says  ai 
apologist  and  an  admirer,  "  for  which  no  historian  has  founc 

1  DoUinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  vol.  ii.  p.  239. 


I 


INTRODUCTION  xxxv 

a  palliation."  With  the  conquest  of  Alexander  and  the 
extinction  of  the  Achasmenian  dynasty,  Zoroastrianism  gave 
way  to  Hellenism  and  the  worst  traditions  of  Chaldaean 
civilisation.  The  extreme  partiality  of  the  hero  of  many 
legends  towards  Babylon,  and  his  anxious  desire  to  resuscitate 
that  city  and  make  it  the  centre  of  a  mightier  and  more  com- 
plete civilisation,  led  him  to  discourage  all  creeds  and  faiths, 
all  organisations,  religious  or  political,  which  militated  with 
his  one  great  desire.  Under  the  Seleucidae,  the  process  of 
denationalisation  went  on  apace.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the 
cruel  persecutor  of  the  worshippers  of  Jehovah,  won  for  himself 
from  them  as  well  as  the  Zoroastrians,  the  unenviable  designa- 
tion of  Ahriman.  Even  the  rise  of  the  Parthian  power  tended 
to  accelerate  the  decline  and  ruin  of  Zoroastrianism.  The 
Seleucidae  ruled  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Orontes  ;  the  Parthians 
formed  for  themselves  a  kingdom  in  the  middle  portion  of  the 
Achaemenian  empire  ;  the  Grseco-Bactrian  dynasties  were  in 
possession  of  the  eastern  tracts,  viz.  Bactria  and  the  northern 
part  of  Afghanistan.  The  state-religion  of  the  Seleucidae  was 
a  mixture  of  Chaldaeo-Hellenism.  The  Jews  and  Zoroastrians 
were  placed  under  the  ban  and  ostracised.  Under  the  Parthians, 
Mazdism,  though  not  actually  extinguished,  was  compelled 
to  hide  itself  from  the  gaze  of  the  rulers.  In  quiet  and  settled 
parts,  Zoroastrianism  became  mixed  with  the  old  Sabaeism  of 
the  Medes  and  the  Chaldaeans  ;  or,  where  kept  alive  in  its 
pristine  character,  it  was  confined  to  the  hearts  of  some  of  those 
priests  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  inaccessible  recesses  of 
their  country.  But  with  Parthia  enlarged  into  an  empire, 
and  the  Parthian  sovereigns  aspiring  to  the  title  of  Shah-in- 
shah,  persecution  gave  way  to  toleration,  and  Mago-Zoroastrian- 
ism  again  raised  its  head  among  the  religions  of  the  world. 
And  the  rise  of  the  Sasanides  gave  it  another  spell  of  power. 
The  founder  of  the  new  empire  placed  the  Mobeds  at  the  head 
of  the  State.  Last  sad  representatives  of  a  dying  faith  ! 
Around  them  clustered  the  hopes  of  a  renovated  religious 
existence  under  the  auspices  of  the  Sasanide  dynasty.  How 
far  the  brilliant  aspirations  of  Ardeshir  Babekan  (Artaxerxes 
Longimanus),  the  founder  of  the  new  empire,  were  realised, 
is  a  matter  of  history.     The  political  autonomy  of  Persia — 


xxxvi  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

its  national  life — was  restored,  but  the  social  and  religious  life 
was  lost  beyond  the  power  of  rulers  to  revive.  The  teachings 
of  yore  lived  perhaps  in  books,  but  in  the  hearts  of  the  people 
they  were  as  dead  as  old  Gushtasp  or  Rustam. 

Under  the  Sasanides,  the  Zoroastrians  attained  the  zenith 
of  their  power.  For  centuries  they  competed  with  Rome  for 
the  empire  of  Asia.  Time  after  time  they  defeated  her  armies, 
sacked  her  cities,  carried  away  her  Caesars  into  captivity, 
and  despoiled  her  subjects  of  their  accumulated  riches  ;  but 
the  fire  of  Zoroastrianism  as  a  moral  factor  was  extinct.  It 
burnt  upon  the  high  altars  of  the  temples,  but  it  had  died  out 
from  the  heart  of  the  nation.  The  worship  of  the  true  God  had 
given  place  to  a  Chaldaeo-Magian  cult,  and  the  fierce  intolerance 
with  which  Ardeshir  and  his  successors  persecuted  rival  creeds, 
failed  to  achieve  its  purpose.  The  Persian  empire,  under  the 
later  Sasanides,  only  rivalled  in  the  turmoil  of  its  sects  and 
the  licentiousness  of  its  sovereigns,  in  the  degeneration  of  its 
aristocracy  and  the  overweening  pride  of  its  priesthood,  the 
empire  of  the  Byzantines.  The  kings  were  gods  ;  they  were 
absolute  masters  over  the  person  and  property  of  their  subjects, 
who  possessed  no  rights,  and  were  virtual  serfs.  The  climax 
of  depravity  was  reached  when  Mazdak,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  preached  the  com- 
munism with  which  modern  Europe  has  now  become  familiar, 
and  "  bade  all  men  to  be  partners  in  riches  and  women,  just  as 
they  are  in  fire,  water,  and  grass  ;  private  property  was  not 
to  exist  ;  each  man  was  to  enjoy  or  endure  the  good  and  bad 
lots  of  this  world."  ^  The  lawfulness  of  marriages  with  sisters 
and  other  blood  relations  had  already  been  recognised  by 
Mago-Zoroastrianism.  The  proclamation  of  this  extreme 
communism  revolted  the  better  minds  even  among  the  Persians. 
The  successor  of  Zoroaster,  as  Mazdak  styled  himself,  was  put 
to  death  ;  but  his  doctrines  had  taken  root,  and  from  Persia 
they  spread  over  the  West. 

All  these  evils  betokened  a  complete  depravity  of  moral 
life,  and  foreshadowed  the  speedy  extinction  of  the  nation  in 
its  own  iniquities.     This  doom,  though  staved  off  for  a  time 

^  The  Dabistan-i-M azdhib  of  Mohsini  Fani ;  see  also  Shaikh  Muhammad 
Iqtal's  Development  of  Metaphysics  in  Persia,  p.  i8. 


t 


II  INTRODUCTION  xxxvii 

)y  the  personal  character  of  Kesra  Anushirvan,  became 
'i'  nevitable  after  his  death.  But  a  Master  had  already  appeared, 
^P'^    ilestined  to  change  the  whole  aspect  of  the  world  ! 

Eleven  centuries  had  passed  over  the  Jews  since  their  return 
"^''  rom  the  Babylonian  captivity,  and  witnessed  many  changes 
^°f  jn  their  fortunes.  The  series  of  disasters  which  one  after 
^^^- '  i.nother  had  befallen  the  doomed  nation  of  Moses,  had  culmin- 
.ted  in  the  wars  of  Titus  and  Hadrian.  Pagan  Rome  had 
lestroyed  their  temple,  and  stamped  out  in  fire  and  blood  their 
:xistence  as  a  nation.  Christian  Constantinople  persecuted 
hem  with  an  equally  relentless  fury,  but  the  misfortunes  of 
he  past  had  no  lessons  for  them  in  the  future.  Their  own 
ufferings  at  the  hands  of  ruthless  persecutors  had  failed  to 
each  them  the  value  of  humanity  and  peace.  The  atrocious 
ruelties  which  they  committed  in  the  cities  of  Egypt,  of 
.yprus  and  Cyrene,  where  they  dwelt  in  treacherous  harmony 
vdth  the  unsuspecting  natives,  take  away  all  sense  of  pity  for 
heir  future  fate.  The  house  of  Israel  was  a  total  wreck  ; 
rere  {ts  members  were  fugitives  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  seeking 
cts,  jhelter  far  and  wide,  but  carrying  everywhere  their  indomitable 
nax  j)ride,  their  rebellious  hardness  of  heart,  denounced  and 
ling  leprehended  by  an  endless  succession  of  prophets.  The  Jews, 
om-  |n  their  safe  retreats  in  foreign  lands,  re-enacted  the  scenes 
iar,  l)f  past  times.  The  nation  lived  in  hope,  but  the  hope  was 
tas  inixed  with  rigid  uncompromising  bigotry  on  the  one  hand, 
not  jind  a  voluptuous  epicureanism  on  the  other.  Jesus  had  come 
bad  Imd  gone,  without  producing  any  visible  effect  upon  them. 
ters  iHie  child  of  his  age,  he  was  imbued  with  the  Messianic  ideas 
by  'loating  in  the  atmosphere  in  which  he  lived  and  moved. 
iM  The  Book  of  Daniel,  written  during  one  of  the  greatest  travails 
ms.  )f  the  nation,  with  its  hopes  and  aspirations,  could  not  but 
put  nake  a  deep  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  Teacher  mourning 
rsia  i)ver  the  sight  of  his  stricken  people.  The  fierce  intolerance 
bf  the  Zealots  seated  in  their  mountain  homes,  the  lifeless 
oral  |-eremonialism  of  the  Sadducees,  the  half-hearted  liberalism 
^in  i)f  the  Pharisees,  the  dreamy  hopefulness  of  the  Essenes,  with 
inie  i^ne  hand  extended  towards  Alexandria  and  the  other  towards 
{Buddhistic  India,  the  preachings  and  denunciations  of  the 
"■^    jvild  Dervish,  whose  life  became  a   sacrifice  to  the  depravity 


xxxviii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

of  the  Herodian  court,  all  appealed  to  the  heart  of  Jesus.  But 
the  Eagle's  talons  were  clutched  on  the  heart  of  Judaea  and  its 
legions  crushed  out  all  hope  of  a  violent  change.  The  quietism 
of  Jesus,  and  his  earnest  anticipation  of  a  kingdom  of  heaven, 
to  be  ushered  in  by  the  direct  instrumentality  of  God,  were  the 
outcome  of  his  age.  Among  a  nation  of  furious  and  relentless 
bigots,  he  had  come  as  the  messenger  of  universal  brotherhood 
and  love.  In  the  midst  of  a  proud  and  exclusive  race,  he  trod 
the  path  of  humility  and  meekness  ;  kind  and  gentle  to  his 
immediate  followers,  devoted  to  the  cause  of  all,  he  left  behind 
him  the  impress  of  an  elevated,  self-denying  spirit.  Among 
the  powerful,  the  rich,  and  the  ruling  classes,  he  had  roused 
only  feelings  of  hatred,  fear,  and  opposition  ;  among  the 
poor,  the  despised,  the  ignorant  and  the  oppressed,  the  deep 
compassion  of  the  great  Teacher  had  awakened  sentiments  of 
gratitude  and  love.  One  bright  sunny  morning  he  had  entered 
the  stronghold  of  Jewish  fanaticism  full  of  hope  in  his  ministry 
as  the  promised  Messiah  ;  before  a  fortnight  had  run  out,  he 
was  sacrificed  to  the  vested  interests  of  his  day. 

Amidst  the  legends  which  surround  his  life,  so  much  at  least 
is  clear.  Born  among  the  poor,  his  preachings  were  addressed 
to  the  poor.  Deeply  versed  in  the  Rabbinical  lore,  his  short 
ministry  was  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  the  humble  denizens 
of  the  country  side — the  poverty-stricken  peasantry  and  the 
fishermen  of  Galilee.  His  disciples  were  poor,  ignorant  folk. 
In  spite  of  their  credulous  natures,  and  the  vivid — not  to  say 
weird — effect  exercised  on  their  imaginations  by  the  untimely 
disappearance  of  the  Master,  they  never  regarded  him  as 
anything  more  than  a  man.  It  was  not  until  Paul  adopted 
the  creed  of  him  whose  execution  he  had  witnessed,  that  the 
idea  of  an  incarnate  God  or  angel  was  introduced  into  Christi- 
anity. In  spite  of  the  promise  attached  to  the  "  effusion  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,"  "  it  was  found  necessary,"  says  the  historian 
of  Ecclesiasticism,  "  that  there  should  be  some  one  defender 
of  the  gospel  who,  versed  in  the  learned  arts,  might  be 
able  to  combat  the  Jewish  doctors  and  the  pagan  philosophers 
with  their  own  arms.  For  this  purpose  Jesus  himself,  by  an 
extraordinary  voice  from  heaven,  had  called  to  his  service  a 
thirteenth  apostle,  whose  name  was  Saul  (afterwards  Paul), 


i 


INTRODUCTION  xxxix 

md  whose  acquaintance  both  with  Jewish  and  Grecian  learning 
vas  very  considerable."  ^ 

The  Mago-Zoroastrian  believed  in  an  angel-deliverer,  in  the 
jurush  who  was  to  appear  from  the  East  ;  the  Buddhist,  in 
m  incarnate  god  born  of  a  virgin  ;  the  Alexandrian  mystic 
nculcated  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  and  the  Demiurge.  The 
isoteric  conceptions  regarding  the  birth,  death,  and  resur- 
ection  of  Osiris,  the  idea  of  the  Isis-Ceres,  the  virgin  mother 
'holding  in  her  arms  the  new-born  sun-god  Horus,"  ^  were 
n  vogue  both  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  And  Paul,  the  Pharisee 
ind  the  scholar,  was  deeply  imbued  with  these  half-mystical, 
lalf-philosophical  notions  of  his  time.  A  visionary  and 
^j^  jnthusiast  by  nature,  not  free  from  physical  ailments,  as 
strauss  suggests,  he,  who  had  never  come  in  actual  contact 
vith  the  Master,  was  easily  inclined  to  attach  to  him  the 
ittributes  of  a  Divinity — of  an  Angel  Incarnate.  He  infused 
nto  the  simple  teachings  of  Jesus  the  most  mysterious 
)rinciples  of  Neo-Pythagoreanism,  with  its  doctrine  of  intelli- 
gences and  its  notion  of  the  triad,  borrowed  from  the  far  East. 
The  jealousy  between  the  home  and  the  foreign,  the  Judaical 
Lnd  the  anti-Judaical  party,  was  shown  in  the  curious  though 
veil-known  antipathy  of  the  two  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul.^ 
rhe  Ebionites  most  probably  represented  the  beliefs  of  the 
(riginal  companions  of  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth.  He  had 
on  versed  with  them  familiarly,  and  "in  all  the  actions  of 
ational  and  animal  life  "  had  appeared  to  them  as  of  the  same 
ature  as  themselves.  They  had  marked  him  grow  from 
nfancy  to  youth  and  from  youth  to  manhood  ;  they  had 
een  him  increase  in  stature  and  wisdom.  Their  belief  was 
empered  by  their  knowledge  of  him  as  a  man.  The  deprava- 
n  of  ideas  from  this  original  faith,  through  various  inter- 
ior fcediate  phases  like  those  of  the  Docetes,  the  Marcionites,  the 
i0   *atripassians,^  and  various  others  down  to  the  decisions  of  the 

1  Mosheim,  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  ii.  p.  63. 

-  Comp.  Mr.  Ernest  de  Bunsen's  Essay  on  Mohammed's  Place  in  the 
"hurch,  Asiatic  Quarterly  Review,  April  1889. 

*  Milner,  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  vol.  i.  pp.  26,  27. 

^  The  Docetes  believed  Jesus  to  be  a  pure  God.  The  Marcionites  regarded 
lim  as  a  being  "  most  like  unto  God,  even  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  clothed  with 
1  certain  shadowy  resemblance  of  a  body,  that  he  might  thus  be  visible  to 


lopti 


xl  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


Council  of  Nice  in  328,  forms  a  continuous  chain.  The  prevale  ij 
belief  in  aeons  and  emanations  predisposed  all  classes  of  peop  , 
especially  those  who  had  never  beheld  the  Prophet,  observ  i 
his  humanity,  or  noted  his  everyday  life,  to  accept  his  divini ' 
without  any  question. 

At  the  time  Jesus  began  his  preaching  the  Empire  of  Roii 
stretched  over  more  than  half  Europe,  and  included  almct 
the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  and  a  large  part  of  Westei 
Asia.  This  vast  area  by  an  accident  became,  in  the  comi  ^ 
centuries,  the  seed-ground  of  Christianity  and  the  battlefiei 
of  contending  sects. 

Exactly  a  century  before  the  Phrygian  Cybele  ^  was  broug  t 
to  Rome,  Ptolemy  Soter,  the  most  fortunate  and  probably  t  i 
most  far-sighted  of  Alexander's  generals,  had  become  masir 
of  Egypt.  With  the  object  of  fusing  the  Egyptians  a:i 
Greeks  into  a  homogeneous  nation  by  the  unifying  bond  oil 
common  religion  he  conceived  the  design  of  establishing  1 
worship  in  the  practice  of  which  the  two  peoples  would  jci 
hands.  The  same  idea  occurred  to  Akbar  some  two  thousa  i 
years  later ;  but  where  the  great  Akbar  failed,  Ptoler  / 
succeeded,  for  all  the  conditions  were  in  his  favour.  Te 
Greeks  worshipped  Zeus,  Demeter  and  Apollo  or  Dionysr  ; 
the  Egyptians,  Osiris,  Isis  and  Horus  ;  the  trinitarian  bel  f 
was  common  to  both.  The  Egyptian  faith  revolved  round  te 
Passion  and  Resurrection  of  Horus,  the  Son  ;  the  Greek  1 
the  Passion  and  Resurrection  of  Dionysus.  The  Greek  hi 
his  Eleusinian  mysteries  with  all  the  mystic  rites  of  initiatin 
and  communion;  the  Egyptian  hierophant,  the  mysteries :i 
Isis  with  similar  rites  and  similar  significance.  To  neither*.* 
mattered  under  what  names  the  gods  were  worshipped  or  1e 
rituals  were  conducted.  So  long  as  the  main  idea  was  ma.- 
tained  they  were  indifferent  to  mere  names.  Thus  was  bdi 
the  great  cult  of  the  Serapeum.  Serapis  took  the  place  i 
Zeus  among  the  Greeks,  of  Osiris  among  the  Egyptiai  ; 
Isis  who  became  the  "  mater  dolorosa  "  of  the  votaries  of  ^'.e 

mortal  eyes."  The  Patripassians  believed  that  the  Father  suffered  with  ,ie 
Son  on  the  cross  (Mosheim  and  Gibbon,  in  loco  ;  and  Neander,  vol.  ii.  p. 
150,  301  et  seq). 

^  The  worship  of  Cybele  has  a  very  close  analogy  to  the  cult  of  the  fan  as 
Hindu  goddess  Durga  or  Kali. 

\ 


INTRODUCTION  xli 

Alexandrian  cult,  displaced  Demeter  ;  and  Horus  Happocrates 
absorbed  the  adoration  hitherto  rendered  to  Dionysus.  This 
deity  does  not  seem,  however,  to  have  lost  his  hold  among  the 
inhabitants  of  the  sea-board  of  Asia  Minor  ;  and  the  prevailing 
belief  that  a  god  had  lived  among  mankind,  had  suffered  and 
died  and  risen  again  made  easy  in  later  centuries  the  spread 
of  Christianity. 

The  worship  of  Isis,  whose  glory  had  overshadowed  the 
personality  of  her  consort,  was  brought  to  Rome,  it  is  said, 
some  eighty  years  before  the  birth  of  Jesus.  It  seized  at  once 
the  fancy  both  of  the  populace  and  of  the  cultivated  classes. 
Its  gorgeous  ritual,  its  tonsured,  clean-shaven  priests,  the 
young  acolytes  in  white,  carrying  lighted  tapers,  the 
solemn  processions  in  which  nothing  was  wanting  to  stimulate 
the  emotions,  the  passionate  grief  at  the  suffering  and  death 
of  Osiris-Horus,  the  frenzied  joy  at  his  resurrection,  the 
mysteries  with  all  their  mystical  meanings,  the  initiation, 
above  all  the  promise  of  immortality,  appealed  vividly  to  a 
world  whose  old  gods  were  mute  and  which  yearned  for  a 
closer  touch  with  the  eternal  problem  of  the  Universe.  It  is 
not  surprising  that  Isis  took  a  strong  hold  on  the  heart  of  the 
Roman  people. ^ 

Although  the  worship  of  Isis,  "  the  bestower  on  the  wretched 
the  sweet  affection  of  a  mother  "  never  lost  its  power  on  their 
emotions,  the  more  virile  cult  of  Mythra  the  beautiful  sun-god, 
with  all  its  mystic  rites,  its  doctrine  of  atonement,  its  insistence 
on  the  direct  touch  of  its  god  with  humanity,  was  held  in 
special  favour  among  the  Roman  soldiers  ;  and  wherever  the 
legionaries  were  quartered  they  appear  to  have  left  the 
memorials  of  their  worship. 

To  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  superlative  and  exclusive 
claim  advanced  by  Christianity  to  enrol  under  her  banner  and 
to  dominate  the  conscience  of  all  mankind,  it  is  necessary  to 
bear  in  mind  the  causes  that  helped  in  the  diffusion  of  the 
Galilean  faith  before  the  ascension  of  Constantine  to  the  throne. 
The  promise  of  the  second  advent  of  Jesus  with  the  immediate 
ushering  in  of  "  the  Kingdom  of  God,"  when  the  poor  would 

^Dill's  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  chapter  v.;  Legge's 
Forerunners  and  Rivals  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  87. 


xlii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

be  exalted,  and  Lazarus  would  take  the  place  of  Dives  in  the 
enjoyment  of  heavenly  gifts,  created  among  the  humble  folk 
a  wild  excitement.  The  fervent  anticipations  of  the  immediate 
disciples  and  followers  of  Jesus  naturally  communicated  them- 
selves to  the  neighbouring  peoples  ;  and  as  the  missionaries 
of  the  faith  multiplied  they  carried  this  vivid  belief  far  and 
wide.  The  religion  that  held  forth  the  promise  of  an  early 
adjustment  of  inequalities  and  redress  of  wrongs  and  injustice 
received  a  ready  acceptance  among  the  masses.  So  strong 
a  hold  did  the  belief  in  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  with  the  second  advent  acquire  among  the  populace,  that 
although  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise,  which  was  assured  to 
take  place  within  the  lifetime  of  the  early  disciples,  receded  as 
decades  went  by  into  dim  futurity,  the  anticipations  and  hopes 
to  which  it  gave  birth  did  not  lose  their  force  until  the  final 
collapse  of  the  Crusades.  After  a  thousand  years,  first  of 
travail  and  later  of  success,  the  warriors  of  Christianity 
went  forth  to  destroy  the  professors  of  another  faith  in  the 
fuU  belief  that  the  second  coming  of  their  Lord  was  nigh. 

Besides  this  there  were  other  causes  equally  potent  which 
helped  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  in  the  shape  it  assumed 
after  the  death  or,  according  to  Ebionite  and  Moslem  beUef, 
the  disappearance  of  the  Master. 

As  already  observed,  among  all  the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor, 
Syria  and  the  Mediterranean  littoral,  excepting  the  Jev/s, 
the  idea  of  a  god  who  had  died  and  risen  again,  and  of  a  divine 
Trinity,  was  universal.  It  was  an  essential  part  of  the 
Serapean  cult  ;  and  with  the  spread  of  Isis-worship  every 
part  of  the  Roman  world  was  permeated  by  the  trinitarian 
conception  ;  there  was  no  difficulty  arising  from  sentiment 
or  religious  predilection  to  the  acceptance  of  the  principal 
doctrines  of  post- Jesus  Christianity. 

The  philosophers  at  the  same  time,  albeit  unconsciously 
and  without  the  intention  of  helping  Christianity,  even  without 
any  knowledge  of  its  tenets,  furthered  its  cause.  Their 
speculations  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  God  and  of  a  life  after 
death  undermined  the  faith  of  many  thinking  pagans  in  the 
mysteries  of  Isis  and  Mythra,  and  in  the  rites  and  practices  of 
the  old  cults.     And  yet  the  hold  of  the  Alexandrian  divinities 


INTRODUCTION  xliii 

and  of  the  Sun-god  on  the  hearts  of  the  cultivated  classes, 
who  looked  askance  at  the  revolutionary  doctrines  of  the  new 
cult,  was  so  strong  that  for  nearly  three  centuries  the  spread 
of  Christianity  was  confined  to  the  ignorant  and  uneducated. 
Not  until  the  Christian  Church  had  incorporated  with  its 
theology  and  ecclesiastical  system  many  dogmas  borrowed 
from  its  great  and  fascinating  rivals,  and  almost  all  their 
rites  and  ceremonialism,  and  practices  and  institutions,  did 
it  make  any  headway  among  people  of  culture.  And  when 
these,  under  the  stress  oi  religious  persecution  or  imperial 
pressure,  began  entering  the  fold  they  brought  with  them  all 
the  elements  that  have  gone  to  mould  modern  Christianity 
with  its  multitudinous  sects. ^  Relentless  persecution  lasting 
for  centuries  secured,  however,  in  the  early  period  of  its  growth 
a  certain  uniformity  of  faith  and  doctrines. 

Among  the  masses  Isis-worship  was  transformed  into 
Mariolatry ;  and  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus  became,  instead 
of  the  Egyptian  goddess,  "  the  haven  of  peace,"  and  "  the 
altar  of  pity."  Thenceforth  she  was  worshipped,  as  she  still 
is  among  the  Latin  races,  as  the  "  madre  de  dios." 

Asceticism  was  a  favoured  institution  among  the  votaries 
of  the  Alexandrian  divinities  ;  it  was  practised  by  the  Pytha- 
goreans and  Orphics,  who  had  derived  much  of  their  inspiration 
from  the  hierophants  of  the  Gangetic  Delta,  among  whom  it 
was  a  common  practice  ;  the  Christian  Church  adopted  and 
sanctified  this  institution  for  both  sexes.  From  the  simple 
immersion  used  by  John  the  Baptist,  baptism  under  the 
influence  of  the  cult  of  Isis  grew  into  a  mystical  and  cumbrous 
rite.  Communion  took  the  place  of  initiation  ;  and  even  the 
dogma  connected  with  the  mysteries  of  Isis  regarding  the 
change  of  wine  into  the  blood  of  the  mourned  god  was  absorbed 
into  the  Christian  system.  In  the  tonsured  clean-shaven, 
pale-clad  priests,  the  white  robed  acolytes,  in  the  gorgeous 
rituals,  "  in  the  form  of  the  sacraments,  in  the  periods  of  the 
fasts  and  festivals  "  ^  of  the  Christian  Church,  looking  back 
\  through  the  vista  of  ages,  one  is  forcibly  reminded  of  the  older 
cults ;    and  the  religions   which   Christianity   displaced   rise 

^  Dill's  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  A  urelius,  chapter  v. 
^  Legge,  Forertmners  and  Rivals  of  Christianity,  in  loco. 
S.I.  d 


xliv  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

before  us  in  all  their  pomp  and  pageantry.  We  seem  to  hear 
once  more  in  the  litanies  of  the  Church  the  beautiful  touching 
hymns  sung  to  the  Alexandrian  goddess  (the  Mater  dolorosa 
of  the  Western  pagan  world),  by  a  thousand  white-robed  boys 
and  girls,  and  it  requires  but  little  effort  of  fancy  to  carr^ 
back  the  imagination  from  St.  Peter's  or  St.  Paul's  to  the 
Serapeum. 

The  religion  of  Jesus,  as  taught  by  his  chief  disciples,  had 
besides  these  borrowed   and   adventitious  recommendations 
distinct  and  independent  claims  to  draw  to  itself  the  homag< 
of  those  who,  in  the  welter  of  spiritual  conceptions  and  religion 
beliefs,  were  groping  in  semi-darkness  for  a  resting  place  wheri 
high  and  low,  ignorant  and  educated,  should  stand  on  th' 
same  plane.     In  its  higher  phases,  it  appealed  to  the  noble 
instincts  of  mankind  if  not  more  forcibly  than  the  Isiac  o; 
Mythraic  creeds,  certainly  with  greater  assurance.     Its  promis 
of  a  life  after  death  was  less  veiled  in  mysteries  ;  its  doctrine 
were  more  positive  and  concrete  than  the  abstract  speculation 
of  the  philosophers.     It  brought  solace  and  comfort  to  th 
down-trodden  and  held  forth  a  promise — not  yet  fulfilled — c 
equality  and  brotherhood  among  mankind,  with  an  assure 
trust  in  future  salvation  to  rich  and  poor  alike  among  those  wh 
accepted  its  doctrines.     Whilst  the  dogmatism  of  its  preachei 
often  assisted  by  secular  force  silenced  questioning  mind 
it   satisfied  the   yearnings  of  those  who,   turning  from  i\ 
mysticism  of  the  older  cults  or  fleeing  from  the  hidden  ind( 
cencies  associated  with  Nature-worship,  hungered  for  an  assu 
ance  that  the  existence  on  earth  was  but  part  of  a  larger  lif , 
The  whole  of  the  Western  pagan  world  was  in  short  in  a 
expectant  mood,  waiting  for  a  positive  and  direct  revelatior 
and  all  the  teachings  of  the  past  had  attuned  its  mind  to  tl 
reception  of  a  call.     The  Galilean  faith  seized  the  opportunit 
and  after  appropriating  and  absorbing  the  ritual  and  doctrin 
legacies    left    by    its    "  Forerunners    and    Rivals,"    gradual 
monopolised  the  homage  of  the  peoples  who  had  been  subjects, 
by  Rome.     Whether  this  adaptation  of  the  simple  teachin. 
of  Jesus,  to  make  them  more  readily  acceptable,  was  a  develo  ■ 
ment  or  the  reverse  must  remain  for  the  present  unanswere. 
But  the  charge  the  Moslems  make  against  his  followers  th; 


INTRODUCTION  xlv 

they  corrupted  his  faith  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  altogether 
unwarranted. 

The  early  cessation  of  the  ministry  of  Jesus  and  the  absence 
of  any  organic  teaching,  whilst  it  allowed  a  freer  scope  to 
imagination,  perhaps  "  a  freer  latitude  of  faith  and  practice,"  ^ 
as  shown  in  the  lives  of  even  the  early  Christians,  furnished  an 
open  ground  for  contending  factions  to  dispute  not  only  about 
doctrines  and  discipline,  but  also  as  to  the  nature  of  their 
Teacher.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  and  the  Christians  from 
Jerusalem,  which  abounded  in  so  many  traditions  relating  to 
Jesus  as  a  man  ;  the  intermixture  of  his  followers  with  the 
non- Judaic  people  who  surrounded  them  on  all  sides,  and 
among  whom  the  Neo-Pythagorean  or  Platonic  ideas  as  to  the 
government  of  the  universe  were  more  or  less  prevalent ;  the 
very  vagueness  which  surrounded  the  figure  of  Jesus  in  the 
conception  of  his  followers — soon  gave  birth  to  an  infinite 
variety  of  doctrines  and  sects.  And  age  after  age  everything 
human,  "  everything  not  purely  ideal,  was  smoothed  away 
from  the  adored  image  of  an  incarnate  God,"  the  essentially 
pathetic  history  of  Jesus  was  converted  into  a  "  fairy  tale," 
and  his  life  so  surrounded  with  myths  that  it  is  now  impossible 
for  us  to  know  "  what  he  really  was  and  did." 

The  fantastic  shapes  assumed  by  Christianity  in  the  centuries 
which  preceded  the  advent  of  Mohammed  are  alike  interesting 
and  instructive. 

The  Gnostic  doctrines,  which  were  wholly  in  conflict  with 
the  notions  of  the  Judaic  Christians,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  promulgated  towards  the  end  of  the  first  century,  almost 
simultaneously  with  the  capture  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  Hadrian.  Cerinthus,  the  most  prominent  of  the  Gnostic 
teachers  in  this  century,  inculcated  among  his  followers  the 
dual  worship  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  whom  he  supposed 
to  be  totally  distinct  from  the  man  Jesus,  "  the  creator  of  the 
world." 

The  narrowness  of  Pauline  Christianity,  and  its  futile  endeav- 
ours to  reconcile  its  doctrines  with  the  philosophy  of  the 
Alexandrian  schools,  gave  birth  about  the  same  time  to  the 
Neo-Platonic  eclecticism  of  Ammonius  Saccas,  adopted  after- 

^  Mosheim,  p.  121. 


xlvi  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

wards  by  Origen  and  other  leading  Christians.  This  versatile 
writer,  whose  impress  is  visible  in  the  writings  of  almost  all 
the  prominent  thinkers  of  Christendom  in  the  earlier  centuries, 
endeavoured  to  bring  about  a  general  concordance  among  aU 
the  existing  creeds  and  sects.  In  some  respects,  Ammonius 
was  the  prototype  of  Mani,  or  Manes,  and  was  undoubtedly 
above  the  level  of  his  contemporaries.  He  succeeded  in 
forming  a  school,  but  his  teachings  never  regulated  the  morals 
or  influenced  the  faith  of  a  community. 

The  second  century  of  the  Christian  era  was  ushered  in  in 
strife  and  disorder.  Divisions  and  heresies  were  rife  throughout 
the  Christian  Church.  Gnosticism  was  in  great  force,  and 
left  its  character  indelibly  impressed  on  Christianity.  Some 
of  the  sects  which  came  into  prominence  in  this  century  deserve 
a  passing  notice,  as  they  show  not  only  the  evils  which  flowed 
from  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  but  also  the  influence 
exercised  upon  Christianity  by  Zoroastrianism,  Neo-Pytha- 
goreanism,  and  the  ancient  Sabseism  of  the  Chaldaeans. 

The  Marcionites,  who  were  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the 
early  Gnostics,  believed  in  the  existence  of  two  principles,  the 
one  perfectly  good  and  the  other  perfectly  evil.  Between  these 
there  existed  the  Demiurge,  an  intermediate  kind  of  deity, 
neither  perfectly  good  nor  perfectly  evil,  but  of  a  mixed  nature, 
who  administered  rewards  and  inflicted  punishments.  The 
Demiurge  was,  according  to  the  Marcionite  doctrines,  the 
creator  of  this  inferior  world,  and  engaged  in  perpetual  conflict 
with  the  Principle  of  Evil, — mark  the  impress  of  the  Zoroastrian 
ideas  !  The  Supreme  Principle,  in  order  to  terminate  this 
warfare  and  to  deliver  from  their  bondage  the  human  souls, 
whose  origin  is  celestial  and  divine,  sent  to  the  Jews,  "  a  being 
most  like  unto  Himself,  even  His  Son  Jesus  Christ,"  clothed 
with  a  certain  shadowy  resemblance  of  a  body,  that  thus  he 
might  be  visible  to  mortal  eyes.  The  commission  to  this 
celestial  messenger  was  to  destroy  the  empire,  both  of  the  Evil 
Principle  and  of  the  Author  of  this  world,  and  to  bring  back 
wandering  souls  to  God.  ' '  On  this  account  he  was  attacked  with 
inexpressible  violence  and  fury  by  the  Principle  of  Evil  "  and 
by  the  Demiurge,  but  without  effect,  since,  having  a  body  only 
in  appearance,  he  was  thereby  rendered  incapable  of  suffering. 


I 


INTRODUCTION  xlvii 

The  Valentinians,  whose  influence  was  more  lasting,  taught 
that  "  the  supreme  God  permitted  Jesus,  His  Son,  to  descend 
from  the  upper  regions  to  purge  mankind  of  all  the  evils  into 
which  they  had  fallen,  clothed,  not  with  a  real,  but  with  a 
celestial  and  aerial  body."  The  Valentinians  believed  Jesus 
to  be  an  emanation  from  the  Divine  Essence  come  upon  earth 
to  destroy  the  dominion  of  the  Prince  of  Darkness. 

The  Ophites,  who  flourished  in  Egypt,  entertained  the  same 
notions  as  the  other  Egyptian  Gnostics  concerning  the  aeons, 
the  eternity  of  matter,  the  creation  of  the  world  in  opposition 
to  the  will  of  God,  the  tyranny  of  the  Demiurge,  and  "  the 
divine  Christ  united  to  the  man  Jesus  in  order  to  destroy  the 
empire  of  this  usurper."  They  also  maintained  that  the 
serpent,  by  which  Adam  and  Eve  were  deceived,  was  either 
Christ  himself,  or  Sophia,  disguised  as  a  serpent. 

Whilst  the  Gnostic  creeds  were  springing  into  existence  under 
the  influence  of  Chaldsean  philosophy,  the  Greeks  on  their 
side  endeavoured  to  bring  about  a  certain  harmony  between 
the  Pauline  doctrine  concerning  "  the  Father,  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  the  two  natures  united  in  Christ,"  and  their 
own  philosophical  views  as  to  the  government  of  the  world. 
Praxeus  was  the  first  of  these  sophistical  preachers  of  Christi- 
anity, and  he  set  the  ball  rolling  by  denying  any  real  distinction 
between  the  "  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  and  maintained 
that  the  Father  was  so  intimately  united  with  the  man  Christ, 
His  Son,  that  He  suffered  with  him  the  anguish  of  an  afflicted 
life,  and  the  torments  of  an  ignominious  death  ! 

"  These  sects,"  says  Mosheim,  "  were  the  offspring  of  philo- 
sophy. A  worse  evil  was  to  befall  the  Christian  Church  in  the 
person  of  Montanus,  a  native  of  Phrygia."  This  man,  who 
disdained  all  knowledge  and  learning,  proclaimed  himself 
the  Paraclete  promised  by  Jesus.  He  soon  succeeded  in 
attaching  to  himself  a  large  body  of  followers,  the  most  famous 
of  whom  were  Priscilla  and  Maximilla,  the  prophetesses, 
"  ladies  more  remarkable  for  their  opulence  than  for  their 
virtue."  They  turned  Northern  Asia  into  a  slaughter-house, 
and  by  their  insensate  fury  inflicted  terrible  sufferings  on  the 
human  race. 

Whilst  the  Marcionites,  Valentinians,  Montanists,  and  the 


xlviii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

other  Gnostic  sects  were  endeavouring  to  spread  their  doctrines 
throughout  the  empire  of  Rome,  there  arose  in  Persia  a  man 
whose  individuahty  has  impressed  itself  in  ineffaceable  char- 
acters on  the  philosophy  of  two  continents.  Mani  was,  to  all 
accounts,  the  most  perfect  embodiment  of  the  culture  of  his 
age.  He  was  an  astronomer,  a  physicist,  a  musician,  and  an 
artist  of  eminence.  The  stories  relating  to  his  art-gallery  ^ 
have  passed  into  a  proverb. 

Thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  Jewish  Cabbala  and  the 
teachings  of  the  Gnostic  masters,  imbued  with  the  ancient 
philosophy  and  mysticism  of  the  East,  a  Magi  by  birth  and 
Christian  by  education,  he  rose  in  revolt  against  the  jarring 
discord  which  surrounded  him  on  all  sides,  and  set  himself 
to  the  task  of  creating,  from  the  chaos  of  beliefs,  an  eclectic 
faith  which  would  satisfy  all  demands,  the  aspirations  of  all 
hearts.  The  audacity  with  which  Mani  applied  himself  to 
undermine  the  current  faiths  by  an  outward  profession,  joined 
to  a  subtle  criticism,  which  destroyed  all  foundations  of  belief 
in  the  neophyte — a  process  afterwards  imitated  by  his  congeners, 
the  Isma'ilias,  ^ — and  his  assertion,  like  the  Batinis,  of  an 
esoteric  insight  into  all  religious  doctrines,  armed  against  him 
every  creed  and  sect  ;  and  naturally,  wherever  he  or  his 
disciples  appeared,  they  were  persecuted  with  unparalleled 
ferocity. 

The  doctrine  of  Mani  was  a  fantastic  mixture  of  the  tenets 
of  Christianity  with  the  ancient  philosophy  of  the  Persians  and 
the  Chaldaeans.  According  to  him.  Matter  and  Mind  are 
engaged  in  perpetual  strife  with  each  other.  In  the  course 
of  this  conflict  human  beings  were  created  by  the  Principle 
of  Matter  endowed  with  two  natures,  one  divine,  the  other 
material,  the  former  being  a  part  of  the  light  or  spirit  which 
had  been  filched  from  heaven.  In  order  to  release  the  struggling 
divine  soul  from  the  prison  in  which  it  was  coniined,  the 
Supreme  God  sent  from  the  solar  regions  an  Entity  created 
from  His  own  substance — which  was  called  Christ.  Christ 
accordingly  appeared  among  the  Jews  clothed  with  the  shadowy 
form  of  a  human  body,  and  during  his  ministry  taught  mortals 
how  to  disengage  the  rational  soul  from  the  corrupt  body — 

^  Arzang-i-Mani.  *  See  post,  part  ii.  chap.  x. 


INTRODUCTION  xlix 

to  conquer  the  violence  of  malignant  matter.  The  Prince  of 
Darkness  having  incited  the  Jews  to  put  him  to  death,  he  was 
apparently,  but  not  in  reality,  crucified.  On  the  contrary, 
having  fulfilled  his  mission,  he  returned  to  his  throne  in  the  sun. 

The  Manichsean  Christ  thus  could  neither  eat,  drink,  suffer, 
nor  die  ;  he  was  not  even  an  incarnate  God,  but  an  illusory 
phantasm — "  the  all-pervading  light-element  imprisoned  in 
nature,  striving  to  escape  matter,  without  assuming  its  forms." 
However  blasphemous  and  irrational  these  doctrines  may  seem, 
they  appear  hardly  more  so  to  Moslems  than  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  the  changing  of  the  eucharistic  elements 
into  the  actual  flesh  and  blood  of  the  Deity. 

Manes  divided  his  disciples  into  two  classes ;  one,  the 
"  elect,"  and  the  other,  the  "  hearers."  The  "  elect  "  were 
compelled  to  submit  to  a  rigorous  abstinence  from  all  animal 
food  and  intoxicating  drink,  to  abjure  wedlock  and  all  gratifica- 
tions of  the  senses.  The  discipline  appointed  for  the  "  hearers  " 
was  of  a  milder  kind.  They  were  allowed  to  possess  houses, 
lands,  and  wealth,  to  feed  upon  flesh,  to  enter  into  the  bonds  of 
conjugal  relationship  ;  but  this  liberty  was  granted  them 
with  many  limitations,  and  under  the  strictest  conditions  of 
moderation  and  temperance. 

Manes,  or  Mani,  was  put  to  death  by  Bahram-G6r,  but  his 
doctrines  passed  into  Christianity  and  were  visible  in  all  the 
struggles  which  rent  the  Church  in  later  times. 

About  the  middle  of  the  third  century  arose  the  sect  of  the 
SabeUians,  which  marked  a  new  departure  in  the  religion  of 
Jesus.  They  regarded  Jesus  as  only  a  man,  and  believed  that 
a  certain  energy  proceeding  from  the  Supreme  Father  had 
united  itself  with  the  man  Jesus,  thus  constituting  him  the 
son  of  God.  This  pecuhar  doctrine,  which  Gibbon  regards  as 
an  approach  to  Unitarianism,  was  the  cause  of  serious  disorders 
in  the  Christian  Church,  and  led  to  the  promulgation  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fourth  century,  by  Origen,  of  the  doctrine  of 
three  distinct  personalities  in  the  Godhead.  Tritheism  was 
only  a  modification  of  the  ancient  paganism  suited  to  the 
character  of  the  people  who  had  adopted  the  creed  of  Jesus. 
Polytheism  was  ingrained  in  their  nature,  and  tritheism  was 
a  compromise  between  the  teachings  of  Jesus  and  the  ancient 


1  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

worship  of  a  number  of  personalities.  In  the  course  of  time, 
tritheism  merged  into  the  doctrine  of  the  trinity,  but  not 
before  it  had  given  birth  to  the  most  philosophic  sect  of 
Christianity.  1 

The  rise  of  Arianism  is  due  principally  to  the  revolt  of  the 
human  intellect  from  the  irrational  teachings  of  the  Church. 
In  Alexandria,  which  was  at  that  time  the  most  fanatical  of 
Christian  cities,  Arius  had  the  boldness  to  preach,  in  opposition 
to  his  own  bishop,  that  Christ  was  not  of  the  same  essence  with 
God.  Arianism  soon  spread  itself  in  Egypt  and  Northern 
Africa,  and  in  spite  of  violent  and  frequent  persecution,  kept 
its  hold  in  these  parts  as  well  as  Spain  until  his  followers  were 
taken  into  the  fold  of  Islam. ^ 

The  troubles  generated  by  the  schism  of  Arius  induced 
Constantine,  in  a.c.  325,  to  assemble  the  Council  of  Nice,  in 
Bithynia.  In  this  general  council,  after  many  violent  efforts 
on  both  sides,  the  doctrine  of  Arius  was  condemned,  and 
"  Christ  was  declared  consubstantial  with  the  Father."  ^  What- 
ever may  have  been  the  condition  of  the  Christian  Church 
before,  henceforth  its  history  presents  a  constant  and  deplorable 
record  of  trouble  and  violence,  of  internecine  strife  and 
wrangling,  of  fearful  and  cruel  persecutions,  of  bitter  hatred 
and  a  perpetual  endeavour  to  crush  out  reason  and  justice 
from  the  minds  of  men.  The  vices  of  the  regular  clergy 
assumed  monstrous  proportions,  and  the  luxury,  arrogance, 
and  voluptuousness  of  the  sacerdotal  order  became  the  subject 
of  complaint  on  all  sides.  The  asceticism  of  the  early  times 
had  given  place  to  monasticism,  and  the  hcentiousness  of  the 
monks  became  a  byword.  They  were  the  free  lance  of  the 
Church, — always  foremost  in  fomenting  tumults  and  seditions, 
and  the  streets  of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  and  Rome 
frequently  ran  with  blood  in  consequence  of  their  unruliness 
and  turbulence. 

1  Mosheim,  p.  411. 

2  In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  of  the  Christian  era  Socinus  of 
Sienna  (in  Italy)  revived  and  amplified  the  doctrines  of  Arius.  The  unitarians 
of  the  present  day  are  the  direct  spiritual  descendants  of  the  Socinians,  who 
denied  the  divinity  of  Jesus.  They  also  repudiated  the  doctrine  of  original.; 
sin  and  atonement.     To  them  God  alone  was  the  object  of  adoration. 

'  Gibbon,  vol.  iv.  307. 


iNtRODUCTION  li 

The  disputes  of  Nestorius  with  Cyril,  the  murderer  of 
Hypatia,  forms  a  prominent  chapter  in  the  history  of  Christi- 
anity. The  second  Council  of  Ephesus  was  convoked  partly 
with  the  object  of  conciliating  the  various  parties  which  had 
sprung  up  in  the  Church  ;  but  "  the  despotism  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Patriarch,"  says  Gibbon,  "  again  oppressed  the 
freedom  of  debate.  The  heresy  of  the  two  natures  was  for- 
mally condemned.  '  May  those  who  divide  Christ,  be  divided 
with  the  sword.'  '  May  they  be  hewn  in  pieces.'  '  May  they 
be  burned  alive  !  '  were  the  charitable  wishes  of  a  Christian 
synod." 

At  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  which  was  convened  at  the 
instance  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation 
of  Christ  in  one  person  but  in  two  natures  was  definitely  settled. 

The  Monophysites  and  Nestorians,  revolting  from  the 
doctrine  of  incarnation,  endeavoured  to  make  a  stand  against 
the  decree  of  Chalcedon.  But  they  succumbed  under  the 
furious  onslaught  of  the  orthodox,  who  had  succeeded  in 
solving  the  mystery  of  their  Teacher's  nature.  Jerusalem 
was  occupied  by  an  army  of  monks  ;  in  the  name  of  one 
incarnate  nature  they  pillaged,  they  murdered  ;  the  sepulchre 
of  Christ  was  defiled  with  blood.  The  Alexandrian  Christians, 
who  had  murdered  a  woman,  did  not  hesitate  to  massacre 
their  Patriarch  in  the  baptistery,  committing  his  mangled 
corpse  to  the  flames  and  his  ashes  to  the  wind. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  drooping  fortunes 
of  the  Monophysites  revived  under  the  guidance  of  one  of  their 
leaders,  Jacob,  bishop  of  Edessa.  Under  him  and  his  successor 
they  acquired  overwhelming  predominance  in  the  Eastern 
empire,  and  by  their  unrelenting  persecution  of  the  Nestorians 
and  their  bitter  quarrels  with  the  orthodox  or  the  Chalcedonians, 
plunged  the  Christian  Church  into  internecine  warfare  and 
bloodshed.  To  a  non-Christian,  the  doctrines  of  the  Mono- 
physites, who  taught  that  "  the  divine  and  human  nature  of 
Christ  were  so  founded  as  to  form  only  one  nature,  yet  without 
any  change,  confusion,  or  mixture  of  the  two  natures,"  seem 
to  be  in  no  way  different  from  those  laid  down  by  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon.  And  yet  this  distinction  without  a  difference 
was  the  cause  of  untold  misery  to  a  large  number  of  the  human 


lii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

race.     At  last,  in  630  A.c,  Heraclius  tried  to  allay  the  disorders 
by  starting  a  new  sect,  that  of  the  Monothelites,  whose  doctrines    ; 
were  no  less  monstrous   and  fantastical.     The   Monothelites    | 
maintained  that  "  Christ  was  both  perfect  God  and  perfect 
man,  and  that  in  him  were  two  distinct  natures  so  united  as  to 
cause  no  mixture  or  confusion,  but  to  form  by  their  union 
only  one  person."     Instead,  however,  of  bringing  peace  into 
the  bosom  of  the  Church  of  Jesus,  the  rise  of  this  sect  intensi- 
fied the  evil ;   and  Western  Asia,  Northern  Africa,  and  various 
parts  of  Europe  continued  to  be  the  scene  of  massacres  and    , 
murders  and  every  kind  of  outrage  in  the  name  of  Christ.  ! 

Such  was  the  religious  condition  of  Christendom  during  the    j 
centuries  which  preceded  the  advent  of  Islam.  ' 

With  the  apparent  conversion  of  Constantine,  Christianity 
became  the  dominant  power  in  the  Roman  empire.     The  fate    ; 
of  paganism  was  sealed.     Its  downfall,  though  staved  off  for   j 
a  time  by  the  greatest  and  most  sincere  of  the  Roman  emperors,    j 
had  become  inevitable.     "  After  the  extinction  of  paganism,"   I 
says  Gibbon,  "  the  Christians,  in  peace  and  piety,  might  have 
enjoyed  their  solitary  triumph.     But  the  principle  of  discord 
was  alive  in  their  bosom,  and  they  were  more  solicitous  to   j 
explore  the  nature  than  to  practise  the  laws  of  their  founder."  ^   ■ 
The  whole  of  Christian  Europe  was  immersed  in  absolute 
darkness,  and  the  Church  of  Jesus  was  rent  with  schisms  and 
heresies.     The  religious   conception   of  the  masses  had  not 
advanced  beyond  the  pagan  stage  ;  the  souls  of  the  dead  were 
worshipped  in  numbers,  and  the  images  of  those  who  were 
honoured  in  life  were  objects  of  adoration.     Relic  and  saint 
worship  had  become  universal ;    Christianity  had  reverted  to  ; 
heathenism.  1 

The  social  and  pohtical  condition  of  the  nations  subject  to  i 
the  sway  of  Christianity  was  equall}'  deplorable.  Liberty  of 
thought  and  freedom  of  judgment  were  crushed  out  from 
among  mankind.  And  the  reign  of  Christ  was  celebrated  by 
the  sacrifice  of  heretics  who  ventured  to  differ  from  any  idea 
which  predominated  for  the  time. 

^  The  Emperor  Julian  (the  so-called  Apostate)  is  reported  to  have  said  : 
"  No  wild  beasts  are  so  hostile  to  man  as  Christian  sects  in  general  are  to  one 
another." 


INTRODUCTION  liii 

In  the  streets  of  Alexandria,  before  the  eyes  of  the  civiUsed 
world,  the  noblest  woman  of  antiquity  was  slaughtered  with 
nameless  horrors  by  a  Christian  who  bears  the  title  of  saint 
in  the  annals  of  Christendom,  and  who,  in  modern  times,  has 
found  an  apologist.  The  eloquent  pages  of  Draper  furnish 
a  vivid  account  of  the  atrocious  crime  which  will  always 
remain  one  of  the  greatest  blots  on  Christianity.  A  beautiful, 
wise,  and  virtuous  woman,  whose  lecture-room  was  full  to 
overflowing  with  the  wealth  and  fashion  of  Alexandria,  was 
attacked  as  she  was  coming  out  of  her  academy  by  a  mob  of 
the  zealous  professors  of  Christianity.  Amidst  the  fearful 
yelling  of  these  defenders  of  the  faith  she  was  dragged  from  her 
chariot,  and  in  the  public  street  stripped  naked.  Paralysed 
with  fear,  she  was  haled  into  an  adjoining  church,  and  there 
killed  by  the  club  of  a  "  saint."  The  poor  naked  corpse  was 
outraged  and  then  dismembered  ;  but  the  diabolical  crime  was 
not  completed  until  they  had  scraped  the  flesh  from  the  bones 
with  oyster  shells  and  cast  the  remnants  into  the  fire.  Christen- 
dom honoured  with  canonisation  the  fiend  who  instigated  this 
terrible  and  revolting  atrocity,  and  the  blood  of  martyred 
Hypatia  was  avenged  only  by  the  sword  of  Amru  !  ^ 

The  condition  of  Constantinople  under  Justinian,  the 
Christian  and  the  glorified  legislator,  is  the  best  index  to  the 
demoralised  and  degraded  state  of  society  all  over  Christendom. 
Public  or  private  virtue  had  no  recognition  in  the  social  con- 
ceptions ;  a  harlot  sat  on  the  throne  of  the  Caesars,  and  shared 
with  the  emperor  the  honours  of  the  State.  Theodora  had 
publicly  plied  her  trade  in  the  city  of  Constantine,  and  her 
name  was  a  byword  among  its  dissolute  inhabitants.  And 
now  she  was  adored  as  a  queen  in  the  same  city  by  "  grave 
magistrates,  orthodox  bishops,  victorious  generals,  and  captive 
monarchs."  The  empire  was  disgraced  by  her  cruelties,  which 
recognised  no  religious  or  moral  restraint.  Seditions,  out- 
breaks, and  sanguinary  tumults,  in  which  the  priesthood 
always  took  the  most  prominent  part,  were  the  order  of  the  day. 
On  these  occasions  every  law,  human  or  divine,  was  trampled 
under  foot  ;  churches  and  altars  were  polluted  by  atrocious 
murders  ;    no  place  was  safe  or  sacred  from  depredations  ; 

^  'Amr(u)  ibn  al-'Asi  or  'As  of  Arabian  history. 


liv  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

the  bonds  of  society  were  rent  asunder,  and  revolting 
outrages  were  perpetrated  in  broad  daylight.  Nothing,  how- 
ever, can  equal  the  horrors  which  were  inflicted  upon  this 
unholy  city  during  the  Nika  riots  in  the  fifth  year  of  Justinian's 
reign.  The  horrible  anarchy  of  the  circus,  with  its  incessant 
bloodshed  and  sensuality,  stimulated  to  its  worst  excesses 
by  the  support  and  encouragement  which  the  imperial  cham- 
pions of  orthodoxy  extended  to  the  most  barbarous  of  the 
factions,  was  unparalleled  in  any  heathen  land. 

As  compared  with  Constantinople  at  this  period,  Persia  was 
a  country  of  order  and  law. 

Humanity  revolts  from  the  accounts  of  the  crimes  which 
sully  the  annals  of  Christian  Constantinople.  Whilst  the 
Prophet  of  Islam  was  yet  an  infant,  one  of  the  most  virtuous 
emperors  who  ever  ascended  the  throne  of  Byzantium  was 
massacred,  with  his  children  and  wife,  with  fearful  tortures 
at  the  instance  of  a  Christian  monarch.  The  emperor  was 
dragged  from  his  sanctuary,  and  his  five  sons  were  successively 
murdered  before  his  eyes  ;  and  this  tragic  scene  closed  with 
the  execution  of  the  emperor  himself.  The  empress  and  her 
daughters  were  subjected  to  nameless  cruelties  and  then 
beheaded  on  the  very  ground  which  had  been  stained  with  the 
blood  of  the  poor  Emperor  Maurice.  The  ruthless  treatment 
meted  out  to  the  friends,  companions  and  partisans  of  the 
imperial  victim,  serves  as  an  index  to  the  morality  of  the 
Byzantine  Christians.  Their  eyes  were  pierced,  their  tongues 
were  torn  from  the  root,  their  hands  and  feet  were  amputated  ; 
some  expired  under  the  lash,  others  in  the  flames,  others  again 
were  transfixed  with  arrows.  "  A  simple,  speedy  death," 
says  Gibbon,  "  was  a  mercy  which  they  could  rarely  obtain." 

The  Byzantine  empire,  slowly  bleeding  unto  death,  torn  by 
political  and  religious  factions,  distracted  with  theological 
wranglings,  and  "  crazed  by  an  insane  desire  to  enforce  uni- 
formity of  religious  belief,"  offered  a  wretched  spectacle  of 
assassinations,  dissoluteness,  and  brutality.^ 

^  Milman  thus  describes  the  Christianity  of  those  days  :    "  The  Bishop  of 
Constantinople  was  the  passive  victim,   the  humble  slave,   or  the  factious 
adversary  of  the  Byzantine  emperor  ;    rarely  exercised  a  lofty  moral  control  . 
upon  his  despotism.     The  lower  clergy,  whatever  their  more  secret  beneficent 
or  sanctifying  workings  on  society,  had  sufficient  power,  wealth,  and  rank ' 


INTRODUCTION  Iv 

The  countries  included  in  Asiatic  Turkey  westward  of  the 
Euphrates,  devastated  alternately  by  the  Parthians  and  the 
Romans,  and  then  by  the  Persians  and  the  Byzantines,  pre- 
sented a  picture  of  utter  hopelessness.  The  moral  misery  of 
the  people  was  surpassed  by  their  material  ruin.  The  followers 
of  Jesus,  instead  of  alleviating,  intensified  the  evil.  Mago- 
Zoroastrianism  combating  with  a  degraded  Christianity  in 
Mesopotamia,  the  Nestorians  engaged  in  deadly  conflict  with 
the  orthodox  party,  the  earher  contests  of  Montanus  and 
the  prophetesses,  had  converted  Western  Asia  into  a  wilderness 
of  despair  and  desolation. 

The  whirlwinds  of  conquest  which  had  passed  over  Africa, 
the  massacres,  the  murders,  the  lawlessness  of  the  professors 
and  teachers  of  the  Christian  religion,  had  destroyed  every 
spark  of  moral  life  in  Egypt  and  in  the  African  provinces  of 
the  decaying  empire.  In  Europe  the  condition  of  the  people 
was,  if  possible,  still  more  miserable.  In  the  open  day,  in 
the  presence  of  the  ministers  of  religion  and  the  people,  Narses, 
the  benefactor  of  his  country,  was  burnt  ahve  in  the  market- 
place of  Constantinople.  In  the  streets  of  Rome,  under  the 
eyes  of  the  Exarch,  the  partisans  of  rival  bishops  waged  war, 
and  deluged  churches  with  the  blood  of  Christians.  Spain 
exhibited  a  heart-rending  scene  of  anarchy  and  ruin.  The 
rich,  the  privileged  few,  who  held  the  principal  magistracies 
of  the  province  under  the  emperors,  or  who  were  dignified 
with  the  title  of  magistrates,  were  exempt  from  all  burdens. 
They  Uved  in  extreme  luxury  in  beautiful  villas,  surrounded 
by  slaves  of  both  sexes  ;  spending  their  time  in  the  baths, 
which  were  so  many  haunts  of  immorality  ;   or  at  the  gaming 

to  tempt  ambition  or  to  degrade  to  intrigue  ;  not  enough  to  command  the 
pubUc  mind  for  any  great  salutary  purpose,  to  repress  the  inveterate  immor- 
ality of  an  effete  age,  to  reconcile  jarring  interests,  to  mould  together  hostile 
races  ;  in  general  they  ruled,  when  they  did  rule,  by  the  superstitious  fears, 
rather  than  by  the  reverence  and  attachment  of  a  grateful  people.  They  sank 
downward  into  the  common  ignorance,  and  yielded  to  the  worst  barbarism — 
a  worn-out  civilisation.  Monasticism  withdrew  a  great  number  of  those  who 
might  have  been  energetic  and  useful  citizens  into  barren  seclusion  and 
religious  indolence  ;  but  except  when  the  monks  formed  themselves,  as  they 
frequently  did,  into  fierce  political  or  polemic  factions,  they  had  little  effect 
on  the  conditions  of  society.  They  stood  aloof  from  the  world — the  anchorites 
in  their  desert  wildernesses,  the  monks  in  their  jealously-barred  convents  ; 
and  secure,  as  they  supposed,  of  their  own  salvation,  left  the  rest  of  mankind 
to  inevitable  perdition." — Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  i,  Introd.  p.  4. 


Ivi  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

table,  when  not  engaged  in  eating  and  drinking.  The  sight 
of  this  luxury  and  opulence  offered  a  terrible  contrast  to  the 
miseries  of  the  masses.  The  middle  class,  the  free  populatior 
of  the  cities  and  the  villages,  were  ground  to  the  earth  by  the 
tyranny  of  the  Romans,  Agrarian  slavery  had  disappeared 
its  place  was  taken  by  the  colonists,  occupying  an  intermediate 
position  between  freedom  and  slavery.  They  were  in  some 
respects  happier  than  the  slaves.  They  could  contract  valic 
marriages  ;  they  obtained  a  limited  share  of  the  produce  oi 
the  lands  they  cultivated  ;  and  their  patrons  could  not  take' 
their  goods  and  chattels  from  them.  But  in  all  other  respect: 
they  were  the  slaves  of  the  soil.  Their  personal  services  wen 
at  the  disposal  of  the  State.  They  were  Uable  to  corpora 
chastisement,  like  the  domestic  slaves  ;  ^  slaves,  not  of  ai 
individual,  but  of  the  soil,  they  remained  attached  to  tb 
lands  they  cultivated  by  an  indissoluble  and  hereditary  tie 
The  condition  of  the  slaves,  who  formed  the  bulk  of  the  popula 
tion,  was  miserable  beyond  description.  They  were  treatee; 
with  pitiless  cruelty,  worse  than  cattle.  The  invasion  of  thtj 
barbarians  brought  with  it  a  dire  punishment  upon  the  iUj 
fated  land.  In  their  wake  followed  desolation,  terrible  am; 
absolute  ;  they  ravaged,  they  massacred,  they  reduced  int*! 
slavery  the  women,  children,  and  the  clergy.  ' 

A  vast  number  of  Jews  were  settled  in  the  peninsula  fo 
centuries.  The  terrible  persecutions  which  they  suffered  a 
the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastics  in  the  reign  of  the  Visigotl; 
Sisebut  in  the  year  6i6  a.c,  lasted  until  Islam  brought  emanci 
pation  to  the  wretched  victims  of  ignorance  and  fanaticisnn 
It  was  Islam  which  rendered  possible  for  Judaism  to  produc, 
such  men  as  Maimonides  or  Ibn  Gebrol. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  Arabia,  that  land  of  mystery  and  romance- 
which  has  hitherto  lain  enwrapt  in  silence  and  solitude,  isolatei; 
from  the  great  nations  of  the  world,  unaffected  by  their  wan; 
or  their  polity.  The  armies  of  the  Chosroes  and  the  CaesaB' 
had  for  centuries  marched  and  re-marched  by  her  frontier 
without  disturbing  her  sleep  of  ages.  And  though  the  mutter' 
ings  of  the  distant  thunder,  which  so  frequently  rolled  acres 

^  Three  hundred  lashes  was  the  usual  allowance  for  trivial  faults.  Sf 
Dozy,  Hist,  des  Musulmans  d'Espagne,  vol.  ii.  p.  87. 


INTRODUCTION  Ivii 

the  dominions  of  the  Byzantine  and  the  Persian,  often  reached 
her  ears,  they  failed  to  rouse  her  from  her  shimber.  Her 
turn,  however,  was  come,  and  she  found  her  voice  in  that 
of  the  noblest  of  her  sons. 

The  chain  of  mountains  which,  descending  from  Palestine 
towards  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  runs  almost  parallel  to  the  Red 
Sea  down  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Arabian  peninsula, 
is  designated  in  the  Arabic  language,  Hijaz,  or  Barrier,  and 
gives  its  name  to  all  the  country  it  traverses  until  it  reaches 
the  province  of  Yemen.  At  times  the  mountains  run  close  to 
the  sea,  at  times  they  draw  far  away  from  the  coast,  leaving 
long  stretches  of  lowland,  barren,  desolate,  and  inhospitable, 
with  occasional  green  valleys  and  rich  oases  formed  in 
the  track  of  the  periodical  rain-torrents.  Beyond  this  range, 
and  eastward,  stretches  the  steppe  of  Najd — the  "  highland  " 
of  Arabia — a  vast  plateau,  with  deserts,  mountain  gorges,  and 
here  and  there  green  plantations  refreshing  to  the  eye.  In 
Hijaz,  the  barrier-land,  he  the  holy  cities,  Mecca  and  Medina, 
the  birthplace  and  cradle  of  Islam. 

This  vast  region  is  divided  into  four  tolerably  well-defined 
countries.  First,  to  the  north  hes  Arabia  Petraea,  including 
the  countries  of  the  ancient  Edomites  and  the  Midianites. 
Then  comes  Hijaz  proper,  containing  the  famous  city  of  Yathrib, 
known  afterwards  in  history  as  the  City  of  the  Prophet, — 
Medina't  un-Nabi,  or  Medina.  South  of  Hijaz  proper  hes  the 
province  of  Tihama,  where  are  situated  Mecca  and  the  port  of 
Jeddah, — the  landing-place  of  the  pilgrims  of  Islam.  The 
fourth  and  the  southernmost  part  is  called  Asyr,  bordering  on 
Yemen.  Yemen,  properly  so  called,  is  the  country  forming 
the  south-western  extremity  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean, 
on  the  north  by  Hijaz,  and  on  the  east  by  Hazramaut  (Hadh- 
ramaut).  The  name  of  Yemen  is  often  applied  to  southern 
Arabia  generally.  It  then  includes,  besides  Yemen  proper, 
Hazramaut  and  the  district  of  Mahra  to  the  east  of  Hazramaut. 
Beyond  Mahra,  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  peninsula,  is 
Oman,  and  to  the  north  of  this  al-Bahrain,  or  al-Ahsa,  on  the 
Persian  Gulf.  This  latter  country  is  also  called  Hijr,  from  the 
name  of  its  principal  province. 


Iviii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Najd,  the  highland,  is  the  large  plateau  which,  commencing 
westward  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains  of  Hijaz, 
occupies  the  whole  of  Central  Arabia.  That  portion  of  Najd, 
which  borders  on  Yemen,  is  called  the  Najd  of  Yemen,  and  the 
northern  part  simply  Najd.  These  two  divisions  are  separated 
by  a  mountainous  province  called  Yemama,  famous  in  the 
history  of  Islam.  North  of  Najd,  stretches  the  Syrian  desert, 
not  really  a  part  of  Arabia,  but  where  the  Arab  tribes  now  roam, 
free  and  wild,  leading  a  nomadic  life  like  their  ancient  Aramaean 
predecessors.  North-east  are  the  deserts  of  Irak  (Barriyat 
ul-Irak),  bordering  the  fertile  territory  of  Chaldaea  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  separating  it  from  the  cultivated 
portions  of  Arabia.  Eastward,  Najd  is  separated  from  al-Ahsa 
by  one  of  those  strips  of  desert  called  Nafud  by  the  Arabs. 
Towards  the  south  lies  the  vast  desert  of  Dahna.  It  separates 
Najd  from  Hazramaut  and  Mahra. 

This  vast  region,  which  embraces  an  area  twice  the  size  of 
France  in  the  height  of  its  power,  was  then  as  now  inhabited 
by  two  different  types  of  people,  "  the  people  of  the  town  " 
and  "  the  dwellers  of  the  desert."  The  virtues  and  the  defects 
of  the  Bedawee,  his  devotion  to  his  clan,  his  quixotic  sense  of 
honour,  with  his  recklessness  and  thirst  for  revenge,  and  his 
disregard  for  human  life,  have  been  portrayed  in  vivid  and 
sympathetic  colours  by  eminent  writers  like  Burton  and 
Poole.  But  whatever  the  difference  between  the  Bedouin 
and  the  citizen,  the  Arab  is  peculiarly  the  child  of  the  desert. 
His  passionate  love  of  freedom  and  his  spiritual  exaltation 
are  the  outcome  of  the  free  air  which  he  breathes  and  of  the 
wide  expanse  which  he  treads, — conscious  of  his  own  dignity 
and  independence.  In  spite  of  the  annual  gatherings  at  Mecca 
and  'Ukaz,  the  tribes  and  nationalities  which  inhabited 
the  soil  of  Arabia  were  far  from  homogeneous.  Each  was 
more  or  less  distinct  from  the  other  in  development  and 
religion.  This  diversity  was  mainly  due  to  the  diversity 
of  their  origin.  Various  races  had  peopled  the  peninsula 
at  various  times.  Many  of  them  had  passed  away,  but 
their  misdeeds  or  their  prowess  were  fresh  in  the  memory 
of  successive  generations,  and  these  traditions  formed  the 
history   of   the    nation.     The   Arabs   themselves   divide    the 


INTRODUCTION  lix 

races  who  have  peopled  the  peninsula  into  three  grand  sub- 
divisions, viz.  :  (i)  the  Arab  ul-Bciidah,  the  extinct  Arabs, 
under  which  are  included  the  Hamitic  colonies  (Kushites), 
which  preceded  the  Semites  in  the  work  of  colonisation,  as  also 
the  Aramaean  populations  of  Syria,  Phcenicia,  and  other  parts  ; 
(2)  the  'Arab  ul-'Ariba,  or  Mut'ariba,  original  Arabs,  true 
Semites,  whom  tradition  represents  to  be  descended  from 
Kahtan,  or  Joktan,  and  who,  in  their  progress  towards  the 
south,  destroyed  the  aboriginal  settlers.  The  Joktanite 
Arabs,  nomads  by  nature,  super-imposed  themselves  in  those 
countries  on  the  primitive  inhabitants,  the  Hamitic  astral- 
worshippers.  Their  original  cradle  was  the  region  whence  also 
came  the  Abrahamites,  and  is  precisely  indicated  by  the 
significant  names  of  two  of  the  direct  ancestors  of  Joktan, 
Arphaxad,  "  border  of  the  Chaldaean,"  and  Eber,  "  the  man 
from  beyond  (the  river),"  in  reference  to  Babylon,  or  the 
district  now  called  Irak-Araby,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Euphrates. '^  (3)  The  'Arab  itl-Must'ariba,  "  or  naturalised 
Arabs,"  Abrahamitic  Semites,  who,  either  as  peaceful  immi- 
grants or  as  mihtary  colonists,  introduced  themselves  into  the 
peninsula,  and  who  intermarried  and  settled  among  the 
Joktanite  Arabs. ^  These  three  names,  'Ariba,  Mut'ariba, 
and  Must'ariba,  are  derived  from  the  same  root,  and  by  the 
modification  of  their  grammatical  form  indicate  the  periods 
when  these  races  were  naturalised  in  the  country.  ^ 

Among  the  'Arab  ul-'Ariba,  the  races  which  require  special 
mention  in  connection  with  the  history  of  Islam  are  the  Bani- 
'Ad,*  the  'Amahka,  the  Bani-Thamud,^  and  Bani-Jadis  (the 
Thamudiens  and  Jodicites  of  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Ptolemy). 
The  Bani-'Ad,  Hamitic  in  their  origin,  were  the  first  settlers 
and  colonists  in   the  peninsula,   and  they  were  established 

*  Lenormant,  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  ii.  p.  293. 

*  Ibn-ul-Athir,  vol.  i.  pp.  55-58. 

'  Caussin  de  Perceval  regards  the  Bdidah  as  the  same  as  'Ariba,  and  puts 
the  Mut'ariba  as  forming  the  second  group.  In  the  following  pages  I  adopt 
his  classification. 

*  The  'Adites  are  said  to  have  been  overwhelmed,  conquered,  and  destroyed 
by  the  Joktanite  Arabs  ;  the  Thamudites,  "  that  strange  race  of  troglodytes," 
by  the  Assyrians  under  Chedorlaomer  (Khozar  al-Ahmar). 

*  With  a  cb. 


Ix  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

principally  in  that  region  of  Central  Arabia,  which  is  called  by 
Arab  historians  and  geographers,  the  Ahsdf  ur-ramal,  contigu- 
ous to  Yemen,  Hazramaut,  and  Oman.  They  appear  during 
one  period  of  their  existence  to  have  formed  a  powerful  and 
conquering  nation.  One  of  the  sovereigns  of  this  race,  Shaddad, 
whose  name  is  preserved  in  the  Koran,  seems  to  have  extended 
his  power  even  beyond  the  confines  of  the  Arabian  peninsula. 
He  is  said  to  have  conquered  Irak,  and  even  approached  the 
borders  of  India.  This  tradition  probably  points  to  the 
invasion  of  Babylonia  or  Chaldaea  by  the  Arabs  more  than 
2000  years  before  Christ,  and  possibly  might  be  referred  to 
the  same  event  which,  in  Persian  traditions,  is  called  the 
invasion  of  Zahhak.  The  same  Shaddad,  or  one  of  his  successors 
bearing  the  same  name,  carried  his  arms  into  Egypt  and  farther 
west.  This  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  Arabs  has  been  identified 
with  the  irruption  of  the  Hyksos  into  that  country.  And  the 
way  in  which  the  nomadic  invaders  were  ultimately  driven 
out  of  Africa  by  a  combination  of  the  princes  of  the  Thebaid, 
with  the  assistance  of  their  Ethiopian  or  Kushite  neighbours 
towards  the  south,  gives  some  degree  of  corroboration  to  the 
theory. 

The  bulk  of  the  'Adites  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  a 
great  drought  which  afflicted  their  country.  A  small  remnant 
escaped  and  formed  the  second  'Adite  nation,  which  attained 
considerable  prosperity  in  Yemen.  These  later  'Adites, 
however,  were  engulfed  in  the  Joktanide  wave,  i 

The  Bani-'Amalika,  supposed  by  Lenormant  to  be  of 
Aramaean  origin,  who  are  undoubtedly  the  same  as  the  Amale- 
kites  of  the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  Scriptures — the  Shashu 
of  the  Egyptian  monuments — expelled  from  Babylonia  by  the 
early  Assyrian  sovereigns,  entered  Arabia,  and  gradually 
spread  themselves  in  Yemen  and  Hijaz,  as  well  as  Palestine 
and  Syria.  They  appear  to  have  penetrated  into  Egypt,  and 
gave  her  several  of  her  Pharaohs.  The  'Amalika  of  Hijaz 
were  either  destroyed  or  driven  out  by  the  Bani-Jurhum,  a' 
branch  of  the  Bani-Kahtan,  who  had  originally  settled  in  the' 
south,  and  subsequently  moving  northwards,  overwhelmed  the 
Amalika. 

The  Bani-Thamud,  who,  like  the  Bani-'Ad,  were  Kushite 


INTRODUCTION  Ixi 

or  Hamitic,  inhabited  the  borders  of  Edom  and  afterwards 
the  country  named  Hijr,  situated  to  the  east  of  Arabia  Petrsea, 
and  between  Hijaz  and  Syria.  These  people  were  troglodytes, 
and  lived  in  houses  carved  in  the  side  of  rocks.  Sir  Henry 
Layard,  in  his  Early  Travels,  has  described  the  ruins  of  these 
rocky  habitations,  and  one  can  fix  the  exact  location  of  the 
Thamudites  by  comparing  the  Arabian  traditions  with  the 
accounts  of  modern  travellers  and  the  results  of  recent  dis- 
coveries. As  the  "  indispensable  middlemen  "  of  the  com- 
merce between  Syria  and  Najd  or  Hijaz,  the  Thamudites 
attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  They  were,  ultimately, 
in  great  part  exterminated  by  Chedorlaomer  (Khuzar  al- 
Ahmar),  the  great  Elamite  conqueror,  in  the  course  of  his 
victorious  campaigns  in  Syria  and  Arabia.  The  terrible  fate 
which  overtook  these  ancient  cave-dwellers,  who,  in  their  solid 
habitations,  considered  themselves  safe  from  divine  wrath, 
is  often  referred  to  in  the  Koran  as  a  warning  to  the  Koreishites. 

After  this  disaster,  the  rest  of  the  Bani-Thamud  retreated  to 
Mount  Seir,  on  the  north  of  the  Elamitic  Gulf,  where  they 
lived  in  the  times  of  Isaac  and  Jacob.  But  they  soon  dis- 
appeared, doubtless  absorbed  by  the  neighbouring  tribes,  and 
their  place  was  taken  by  the  Edomites  who  held  Mount  Seir 
for  a  time.^  These  Edomites  were  apparently  succeeded  in 
their  possessions  by  a  body  of  Arabs  driven  from  Yemen  by 
the  Bani-Kahtan.  In  the  days  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  under  the 
same  name  as  their  predecessors  they  furnished  contingents 
to  the  Roman  armies. 

Leaving  the  Tasm  and  Jadis  and  other  smaller  tribes,  as 
too  unimportant  to  require  any  specific  mention,  we  come  to 
the  Bani-Jurhum,  who,  also,  are  classed  under  the  head  of 
'Arab  ul-'Ariba,  and  who  appear  to  have  overwhelmed, 
destroyed,  and  replaced  the  'Amahka  in  Hijaz.  There  seem 
to  have  been  two  tribes  of  that  name,  one  of  them,  the  most 
ancient,  and  contemporaneous  with  the  'Adites,  and  probably 
Kushite  in  their  origin  ;  the  other,  descendants  of  Kahtan, 
who,  issuing  from  the  valley  of  Yemen  in  a  season  of  great 
steriUty,  drove  out  the  'Amalekite  tribes  of  Hijaz,  and  estab- 
lished themselves  in  their  possessions.     The  irruption  of  the 

*  Gen.  xiv.  4,  6. 


Ixii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Bani-Jurhum,  of  Kahtanite  origin,  is  said  to  have  taken 
place  at  a  time  when  the  Ishmaehtic  Arabs  were  acquiring 
prominence  among  the  'Amahka,  in  whose  country  they  had 
been  long  settled.  The  Ishmaelites  entered  into  amicable 
relations  with  the  invading  hordes,  and  lived  side  by  side  with 
them  for  a  period.  Before  the  advancing  tide  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Ishmael,  the  Jurhumites  began  gradually  to  lose  their 
hold  over  the  valley,  and  before  a  century  was  well  over  the 
dominion  of  Hijaz  and  Tihama  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Abrahamitic  Arabs.  The  development  of  the  Must'ariba 
Arabs  suffered  a  temporary  check  from  the  inroad  of  the 
Babylonian  monarch,  but,  as  we  shall  see  later,  they  soon 
recovered  their  vitality,  and  spread  themselves  over  Hijaz, 
Najd,  and  the  deserts  of  Irak  and  Mesopotamia,  where  they 
finally  absorbed  the  descendants  of  Kahtan,  their  predecessors. 

The  'Arab  ul-Mut' ariba  were  tribes  sprung  from  Kahtan, 
son  of  Eber,^  and  were  chiefly  concentrated  in  Yemen.  The 
descendants  of  Kahtan  had  burst  into  Arabia  from  its  north- 
east corner,  and  had  penetrated  down  into  the  south,  where 
they  lived  for  a  time  along  with  the  'Adites  of  the  race  of  Kush, 
subject  to  their  political  supremacy,  and  at  last  became  the 
governing  power.  The  population  sprung  from  Kahtan 
was  not,  however,  exclusively  confined  to  Southern  Arabia. 
Their  primitive  cradle  lay  in  Mesopotamia.  In  moving  south- 
ward from  that  locality  to  Yemen,  the  Kahtanite  tribes  must 
have  passed  through  the  whole  length  of  the  Arabian  peninsula, 
and  no  doubt  left  some  settlements  behind  them  along  their 
route. 

According  to  the  Arab  historians,  the  wave  which  entered 
the  peninsula  at  this  period  was  headed  by  two  brothers, 
Kahtan  and  Yaktan,  the  sons  of  Eber  or  Heber.  And  it  was 
the  son  of  Kahtan,  Yareb,  whom  they  regard  as  the  first  prince 
of  Yemen,  who  gave  his  name  to  all  his  descendants  and  to 
the  whole  of  the  peninsula.  Yareb  is  said  to  have  been 
succeeded  by  his  son  Yeshhad,  founder  of  Mareb,  the  ancient 
capital  ot  the  realm,  and  father  of  the  famous  Abd  ush-Shams, 
surnamed  Saba.  This  surname,  which  means  Capturer,  was 
given  to  him  on  account  of  his  victories.     The  posterity  of 

^  Ibn  ul-Ath!r  calls  him  Ghgbir  or  'Abir, 


INTRODUCTION  Ixiii 

Saba  became  the  progenitors  of  the  various  tribes  of  Kahtanite 
descent,  famous  in  Arab  traditions.  Saba  left  two  sons, 
Himyar  (which  means  red)  ^  and  Kuhlan.  The  former  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  throne,  and  it  was  after  him  that  the 
dynasty  of  Saba  were  called  Himyary  or  Him37arite.2  His 
descendants  and  those  of  Kuhlan,  his  brother  and  successor, 
alternately  ruled  Yemen  until  the  century  before  Mohammed. 
To  this  dynasty  belonged  the  great  Zu'lkarnain,  and  the 
celebrated  Bilkis,  who  went  to  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of 
Solomon.^ 


^  From  the  red  mantle  which  he  used  to  wear  in  imitation  of  the  Pharaohs. 

*  The  Himyarite  sovereigns  of  Yemen,  who  were  styled  Tobbas,  seem  to 
have  been  from  the  earliest  times  in  communication  both  with  Persia  and 
Byzantium. 

'  There  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  Zu'lkarnain.  Several 
Mohammedan  historians  have  thought  that  the  Zu'lkarnain  referred  to  in  the 
Koran  is  identical  with  Alexander  of  Maccdon.  This  opinion,  however,  is 
open  to  question.  Zu'lkarnain  in  its  primitive  sense  means  "  the  lord  of  two 
horns."  When  we  remember  the  head-dress  worn  by  the  ancient  Sabaean 
sovereigns,  the  crescent-shaped  moon  with  its  two  horns,  borrowed  probably 
from  Egypt  about  the  period  of  this  king,  there  can  be  little  room  for  doubt 
that  the  reference  in  the  Koran  is  to  some  sovereign  of  native  origin,  whose 
extensive  conquests  became  magnified  in  the  imagination  of  posterity  into  a 
world-wide  dominion. 

Lenormant  thinks  that  Shaddad,  Zu'lkarnain,  and  Balkis  were  all  Kushites. 

Judaism  was  strongly  represented  among  the  subjects  of  the  Himyarite 
sovereigns,  and  in  the  year  343  a.c,  at  the  instance  of  an  ambassador  sent  to 
Yemen  by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  several  Christian  churches  were  erected 
in  their  dominions.  But  the  bulk  of  the  nation  adhered  to  the  primitive 
Semitic  cult. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  Zu-Nawas,  known  to  the  Byzantines 
as  Dimion,  made  himself  the  master  of  Yemen  and  its  dependencies,  after 
slaying  the  ferocious  usurper,  Zu-Shinatir.  His  cruel  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  under  the  instigation  of  the  Jews,  whose  creed  he  had  adopted, 
drew  upon  him  the  vengeance  of  the  Byzantine  emperor.  Instigated  from 
Constantinople,  an  Abyssinian  army,  under  the  command  of  Harith  or  Aryat, 
landed  on  the  shores  of  Yemen,  defeated  and  killed  Zu-Nawas,  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  Yemen.     This  occurred  about  525  a.c. 

Shortly  afterwards  (537  A.c.)  Aryat  was  killed  by  Abraha  al-Ashram,  who 
subsequently  became  the  Abyssinian  viceroy.  It  was  under  Abraha  that  the 
Christian  Abyssinians  made  their  abortive  attempt  to  conquer  Hijaz.  Yemen 
remained  under  the  Abyssinian  domination  for  nearly  half  a  century,  when 
M'adi  Karib,  the  son  of  the  famous  Saif  zu'l  Yezen,  whose  heroic  deeds  are 
sung  up  to  the  present  day  by  the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  restored  the  Himyarite 
dynasty  (573  a.c.)  with  the  help  of  an  army  furnished  by  Ke.sra  Anushirvan. 
On  M'adi  Karib's  assassination  by  the  Christians  in  597,  Yemen  came  under 
the  direct  domination  of  Persia,  and  was  ruled  by  viceroys  appointed  by  the 
court  of  Ctesiphon.  Wahraz  was  the  first  Marzban.  Under  him  Yemen, 
Hazramaut,  Mahra,  and  Oman  were  added  to  the  Persian  empire.  The  last 
of  these  viceroys  was  Bazan,  who  became  Marzban  under  Khusru  Parviz 
towards  the  year  606.  It  was  during  the  viceroyalty  of  Bazan  that  Islam 
was  introduced  into  Yemen,  and  he  himself  accepted  the  Faith.     The  Persian 


Ixiv  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

The  traditions  respecting  the  early  Ishmaehte  settlement 
in  Arabia  relate  back  to  the  time  of  Abraham  and  his  expulsion 
or  expatriation  from  Chaldaea.  The  descendants  of  Ishmael 
prospered  and  multiplied  in  Hijaz  until  they,  with  their  allies 
the  Jurhumites,  were  overwhelmed  and  almost  destro^^ed  by 
the  formidable  king  of  Babylonia,  Nebuchadnezzar,  who,  of 
all  the  monarchs  that  endeavoured  to  attack  the  heart  of 
Arabia,  was  alone  successful  in  wounding  it  seriously.  The 
foundation  of  Mecca  was  apparently  co-eval  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Abrahamitic  Arabs  in  the  peninsula,  for  according 
to  the  Arab  traditions  a  Jurhumite  chief  named  Meghass 
ibn-Amr,  whose  daughter  was  married  to  the  progenitor  of 
the  Must'ariha  Arabs,  Ishmael  or  Isma'il,  was  the  founder  of 
the  city.  About  the  same  time  was  built  the  temple  which 
gave  Mecca  an  overwhelming  predominance  over  the  other 
cities  of  Arabia.  Built  by  Abraham,  that  "  Saturnian  father 
of  the  tribes,"  in  the  remotest  antiquity,  the  Kaaba  ever 
remained  the  holiest  and  most  sacred  of  the  temples  of  the 
nation.  Here  were  ranged  the  three  hundred  and  sixty  idols, 
one  for  each  day,  round  the  great  god  Hobal,  carved  of  red 
agate,  the  two  ghazdlas,  gazelles  of  gold  and  silver,  and  the 
image  of  Abraham  and  of  his  son.  Here  the  tribes  came, 
year  after  year,  "  to  kiss  the  black  stone  which  had  fallen 
from  heaven  in  the  primeval  days  of  Adam,  and  to  make  the 
seven  circuits  of  the  temple  naked."  Mecca  was  thus  from  the 
earliest  times  the  centre,  not  only  of  the  religious  associations 
of  the  Arabs,  but  also  of  their  commercial  enterprises.  Stand- 
ing on  the  highway  of  the  commerce  of  antiquity,  it  gathered 
to  itself  the  wealth  and  culture  of  the  neighbouring  countries. 
Not  even  the  Babylonian  monarch  could  touch  her  mercantile 
prosperity  ;  for,  from  the  necessity  of  their  situation,  the 
Arabs  of  Hijaz  became  the  carriers  of  the  nations  of  the  world. 

Mecca  was  the  centre  of  the  commercial  activity  which  has 
distinguished  the  Arabs  at  all  times  from  the  other  nations  of 
the  East.  From  Mecca  eradiated  the  caravans  which  carried 
to  the  Byzantine  dominions  and  to  Persia  the  rich  products  of 

domination  of  Yemen  was  extremely  mild.  All  religions  enjoyed  equal 
toleration,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  different  tribes  exercised  their  authority  in 
their  different  tracts,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Marzban. 


INTRODUCTION  Ixv 

Yemen  and  the  far-famed  Ind,  and  brought  from  Syria  the 
silks  and  stuffs  of  the  Persian  cities.  But  they  brought  with 
them  more  than  articles  of  trade  ;  in  the  train  of  these  caravans 
came  all  the  luxurious  habits  and  vices  which  had  corroded 
the  very  heart  of  the  neighbouring  empires.  Grecian  and 
Persian  slave  girls,  imported  from  Syria  and  Irak,  beguiled 
the  idle  hours  of  the  rich  with  their  dancing  and  singing,  or 
ministered  to  their  vices.  The  poet,  whose  poems  formed  the 
pride  of  the  nation,  sung  only  of  the  joys  of  the  present  life, 
and  encouraged  the  immorality  of  the  people.  And  no  one 
bethought  himself  of  the  morrow. 

The  Arabs,  and  especially  the  Meccans,  were  passionately 
addicted  to  drinking,  gambling,  and  music.  Dancing  and 
singing,  as  in  other  Eastern  countries,  were  practised  by  a  class 
of  women  occupying  a  servile  position,  who  were  called  Kiydn, 
or,  in  the  singular,  Kayna,  and  whose  immorality  was  pro- 
verbial. And  yet  they  were  held  in  the  highest  estimation, 
and  the  greatest  chiefs  paid  public  court  to  them.^  As  among 
the  Hindus,  polygamy  was  practised  to  an  unUmited  extent, 
A  widow  (other  than  the  mother)  was  considered  an  integral 
part  of  her  deceased  husband's  patrimony,  and  passed  into  the 
use  of  the  son  ;  and  the  atrocious  and  inhuman  practice  of 
burying  female  infants  was  universal. 

The  Jews,  chased  successively  from  their  native  homes  by 
the  Assyrians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  had  found  among 
the  Arabs  safety  and  protection.  But  they  had  brought 
with  their  religion  that  bitter  spirit  of  strife  which  was  perhaps 
the  cause  of  the  greater  portion  of  their  misfortunes.  They 
had  succeeded,  however,  in  gaining  in  Arabia  a  considerable 
body  of  proselytes  ;  and  at  the  time  when  Mohammed  pro- 
ceeded to  announce  his  mission,  Judaism  was  professed  in 
Yemen  by  a  notable  fraction  of  the  descendants  of  Himyar 

1  The  moral  depravity  of  the  people  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  these 
women  used  to  give  receptions,  which  were  attended  by  all  the  men  of  light 
and  leading  in  the  city. 

The  town  Arab  was  so  passionately  addicted  to  dice  that  he  would 
frequently,  like  the  Germans  of  Tacitus,  stake  away  his  own  liberty.  It  was 
on  account  of  these  evils,  and  the  immoralities  associated  with  their  practice, 
that  Mohammed  wisely  prohibited  to  his  followers  gambling,  dancing,  and 
drinking  of  wine.  The  Ommeyyades  revived  all  the  three  evils  ;  they  repre- 
sented, in  fact,  the  uprise  of  the  old  paganism,  which  had  been  stamped  out 
with  such  labour  by  the  great  Prophet. 


Ixvi  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

and  Kinda,  issue  of  Kuhlan  ;  at  Khaibar  and  at  Yathrib, 
by  the  Kuraizha  and  the  Nazir,  tribes  of  IshmaeHte  origin, 
but  naturahsed  as  Arabs  from  very  ancient  times.  The 
Nestorians  and  the  Jacobite  Christians  had  also  founded 
colonies  in  Arabia,  The  deadly  rivalry  between  these  two 
creeds  to  dominate  over  Arabia  occasioned  sanguinary  wars 
in  the  most  fertile  provinces.^  Christianity  had  commenced 
to  introduce  itself  among  some  famihes  of  the  race  of  Rabi'a 
son  of  Nizar,  such  as  the  Taglibites  established  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  the  Bani  Abd  ul-Kais  who  were  settled  in  al-Bahrain. 
It  flourished  at  Najran  among  the  Bani-1-Harith  ibn  Ka'b  ; 
in  Irak,  among  the  Ibad  ;  in  Syria,  among  the  Ghassanides 
and  some  Khuzaite  families  ;  at  Dumat  ul-Jandal,  among  the 
Saconi  and  Bani-Kalb.  And  some  of  the  tribes  who  roamed 
over  the  desert  that  lay  between  Palestine  and  Egypt  were  also 
Christians.  Magism  and  Sabseism  had  also  their  representatives 
among  the  Arabs,  and  specially  among  the  Himyarites  :  the 
Bani-Asad  worshipped  Mercury ;  the  Jodham,  Jupiter ; 
the  Bani-Tay,  Canopus ;  the  descendants  of  Kais-Aylan, 
Sirius  ;  ^  a  portion  of  the  Koreish,  the  three  moon-goddesses — 
al-Lat,  the  bright  moon,  al-Manat  the  dark,  and  al-'Uzza,  the 
union  of  the  two, — who  were  regarded  as  the  daughters  of  the 
high  god  {Bandt-ulldh).  Mecca  was,  at  this  time,  the  centre 
of  a  far-reaching  idolatry,  ramifications  of  which  extended 
throughout  the  tribes  of  the  peninsula.  The  Kinana,  closely 
allied  to  the  Koreish  politically  and  by  blood,  besides  the  star 
Aldobaran,  served  the  goddess  'Uzza,  represented  by  a  tree 
at  a  place  called  Nakhla,  a  day  and  a  half's  journey  from 
Mecca.  The  Hawazin,  who  roamed  towards  the  south-east 
of  Mecca,  had  for  their  favourite  idol  the  goddess  Lat,  located 
at  Tayef.  Manat  was  represented  by  a  rock  on  the  caravan 
road  between  Mecca  and  Syria.  The  worship  of  these  idols 
was  chiefly  phallic,  similar  in  character  to  that  which  prevailed 
among  the  ancient  Semites,  the  Phoenicians  and  the  Baby- 
lonians.    But  the  majority  of  the  nation,  especially  the  tribes 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  i.  p.  308  et  seq.  ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  vol.  vi.  pp.  114,  115  ;  Caussin  de  Perceval,  Hist,  des  Arabes,  vol.  i. 
pp.  128-131. 

2  Koran,  sura  xli.  37. 


INTRODUCTION  Ixvii 

belonging  to  the  race  of  Mozar,  were  addicted  to  fetishism 
of  a  very  low  type.  Animals  and  plants,  the  gazelle,  the 
horse,  the  camel,  the  palm-tree,  inorganic  matter  like  pieces 
of  rock,  stones,  etc.,  formed  the  principal  objects  of  adoration. 
The  idea  of  a  Supreme  Divinity,  however,  was  not  unrecognised  ; 
but  its  influence  was  confined  to  an  inappreciable  few,  who, 
escaping  from  the  bondage  of  idolatry,  betook  themselves  to  a 
philosophical  scepticism,  more  or  less  tinged  with  the  legendary 
notions,  religious  and  secular,  of  their  neighbours,  the  Sabccans, 
the  Jews,  or  the  Christians.  Among  these  some  distinctly 
recognised  the  conception  of  the  supreme  Godhead,  and,  revolt- 
ing at  the  obscenities  and  gross  materialism  of  their  day, 
waited  patiently  for  the  appearance  of  a  DeHverer  who,  they 
felt  in  their  hearts,  would  soon  appear. 

Among  some  tribes,  in  the  case  of  a  death,  a  camel  was 
sacrificed  on  the  tomb,  or  allowed  to  die  from  starvation,  in 
the  belief  that  it  would  serve  as  a  conveyance  for  the  deceased 
in  a  future  existence.  Some  believed  that  when  the  soul 
separated  itself  from  the  body,  it  took  the  shape  of  a  bird  called 
Hama  or  Sada.  If  the  deceased  was  the  victim  of  a  violent 
death,  the  bird  hovered  over  the  grave,  crying  askuni,  "  Give 
me  drink,"  until  the  murder  was  avenged.  Belief  in  Jins, 
ghouls,  and  oracles  rendered  by  their  idols,  whom  they  con- 
sulted by  means  of  pointless  arrows,  called  Azldm  or  Kiddh, 
was  universal.  Each  tribe  had  its  particular  idols  and  particular 
temples.  The  priests  and  hierophants  attached  to  these 
temples  received  rich  offerings  from  the  devotees.  And  often, 
there  arose  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the  followers  or  the 
worshippers  of  rival  temples.  ^ 

But  the  prestige  of  the  Kaaba,  the  chapel  of  Abraham  and 
Ishmael,  stood  unimpeached  among  all.  Even  the  Jews  and 
the  Sabaeans  sent  offerings  there.  The  custody  of  this  temple 
was  an  object  of  great  jealousy  among  the  tribes,  as  it  conferred 
on  the  custodians  the  most  honourable  functions  and  privileges 
in  the  sight  of  the  Arabs.     At  the  time  of  Mohammed's  birth 

^  Among  others,  the  temple  of  Zu'1-Khulasa  in  Yemen,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Bani-Khatham  ;  the  temple  of  Rodha  in  Najd,  belonging  to  the  Bani- 
Rabi'a;  the  temple  of  Zu  Sabat  in  Irak;  and  that  of  Manat  at  Kodayd,  not 
far  from  the  sea,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Aus  and  Khazraj,  domiciled  at 
Yathrib — were  the  most  famous. 


Ixviii  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

this  honour  was  possessed  by  his  family  ;  and  his  grandfather 
was  the  venerable  chief  of  the  theocratic  commonwealth  which 
was  constituted  round  the  Kaaba.  Human  sacrifices  were 
frequent.  Besides  special  idols  located  in  the  temples  each 
family  had  household  penates  which  exacted  rigorous  observ- 
ances. 

Such  was  the  moral  and  religious  condition  of  the  Arabs. 
Neither  Christianity  nor  Judaism  had  succeeded  in  raising  them 
in  the  scale  of  humanity.  "  After  five  centuries  of  Christian 
evangelization,"  says  Muir,  "  we  can  point  to  but  a  sprinkling 
here  and  there  of  Christians  ; — the  Bani  Harith  of  Najran  ; 
the  Bani  Hanifa  of  Yemama  ;  some  of  the  Bani  Tay  at  Tayma, 
and  hardly  any  more.  Judaism,  vastly  more  powerful,  had 
exhibited  a  spasmodic  effort  of  proselytism  under  Zu  Nawas  ; 
but,  as  an  active  and  converting  agent  the  Jewish  faith  was  no 
longer  operative.  In  fine,  viewed  thus  in  a  religious  aspect,  the 
surface  of  Arabia  had  been  now  and  then  gently  rippled  by  the 
feeble  efforts  of  Christianity  ;  the  sterner  influences  of  Judaism 
had  been  occasionally  visible  in  a  deeper  and  more  troubled 
current  ;  but  the  tide  of  indigenous  idolatry  and  of  Ishmaelite 
superstition,  setting  from  every  quarter  with  an  unbroken  and 
unebbing  surge  towards  the  Kaaba,  gave  ample  evidence  that 
the  faith  and  worship  of  Mecca  held  the  Arab  mind  in  a  thral- 
dom, rigorous  and  undisputed."  ^ 

The  divisions  and  jealousies  of  the  tribes, ^  combined  with 
the  antagonistic  feelings  which  actuated  one  against  the  other 
from  religious  and  racial  differences,  had  enabled  the  Assyrians, 
the  Babylonians,  the  Greeks,  the  Persians,  and  Abyssinians, 
to  become  masters  of  various  provinces  in  the  north,  in  the 
east,  and  in  the  south-west.  The  Abyssinians  had  even  gone 
so  far  as  to  invade  Hijaz,  with  the  intention  of  destroying  the 
national  temple.  But  their  power  was  broken  before  Mecca 
by  the  sturdy  patriotism  of  Abd  ul-MuttaUb.  After  twenty 
years'  oppression,  they  were  driven  out  of  Yemen  with  the 
assistance  of  Persia,  by  a  native  prince,  the  son  of  the  celebrated 
Saif  zu'1-Yezen.     On  his  assassination  by  the  Christians,  the 

^  Muir,  vol  i.  Introd.  p.  ccxxxix. 

*  These  tribal  jealousies  and  family  feuds,  which  I  shall  have  to  describe 
later,  were  the  causes  which  led  to  the  ruin  of  the  Arab  empire. 


INTKODUCTION  Ixix 

sovereignty  he  had  enjoyed  under  the  auspices  of  the  great 
Anushirvan  passed  entirely  into  Persian  hands,  and  Yemen 
became  tributary/  to  Persia.^ 

Besides  the  direct  domination  which  the  rival  empires  of 
Constantinople  and  Ctesiphon  exercised  over  the  various 
provinces  of  Arabia,  two  of  the  greatest  chieftains,  the  kings 
of  Ghassan  and  of  Hira,  divided  their  allegiance  between  the 
Caesars  and  the  Chosroes  ;  and  in  the  deadly  wars,  profitless 
and  aimless,  which  Persian  and  Byzantine  waged  against 
each  other,  sucking  out  the  lifeblood  ot  their  people  from 
mere  lust  of  destruction,  though  oftener  the  right  was  on  the 
side  of  the  Zoroastrian  than  the  Christian,  the  Ghassanide  and 
Hirite  stood  face  to  face  in  hostile  array,  or  locked  in  mortal 
combat.  2 

The  heterogeneous  elements  of  which  the  Arabian  peninsula 
was  thus  composed  gave  an  extremely  varied  character  to  the 
folklore  of  the  country.  Among  uncultured  nations,  the 
tendency  is  always  to  dress  facts  in  the  garb  of  legends.  Im- 
agination among  them  not  only  colours  with  a  roseate  hue, 
but  magnifies  distant  objects.  And  the  variety  of  culture 
multiplies  legends,  more  or  less  based  on  facts.  The  Hamitic 
colonies  of  Yemen  and  of  the  south-west  generally ;  the  true 
Semites  who  followed  in  their  footsteps,  like  the  Aryans  in 
the  East;  the  Jews, the  Christians, — all  brought  their  traditions, 
their  myths,  their  legends  with  them.  In  the  course  of  ages, 
these  relics  of  the  past  acquired  a  consistency  and  character, 
but  however  unsubstantial  in  appearance,  on  analysis  there  is 
always  to  be  found  underlying  them  a  stratum  of  fact.  In 
the  legend  of  Shaddad  and  his  garden  of  Irem,  we  see  in  the 
hazy  past  the  reflection  of  a  mighty  empire,  which  even  con- 
quered Egypt — "  of  a  wealthy  nation,  constructors  of  great 
buildings,  with  an  advanced  civilisation  analogous  to  that  of 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  i.  pp.  324,  327  ;  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  i.  p.  138 
et  seq.  ;   Tabari  (Zotenberg's  transl.),  vol.  ii.  pp.  217,  218. 

^*  The  sedentary  portion  of  the  Arab  population  of  Yemen,  of  Bahrain  and 
Irak,  obeyed  the  Persians.  The  Bedouins  of  these  countries  were  in  reality 
free  from  all  yoke.  The  Arabs  of  Syria  were  subject  to  the  Romans  ;  those 
of  Mesopotamia  recognised  alternately  the  Roman  and  Persian  rule.  The 
Bedouins  of  Central  Arabia  and  of  Hijaz,  over  whom  the  Himyarite  kings  had 
exercised  a  more  or  less  effective  sovereignty,  had  nominally  passed  under 
Persian  rule,  but  they  enjoyed  virtual  independence. 


Ixx  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Chaldaea,  professing  a  religion  similar  to  the  Babylonian  ; 
a  nation,  in  short,  with  whom  material  progress  was  allied  to 
great  moral  depravity  and  obscene  rites."  ^  In  the  traditional, 
half-legendary,  half-historic  destruction  of  the  'Adites  and  the 
Thamudites,  we  see  the  destructive  fate  which  overwhelmed 
these  Hamitic  races  before  the  Semitic  tide,  Assyrian  and 
Arab.  2 

The  children  of  Jacob,  flying  from  their  ruthless  enemies, 
brought  their  legends  and  traditions  with  them,  and  thus 
contributed  their  quota  to  the  folklore  of  the  Peninsula.  The 
last  of  the  Semitic  colonies  that  entered  Arabia  was  acknow- 
ledged by  themselves  as  well  as  their  neighbours  to  be  descended 
from  Abraham  ;  and  tradition  had  handed  down  this  belief, 
and  given  it  a  shape  and  character. 

Manicheism,  stamped  out  from  Persia  and  the  Byzantine 
dominions,  had  betaken  itself  to  Arabia. ^  The  early  Docetes, 
the  Marcionites,  the  Valentinians,  all  had  their  representatives 
in  this  land  of  freedom.  They  all  disseminated  their  views  and 
traditions,  which  in  course  of  time  became  intermixed  with 
the  traditions  of  the  country.  These  Christians,  more  consis- 
tent in  their  views  than  their  orthodox  persecutors,  beheved 
that  the  God  incarnate,  or  at  least  the  Son  of  God,  His  Word, 
born  in  the  bosom  of  eternity,  an  iEon,  an  Emanation  issuing 
from  the  Throne  of  Light,  could  not,  did  not,  die  on  the  cross  ; 
that  the  words  of  agony  which  orthodox  Christian  traditions 
put  into  the  mouth  of  Jesus  did  not,  and  could  not,  escape 
from  his  lips  ;  in  short,  that  the  man  who  suffered  on  the  crosis 
was  a  different  person  from  the  Divine  Christ,  who  escaped 
from  the  hands  of  his  persecutors  and  Vv^ent  away  to  the  regions 
whence  he  had  come.'*  This  doctrine,  however  fanciful,  was 
more  consistent  with  the  idea  of  the  sonship  of  Jesus,  and  in 
itself  appears  to  have  been  based  on  some  strong  probabilities. 
The  intense  desire  of  Pilate,  whom  Tertullian  calls  a  Christian 
at  heart,  to  save  Jesus  ;  ^    even  the  unwillingness  of  Herod 


^  Lenormant,  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  ii.  p.  296. 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  i.  pp.  55-58. 

^  Beausobre,  Hist,  dn  M anicheisme ,  pt.  i.  1.  ii.  chap.  iv. 

*  Mosheim  and  Gibbon,  in  loco. 

^  Blunt,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  138. 


i 


INTRODUCTION  Ixxi 

to  incur  more  odium  by  the  murder  of  the  Prophet  of 
Nazareth  ;  the  darkness  of  the  short  hours  when  that  great 
benefactor  of  humanity  was  led  forth  for  the  consummation 
of  the  frightful  scenes  which  had  continued  throughout  the 
night  ;  the  preternatural  gloom  which  overshadowed  the  earth 
at  the  most  awful  part  of  this  drama  ;  ^  all  these  coincident 
circumstances  lend  a  strong  probabihty  to  the  beUef  that  the 
innocent  escaped  and  the  guilty  suffered.^ 

Before  the  Advent  of  Mohammed,  all  these  traditions,  based 
on  fact  though  tinged  by  the  colourings  of  imagination,  must 
have  become  firmly  imbedded  in  the  convictions  of  the  people, 
and  formed  essential  parts  of  the  folklore  of  the  country. 
Mohammed,  when  promulgating  his  faith  and  his  laws,  found 
these  traditions  current  among  his  people  ;  he  took  them  up 
and  adopted  them  as  the  lever  for  raising  the  Arabs  and  the 
surrounding  nations  from  the  depths  of  social  and  moral 
degradation  into  which  they  had  fallen. 

The  light  that  shone  on  Sinai,  the  Hght  that  brightened  the 
lives  of  the  peasants  and  fishermen  of  Galilee,  is  now  aflame 
on  the  heights  of  Faran  !  ^ 

^  Comp.  Milman,  History  of  Christianity,  vol.  i.  pp.  348-362. 

^  If  anything  could  lend  stronger  probability  to  this  curious  belief,  it  ought 
to  be  the  circumstantial  account  of  Luke  xxiv.  36  e<  seq.,  about  Jesus  allowing 
himself  to  be  touched  and  felt  (after  the  resurrection)  in  order  to  calm  his 
affrighted  disciples,  who  believed  him  to  be  a  spirit  ;  and  his  asking  for 
"  meat,"  and  partaking  of  "  a  broiled  fish  and  of  a  honey-comb." 

*The  tradition  which  I  have  paraphrased  into  English  is  as  follows  : — ■ 

"  Sfi'ir,"  says  Yakut  in  his  Geographical  Encyclopaedia,  "  is  a  hill  in 
Palestine  and  Faran  is  the  hill  of  Mecca ;  "   Mu'jam  ul-Bulddn,  vol.  iii.  p.  834. 


PART  I. 

THE    LIFE    AND    MINISTRY   OF   THE 
PROPHET 


CHAPTER  I 
MOHAMMED  THE  PROPHET 


Ail — ♦svj     ^^.jlJI    wiu-i^i 


: 


A — xlr     ^_U 


THESE  lines,  untranslatable  in  their  beauty,  do  not  in 
the  least  exaggerate  the  gentleness  of  disposition, 
the  nobihty  of  character,  of  the  man  whose  hfe, 
career,  and  teachings  we  propose  to  describe  in  the  following 
pages.  At  the  dawn  of  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  in  the  streets  of  Mecca  might  often  be  seen  a  quiet 
thoughtful  man,  past  the  meridian  of  life,  his  Arab  mantle 
thrown  across  his  shoulders,  his  tailasdn  ^  drawn  low  over 
his  face  ;  sometimes  gently  sauntering,  sometimes  hurrying 
along,  heedless  of  the  passers-by,  heedless  of  the  gay  scenes 
around  him,  deeply  absorbed  in  his  own  thoughts — yet  withal 
never  forgetful  to  return  the  salutation  of  the  lowliest,  or 
to  speak  a  kindly  word  to  the  children  who  loved  to  throng 
around  him.  This  is  al-Amin,  "  the  Trusty."  He  has  so 
honourably  and  industriously  walked  through  life,  that  he 
has  won  for  himself  from  his  compatriots  the  noble  designa- 
tion of  the  true  and  trusty.     But  now,  owing  to  his  strange 

'  A  scarf  thrown  over  the  head  usually  covering  the  turban,  and  brought 
round  under  the  chin  and  passed  over  the  left  shoulder. 
S.I,  A 


7.  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

preaching,  his  fellow-townsmen  are  beginning  to  look 
suspiciously  upon  him  as  a  wild  visionary,  a  crazed  revolutionist, 
desirous  of  levelling  the  old  landmarks  of  society,  of  doing 
away  with  their  ancient  privileges,  of  making  them  abandon 
their  old  creeds  and  customs. 

Mecca  was,  at  this  time,  a  city  of  considerable  importance  and 
note  among  the  townships  of  Arabia,  both  from  its  associations 
and  its  position.  Situated  in  a  low-lying  valley  stretching 
north  to  south,  bordered  on  the  west  by  a  range  of  hills,  on  the 
east  by  high  granite  rocks — the  Kaaba  in  its  centre,  its  regular 
and  paved  streets,  its  fortified  houses,  its  public  hall  opening 
on  to  the  platform  of  the  temple,  the  city  presented  an  unusual 
appearance  of  prosperity  and  strength.  The  guardianship  of 
the  Kaaba,  originally  an  appanage  of  the  children  of  Ishmael, 
had  in  consequence  of  the  Babylonian  attack,  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Jurhumites.  The  combination  of  the  secular  and 
rehgious  power  enabled  the  chiefs  of  the  Bani-Jurhum  to  assume 
the  title  of  malik  or  king.  In  the  early  part  of  the  third  century 
the  Jurhumites  were  overwhelmed  by  the  irruption  of  a  Kahta- 
nite  tribe,  called  the  Bani-Khuza'a,  who,  issuing  from  Yemen, 
possessed  themselves  of  Mecca  and  the  southern  parts  of 
Hijaz.  In  the  meantime,  the  race  of  Ishmael,  which  had  i 
suffered .  so  terribly  at  the  hands  of  the  Babylonian  king,  was  ' 
gradually  regaining  its  former  strength.  'Adnan,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Ishmael,  who  flourished  about  the  first  century 
before  Christ,  had,  like  his  ancestor,  married  the  daughter  of  the  | 
Jurhumite  chief,  and  estabhshed  himself  at  Mecca,  and  his  son 
Ma'add  became  the  real  progenitor  of  the  Ishmaelites  inhabit- 
ing Hijaz  and  Najd.  Fihr,  surnamed  Koreish,  a  descendant 
of  Ma'add,  who  flourished  in  the  third  century,  was  the  ancestor 
of  the  tribe  which  gave  to  Arabia  her  Prophet  and  Legislator. 

The  Khuzaites  remained  in  possession  of  the  temple,  and  of 
all  the  pre-eminence  it  conferred  on  them,  for  more  than  two 
centuries.  Upon  the  death  of  Holayl,  the  last  of  the  Khuzaite 
chiefs,  Kossay,  a  descendant  of  Fihr,i  who  had  married  Holayl's 
daughter,  drove  the  Khuzaites  out  of  Mecca,  and  possessedij 

1  Kossay  was  the  fifth  in  descent  from  Fihr,  and  was  born  about  398  a.c. 
The  word  Koreish  is  derived  from  Karash,  to  trade,  as  Fihr  and  his  descendants: 
were  addicted  to  commerce. 


I.  KOSSAY— THE  FOUNDER  OF  MECCA  3 

himself  of  the  entire  power,  both  secular  and  religious,  in  the 
city,  and  thus  became  the  virtual  ruler  of  Hijaz.^  We  now 
arrive  on  absolutely  historical  grounds. 

Kossay  appears  to  have  made  himself  the  master  of  Mecca 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
he  at  once  set  himself  to  the  task  of  placing  the  administration 
of  the  city  upon  an  organised  basis.  Until  Kossay's  time,  the 
different  Koreishite  families  had  lived  dispersed  in  separate 
quarters,  at  considerable  distances  from  the  Kaaba,  and  the 
extreme  sanctity  they  attached  to  the  temple  had  prevented 
their  erecting  any  habitation  in  its  neighbourhood.  Perceiving 
the  dangers  to  which  the  national  pantheon  was  exposed  from 
its  unprotected  condition,  he  induced  the  Koreish  to  settle  in 
its  vicinity,  leaving  a  sufficient  space  free  on  the  four  sides  of 
the  temple  for  the  tawdf  (circumambulation) .  The  families,  to 
whom  the  lands  were  allotted,  dwelt  in  strongly  fortified  quarters. 
Kossay  built  for  himself  a  palace,  the  door  of  which  opened 
on  the  platform  of  the  temple.  This  palace  was  called  the  Dan. 
P'^l-Nadwd,^  "  the  council  hall,"  where,  under  the  presidency  of 
Kossay,  public  affairs  were  discussed  and  transacted.  To  this 
hall,  no  man  under  the  age  of  forty,  unless  a  descendant  of 
Kossay,  could  gain  admission.  Here  also  were  performed  all 
civil  functions.  At  the  Ddr  un-Nadwd,  the  Koreishites,  when 
about  to  engage  in  a  war,  received  from  the  hands  of  Kossay 
the  standard,  liwa.  Kossay  himself  attached  to  the  end  of  a 
lance  a  piece  of  white  stuff,  and  handed  it,  or  sent  it  by  one  of 
his  sons,  to  the  Koreishite  chiefs.  This  ceremony,  called  the 
Akd  ul-liwa,  continued  in  vogue  from  the  time  of  its  inaugura- 
tion by  Kossay  until  the  very  end  of  the  Arab  empire.  Another 
of  Kossay's  institutions  endured  much  longer.  By  representing 
to  the  Koreish  the  necessity  of  providing  food  for  the  poor 
pilgrims  who  annually  visited  Mecca,  and  by  impressing  on 
them  the  duties  of  hospitality,  Kossay  succeeded  in  making 
them  submit  to  the  payment  of  an  annual  poor-tax,  called  the 
Rifdda,  which  he  applied  in  feeding  the  poorer  pilgrims  during 

'  The  next  we  hear  of  the  Khuzrdtcs  is  wlion  t)ie   Koreish  invoked  tlicir 
assistance  against  the  Prophet. 

-  This  building,  after  having  been  renewed  several  times,  was  ultimately 
converted  into  a  mosque,  under  Abdul  Malik  II.  (one  of  the  Ommeyyades). 


4  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

the  Ayydm  id-Mind  ^ — the  day  of  the  sacrificial  feast,  and  the 
two  following  days  which  they  passed  at  Mina.  This  usage 
continued  after  the  establishment  of  Islam,  and  was  the  origin 
of  the  distribution  of  food  which  was  made  at  Mina  each  year 
during  the  pilgrimage,  in  the  name  of  the  Caliphs  and  the 
Sultans,  their  successors.  The  words  nadwa,  liwa  and  rifdda 
denote  the  functions  exercised  by  Kossay,  being  the  right  of 
convoking  and  presiding  at  the  council  of  the  nation,  of  bestow- 
ing the  standard, — the  symbol  of  military  command, — and  of 
levying  imposts,  raised  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  food  to 
the  pilgrims.  With  these  dignities,  Kossay  also  held  the 
administration  of  the  water  supplied  by  the  wells  in  Mecca  and 
its  neighbourhood  [sikdya)  and  the  custody  of  the  keys  of  the 
Kaaba  {hijdha),  with  the  ministration  to  the  worship  of  the  gods. 

Kossay  thus  united  in  his  own  person  all  the  principal 
religious,  civil,  and  political  functions.  He  was  king,  magistrate 
and  chief  pontiff.  His  power,  which  was  almost  royal,  threw 
great  lustre  on  the  tribe  of  Koreish,  of  whom  he  was  the 
acknowledged  chief,  and  from  his  time  the  Koreish  acquired 
a  marked  preponderance  among  the  other  descendants  of 
Ishmael. 

Kossay  died  at  an  advanced  age,  about  the  year  480  A.c. 

He  had  in  his  lifetime  designated  his  eldest  son  Abd  ud-Dar 
as  his  successor,  and  after  his  death  the  son  succeeded  quietly, 
and  without  dispute,  to  the  high  position  of  the  father.  Upon 
the  death  of  Abd  ud-Dar,  serious  disputes  broke  out  between 
his  grandchildren  and  the  sons  of  Abd(u)Manaf,  his  brother. 
The  various  clans  and  their  allies  and  neighbours  ranged 
themselves  on  opposite  sides.  The  dispute,  however,  was 
amicably  settled  for  the  time.  By  the  compromise  thus 
effected,  the  sikdya  and  the  rifdda  were  intrusted  to  Abd 
US-Shams,  the  son  of  Abd(u)Manaf,  whilst  the  hijdha,  nadwa, 
and  liwa  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  children  of  Abd  ud-Dar. 
Abd  US-Shams,  who  was  comparatively  a  poor  man,  transferred 
the  duties  which  had  been  intrusted  to  him  to  his  brother 
Hashim,  a  man  of  great  consequence  as  well  as  riches  among 
the  Koreish.  Hashim  was  the  receiver  of  the  tax  imposed 
on  the  Koreishites  by  Kossay  for  the  support  of  the  pilgrims, 

1  Mina  (the  '  i  '  is  pronounced  very  short)  is  a  suburb  of  Mecca. 


I.  KOSSAY— THE  FOUNDER  OF  MECCA  5 

and  the  income  derived  from  their  contributions  joined  to  his 
own  resources,  was  employed  in  providing  food  to  the 
strangers  who  congregated  at  Mecca  during  the  season  of  the 
pilgrimage. 

Like  the  majority  of  the  Meccans,  Hashim  was  engaged  in 
commerce.  It  was  he  who  founded  among  the  Koreishites  the 
custom  of  sending  out  regularly  from  Mecca  two  caravans,  one 
in  winter  to  Yemen,  and  the  other  in  summer  to  Syria.  Hashim 
died  in  the  course  of  one  of  his  expeditions  into  Syria,  in  the 
city  of  Ghazza,  about  the  year  510  a.c,  leaving  an  only  son, 
named  Shayba,  by  an  Yathribite  lady  of  the  name  of  Salma. 
The  charge  of  the  rifdda  and  the  sikdya  passed,  upon  his  death, 
to  his  younger  brother  Muttalib,  who  had  won  for  himself  a 
high  place  in  the  estimation  of  his  compatriots,  and  the  noble 
designation  of  al-Faiz  (the  Generous)  by  his  worth  and  munifi- 
cence. Muttalib  brought  Shayba,  the  white-haired  youth,  from 
Yathrib,  to  Mecca.  Mistaking  Shayba  for  a  slave  of  Muttalib, 
the  Meccans  called  him  Abd  ul-Muttalib  and  history  recognises 
the  grandfather  of  the  Prophet  under  no  other  name  than  that 
of  Ahcl  ul-Muttalib,  "  the  slave  of  Muttalib."  ^ 

Muttalib  died  at  Kazwan,  in  Yemen,  towards  the  end  of  520 
A.c,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  as  the 
virtual  head  of  the  Meccan  commonwealth.  The  government 
of  Mecca  was  at  this  time  vested  in  the  hands  of  an  oligarchy 
composed  of  the  leading  members  of  the  house  of  Kossay. 
After  the  discovery  of  the  sacred  well  of  Zemzem  by  Abd  ul- 
Muttalib,  and  the  settlement  of  the  disputes  regarding  its 
superintendence,  the  governing  body  consisted  of  ten  senators, 
who  were  styled  Sharif s.  These  decemvirs  occupied  the  first 
place  in  the  State,  and  their  offices  were  hereditary  in  favour 
of  the  eldest  member,  or  chief,  of  each  family.  These  dignities 
were — 

(i).  The  Hijdha,  the  guardianship  of  the  keys  of  the  Kaaba, 
a  sacerdotal  office  of  considerable  rank.  It  had  been  allotted  to 
the  house  of  Abd  ud-Dar,  and  at  the  time  when  Mecca  was 
converted  to  Islam,  it  was  held  by  Osman,  the  son  of  Talha. 

*  Of  the  sons  of  Abd(u)Manaf,  Hashim  died  first,  at  Ghazza;  then  died 
Abd  ush-Shams  at  Mecca  ;  then  Muttahb  at  Kazwan  ;  and  lastly,  Naufal, 
some  time  after  Muttalib,  at  Silman,  in  Irfdc. 


6  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

(2).  The  Sikdya,  or  the  intendance  of  the  sacred  wells  of 
Zemzem,  and  of  all  the  water  destmed  for  the  use  of  the  pil- 
grims. This  dignity  belonged  to  the  house  of  Hashim,  and  was 
held  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Mecca,  by  Abbas,  the 
uncle  of  the  Prophet. 

(3).  The  Diyat,  or  the  civil  and  criminal  magistracy,  which 
had,  for  a  long  time,  belonged  to  the  house  of  Taym  ibn- 
Murra,  and,  at  the  time  of  the  Prophet's  advent,  was  held  by 
Abdullah  ibn-Kuhafa,  surnamed  Abu  Bakr. 

(4).  The  Sifdrah,  or  legation.  The  person  to  whom  this 
office  belonged  was  the  plenipotentiary  of  the  State,  authorised 
to  discuss  and  settle  the  differences  which  arose  between  the 
Koreish  and  the  other  Arab  tribes,  as  also  with  strangers. 
This  office  was  held  by  Omar. 

(5).  The  Liwa,  or  the  custody  of  the  standard  under  which 
the  nation  marched  against  its  enemies.  The  guardian  of  this 
standard  was  the  general-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  of  the  State. 
This  military  charge  appertained  to  the  house  of  Ommeyya, 
and  was  held  by  Abu  Sufian,  the  son  of  Harb,  the  most  im- 
placable enemy  of  Mohammed. 

(6).  The  Rifdda,  or  the  administration  of  the  poor  tax. 
Formed  with  the  alms  of  the  nation,  it  was  employed  to  provide 
food  for  the  poor  pilgrims,  whether  travellers  or  residents, 
whom  the  State  regarded  as  the  guests  of  God.  This  duty, 
after  the  death  of  Abu  Talib,  upon  whom  it  had  devolved 
after  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  was  transferred  to  the  house  of  Naufal, 
son  of  Abd(u)Manaf,  and  was  held  at  the  time  of  the  Prophet 
by  Harith,  son  of  Amr. 

(7).  The  Nadwa,  the  presidency  of  the  national  assembly. 
The  holder  of  this  office  was  the  first  councillor  of  the  State, 
and  under  his  advice  all  public  acts  were  transacted.  Aswad, 
of  the  house  of  Abd  ul-'Uzza,  son  of  Kossay,  held  this  dignity 
at  the  time  of  the  Prophet. 

(8).  The  Kha'immeh,  the  guardianship  of  the  council  chamber. 
This  function,  which  conferred  upon  the  incumbent  the  right 
of  convoking  the  assembly,  and  even  of  calling  to  arms  the 
troops,  was  held  by  Khalid,  son  of  Walid,  of  the  house  of 
Yakhzum,  son  of  Marra. 

(9).  Khdzina,  or  the  administration  of  the  pubHc  finances. 


r.  THE  KOREISHITE  OLIGARCHY  7 

belonged  to  the  house  of  Hasan,  son  of  Kaab,  and  was  held  by 
Harith,  son  of  Kais. 

(10).  The  Azldm}  the  guardianship  of  the  divining  arrows  by 
which  the  judgment  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  was  obtained. 
Safwan,  brother  of  Abu  Sufian,  held  this  dignity.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  an  established  custom  that  the  oldest  member 
exercised  the  greatest  influence,  and  bore  the  title  of  Rais  or 
Syed,  chief  and  lord  par  excellence.  Abbas  was  at  the  time 
of  the  Prophet  the  first  of  these  senators. 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  distribution  of  privilege  and  power, 
the  personal  character  and  influence  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib  gave 
him  an  undoubted  pre-eminence.  The  venerable  patriarch, 
who  had,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  his  nation,  vowed 
to  the  deities  of  the  Kaaba  the  sacrifice  of  one  of  his  male 
children,  was  blessed  with  a  numerous  progeny .2  And  in 
fulfilment  of  his  vow  he  proceeded  to  offer  up  to  the  inexorable 
gods  of  his  temple  the  hfe  of  his  best  beloved  son,  Abdullah. 
But  this  was  not  to  be.  The  sacrifice  of  the  human  life  was 
commuted,  by  the  voice  of  the  Pythia  attached  to  the  temple, 
to  a  hundred  camels — thenceforth  the  fixed  Wehrgeld,  or  price 
of  blood. 

Abdullah  was  married  to  Amina,  a  daughter  of  Wahb,  the 
chief  of  the  family  of  Zuhri.  The  year  following  the  marriage 
of  Abdullah  was  full  of  momentous  events.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  year  the  whole  of  Arabia  was  startled  by  an  event  which 
sent  a  thrill  through  the  nation.  Abraha  al- Ashram,  the 
Abyssinian  viceroy  of  Yemen,  had  built  a  church  at  San'a,  and 
was  anxious  to  divert  into  his  own  city  the  wealth  which  the 
sanctity  of  the  Kaaba  attracted  to  Mecca.  The  desecration 
of  the  church  by  a  Meccan  furnished  him  with  an  ostensible 

^  With  a  J   [zay),  plural  of  zalam. 

*  Abd  ul-Muttalib  had  twelve  sons  and  six  daughters.  Of  the  sons,  Harith, 
born  towards  a.c.  538,  was  the  eldest  ;  the  others  were  Abd  ul-'Uzza,  alias  Abii 
Lahah,  the  persecutor  of  the  Prophet  ;  Abd(u)  Manaf,  better  known  as  AbH 
Tdlib  (born  in  a.c.  540,  died  in  620  a.c.)  ;  Zubair  and  Abduli  ah  (54.5),  born 
of  Fatima,  the  daughter  of  'Amr,  the  Makhzumi ;  Dhirar  and  Abbas  (566  652), 
born  of  Xutayla  ;  Mukawwim,  Jahm,  surnamed  al-Ghaydak  (the  liberal),  and 
Hamzah,  born  of  Hala.  The  daughters  were  Atika,  O'mayma,  Arwa,  Barra, 
and  Umm-i-Hakim,  surnamed  al-Bayza  (the  fair),  by  Fatima,  and  Safiya,  born 
of  Hala,  who  married  Awwam,  the  grandfather  of  the  famous  Abdullah  ibn- 
Zubair,  who  played  such  an  important  part  in  the  histoiy  of  Islam.  The 
names  of  the  other  two  sons  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib  are  not  known,  probabh' 
because  they  left  no  posterity. 


8  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

motive,  and  he  marched  a  large  army  to  the  destruction  of  the 
temple,  himself  riding  at  the  head  of  his  troops  on  a  magnifi- 
cently caparisoned  elephant.     The  sight  of  the  huge  animal 
striding  solemnly  in  the  midst  of  the  vast  force  so  struck  the 
imagination  of  the  Arabian  tribes,  that  they  dated  an  era 
from  this  event,  and  named  it  as  the  Era  of  the  Elephant  (570 
A.c).     On  the  approach  of  the  Abyssinians,  the  Koreish,  with 
their  women  and  children,  retired  to  the  neighbouring  moun-   , 
tains,  and  from  there  watched  the  course  of  affairs,  hoping  all 
the  while  that  the  deities  of  the  Kaaba  would  defend  their 
dwelling  place.     The  morning  dawned  brightly  as  the  Abys-  t 
sinians  advanced  towards  Mecca,  when,  lo  and  behold,  say  the  .1 
traditionists,  the  sky  was  suddenly  overcast  by  an  enormous 
flight   of   small   birds,    swallows,   which   poured   small   stones 
over  the  ill-fated  army.     These  stones,  penetrating  through  I 
the  armour  of  men  and  horses,  created  terrible  havoc  among  ■ 
the  invaders.     At  the  same  time  the  flood-gates  of  heaven 
were  opened,  and  there  burst  forth  torrents  of  rain,  carrying 
away  the  dead  and  dying  towards  the  sea.  { 

Abraha  fled  to  San 'a  covered  with  wounds,  and  died  there  * 
soon  after  his  arrival.  Ibn-Hisham,  after  narrating  this 
prodigy,  adds,  "  it  was  in  the  same  year  that  small-pox  mani- 
fested itself  for  the  first  time  in  Arabia."  "  This  indication 
explains  the  miracle,"  says  Caussin  de  Perceval.  One  can 
well  understand  the  annihilation  of  Abraha's  army  by  some 
terrible  epidemic,  similar  to  the  fate  which  overtook  Senna- 
cherib, to  which  was  joined  perhaps  one  of  those  grand  down- 
pours of  rain  which  often  produce  terrible  inundations  in  the 
valley  of  Mecca. 

Shortly  after  this  event,  Abdullah  died  in  the  course  of  a  j 
journey  to  Yathrib,  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age.^  And, ' 
a  few  days  after,  the  afflicted  wife  gave  birth  to  a  son  who  was 
named  Mohammed.  Mohammed  was  born  on  the  12th  of 
Rabi  L,  in  the  year  of  the  Elephant,  a  little  more  than  fifty 
days  after  the  destruction  of  the  Abyssinian  army,  or  the  29th 
of  August  570.2     His  birth,  they  say,  was  attended  with  signs 

1  He  was  buried  in  th  e  quarter  occupied  by  the  sons  of '  Adi,  his  maternal  uncles. 
^  Towards  the  end  of  the  fortieth  year  of  the  reign  of  Kesra  Anushirvun, 
and  the  end  of  the  year  880  of  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae. 


d 


I.  THE  CHILDHOOD  OF  MOHAMMED  9 

and  portents  from  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  could  know 
that  the  DeHverer  had  appeared.  The  rationahstic  historian 
smiles,  the  religious  controversialist,  who,  upon  a  priori  reason- 
ing, accepts  without  comment  the  accounts  of  the  wise  men 
following  the  star,  scoffs  at  these  marvels.  To  the  critical 
student,  whose  heart  is  not  devoid  of  sympathy  with  earHer 
modes  of  thought,  and  who  is  not  biased  with  pre-conceived 
notions,  "  the  portents  and  signs  "  which  the  Moslem  says 
attended  the  birth  of  his  Prophet  are  facts  deserving  of  historical 
analysis.  We,  moderns,  perceive,  in  the  ordinary  incidents 
in  the  lives  of  nations  and  individuals,  the  current  of  an 
irresistible  law  ;  what  wonder  then  that  1400  years  ago  they 
perceived  in  the  fall  of  a  nation's  memorial  the  finger  of  God, 
pointing  to  the  inevitable  destiny,  which  was  to  overtake  it 
in  its  iniquity.  In  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  Arabs, 
the  child  was  confided  during  his  early  infancy  to  a  Bedouin 
woman  ^  of  the  tribe  of  Bani-Sa'd,  a  branch  of  the  Hawazin, 
and  upon  being  returned  by  her  to  his  mother,  was  brought 
up  by  Amina  with  the  tenderest  care.  But  she  died  not  long 
after,  and  the  doubly-orphaned  child  was  thus  thrown  upon 
the  care  of  his  grandfather,  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  who,  during  the 
few  years  that  he  survived  the  mother,  watched  his  grandson 
with  the  utmost  tenderness.  But  nothing  could  make  up  for 
the  loss  of  that  parental  care  and  love  which  are  the  blessings 
of  childhood.  His  father  had  died  before  he  was  born.  He 
was  bereft  of  his  mother  when  only  six  years  of  age,  and  this 
irreparable  loss  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  mind  of  the 
sensitive  child.  Three  or  four  years  later  he  lost  his  grand- 
father also.  Abd  ul-Muttalib  died  towards  the  year  579 
A.c.,2  shortly  after  his  return  from  a  journey  to  San'a,  where  he 
had  gone  as  the  representative  of  the  Koreish  to  congratulate 

^  In  after  life,  when  this  poor  Bedouin  woman  was  brought  by  the  Koreish 
as  a  captive  to  Mecca,  Mohammed  recognised  her  with  tears  of  joy,  and 
obtained  for  her  from  his  rich  wife  an  ample  provision  for  her  life. 

^  Of  the  two  duties  of  the  Sikaya  and  Rifdda  held  by  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  the 
Sikdya,  with  the  custody  of  the  Zemzem,  passed  to  his  son  Abbas.  The 
second  devolved  on  Abu  Talib,  who  enjoyed  at  Mecca  great  authority  and 
consideration.  Abu  Talib,  however,  did  not  transmit  the  Rifdda  to  his 
children.  This  dignity  was  transferred,  upon  his  death,  to  the  branch  of 
Naufal,  son  of  Abd(u)  Manaf  ;  and  at  the  time  Mecca  surrendered  to  the 
Prophet,  Harith,  the  son  of  'Amr,  and  the  grandson  of  Naufal,  exerci.sed,  as 
we  ha\e  said  before,  the  functions  of  the  Rifdda  ;  Zaini,  vol.  i.  p.  14. 


10  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

Saif  the  son  of  Zu'l  Yezen  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  the 
Tobbas,  with  the  help  of  the  Persians.  ; 

With  the  death  of  Abd  ul-Muttahb  opens  another  epoch  in    ! 
the  Hfe  of  the  orphan.     On  his  death-bed  the  old  grandfather   ' 
had  confided  to  Abu  TaUb  the  charge  of  his  brother's  child,    ; 
and  in  the  house  of  Abu  Talib  Mohammed  passed  his  early  life. 
We  can  almost  see  the  lad  with  his  deep  wistful  eyes,  earnest 
and   thoughtful,    looking,    as   it   were,   into   futurity,   moving 
about  in  the  humble  unpretentious  household  of  his  uncle,  or 
going  often  into  the  desert  to  gaze  upon  the  beauteous  face  of   j 
nature  ;    sweet  and  gentle  of  disposition,  painfully  sensitive  to   { 
human  suffering,  this  pure-hearted  child  of  the  desert  was  the   | 
beloved  of  his  small  circle,  and  there  ever  existed  the  warmest   j 
attachment  between  uncle  and  nephew.     "  The  angels  of  God  j 
had  opened  out  his  heart,  and  filled  it  with  light."     His  early 
life  was  not  free  from  the  burden  of  labour.     He  had  often  to  go  ! 
into  the  desert  to  watch  the  flocks  of  his  uncle.     The  princely  j 
munificence  of  Hashim  and  Abd  ul-Muttalib  had  told  upon  the 
fortunes  of  their  heirs,  and  the  Hashimites,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  means,  were  fast  losing  their  commanding  position.     The 
duty  of  providing  the  pilgrims  with  food  was  given  up  to  the 
rival  branch  of  Ommeyya,  who  had  always  entertained  the 
bitterest  jealousy  towards  the  children  of  Hashim. 

Mohammed  was  but  a  child  when  the  "  Sacrilegious  Wars  " 
— the  Ghazwat  ul-Fijdr,  which  continued  with  varying  fortunes 
and  considerable  loss  of  human  life  for  a  number  of  years — 
broke  out  at  'Ukaz  between  the  Koreish  and  the  Bani-Kinana 
on  one  side,  and  the  Kais-Aylan  on  the  other.  'Ukaz  lies 
between  Tayef  and  Nakhla,  three  short  journeys  from  Mecca. 
At  this  place,  famous  in  Arab  history,  was  held  a  great  annual 
fair  in  the  sacred  month  of  Zu'1-ka'da,  when  it  was  forbidden  to 
engage  in  war  or  shed  human  blood  in  anger — "  a  sort  of  God's 
truce."  Other  fairs  were  held  at  Majna  near  Marr  uz-Zuhran, 
not  far  from  Mecca,  and  at  Zu'l  Majaz  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
'Arafat ;  but  the  gathering  at  'Ukaz  was  a  great  national  affair. 
Here,  in  the  sacred  month,  when  all  enmity  and  tribal  vendetta 
was  supposed  to  lie  buried  for  the  time,  flowed  from  all  parts 
of  Arabia  and  even  more  distant  lands,  the  commerce  of  the 
world.     Here  came  the  merchants  of  "  Araby  the  blest,"  of 


I.  THE  CHILDHOOD  OF  MOHAMMED  ii 

Hijaz,  of  Najd  ;  the  poet-heroes  of  the  desert ;  and  the  actors, 
often  disguised  from  the  avengers  of  blood,  in  masks  or  veils, 
to  recite  their  poems  and  win  the  applause  of  the  nations 
gathered  there.  'Ukaz  was  "  the  Olympia  of  Arabia "  ; 
here  they  came,  not  for  trade  only,  but  to  sing  of  their  prowess, 
of  their  glory — to  display  their  poetical  and  literary  talents. 
The  Kasidas,  which  won  the  admiration  of  the  assembled 
multitude,  were  inscribed  in  letters  of  gold  {Muzahhahdt,  golden), 
and  hung  up  in  the  national  pantheon  as  a  memorial  to  posterity.^ 
During  these  weeks,  'Ukaz  presented  a  gay  scene  of  pleasure 
and  excitement.  But  there  was  also  another  side  to  the  pic- 
ture. The  dancing  women,  like  their  modern  representatives 
the  almas  and  ghawdzin  of  Egypt,  moving  from  tent  to  tent, 
exciting  the  impetuous  son  of  the  desert  by  their  songs  and  their 
merriment  ;  the  congregation  of  Corinthians,  who  did  not 
even  pretend  to  the  calling  of  music  ;  the  drunken  orgies, 
frequently  ending  in  brawls  and  bloodshed  ;  the  gaming-tables, 
at  which  the  Meccan  gambled  from  night  till  morning  ;  the 
bitter  hatred  and  ill-feeling  evoked  by  the  pointed  personalities 
of  rival  poets,  leading  to  sudden  affrays  and  permanent  and 
disastrous  quarrels,  deepened  the  shadows  of  the  picture,  and 
made  a  vivid  impression  on  the  orphan  child  of  Amina. 

During  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  of  those 
fratricidal  wars,  named  sacrilegious  from  the  violation  of  the 
sanctity  of  the  month  in  which  all  quarrel  was  forbidden, 
Mohammed  accompanied  his  uncle  and  guardian  on  one  of 
his  mercantile  journeys  to  Syria. ^  Here  was  opened  before 
him  a  scene  of  social  misery  and  religious  degradation,  the 
sight  of  which  never  faded  from  his  memory.  Silently  and 
humbly,  with  many  thoughts  in  his  mind,  the  solitary  orphan 
boy  grew  from  childhood  to  youth  and  from  youth  to  manhood. 

Deeply  versed  in  the  legendary  lore  of  his  nation,  education 
in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term  he  had  none.  With  all  his 
affection  for  his  people,  in  his  ways  and  mode  of  thought  he 
seemed  far  removed  from  them,  isolated  in  the  midst  of  a 

'  Hence  also  called  the  Mn'allakdt,  or  "  suspended  poems." 

'  Abu  Talib,   like  his  father  and   grandfather,   carried   on  a  considerable 

trade  with  Syria  and  Yemen.     He  transported  to  Damascus,  to  Basra,  and 

other  places  in  Syria  the  dates  of  Hijaz  and  Hijr  and  the  perfumes  of  Yenaen, 

and  in  return  brought  back  with  him  the  products  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 


12  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

chaotic  society  with  his  eyes  fixed  intently  on  the  moving 
panorama  of  an  effete  and  depraved  age.  The  lawlessness 
rife  among  the  Meccans,  the  sudden  outbursts  of  causeless 
and  sanguinary  quarrels  among  the  tribes  frequenting  the 
fairs  of  'Ukaz,  the  immorality  and  scepticism  of  the  Koreish, 
naturally  caused  feelings  of  intense  horror  and  disgust  in  the  ' 
mind  of  the  sensitive  youth. 

In  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  Mohammed  travelled 
once  more  into  Syria  as  the  factor  or  steward  of  a  noble 
Koreishite  lady  named  Khadija,   a  kinswoman  of  his.     The  ; 
prudence  with  which  he  discharged  his  duties  made  a  favourable 
impression  on  Khadija,  which  gradually  deepened  into  attach- 
ment.    A  marriage,  which  proved  a  singularly  happy  one,  was 
soon  after  arranged  between  Mohammed  and  his  noble  kins-  . 
woman,  and  was  solemnised  amidst  universal  rejoicings.     In  ! 
spite  of  the  disparity  of  age  between  Mohammed  and  his  wife,  • 
who  was  much  the  senior  of  her  husband,  there  always  existed 
the  tenderest  devotion  on  both  sides.     This  marriage  "  brought 
him  that  repose  and  exemption  from  daily  toil  which  he  needed  ; 
in  order  to  prepare  his  mind  for  his  great  work.     But  beyond 
that  it  gave  him  a  loving  woman's  heart,  that  was  the  first  to 
believe  in  his  mission,  that  was  ever  ready  to  console  him  in  his 
despair,  and  to  keep  ahve  within  him  the  thin  flickering  flame 
of  hope  when  no  man  believed  in  him — not  even  himself — and 
the  world  was  black  before  his  eyes." 

Khadija  is  a  notable  figure,  an  exemplar  among  the  woman- 
hood of  Islam.  The  calumny  which  is  levelled  at  Mohammed's 
system,  that  it  has  degraded  the  female  sex,  is  sufficiently  j 
refuted  by  the  high  position  which  his  wife  and  youngest  daughter,  I 
our  "  Lady  of  Light,"  occupy  in  the  estimation  of  the  Moslem. | 
Khadija  bore  Mohammed  several  children — three  sons  and) 
four  daughters  ;  but  the  sons  all  died  in  infancy,  and  their  loss,' 
which  wrung  the  heart  of  the  bereaved  father  so  tenderly  and; 
devotedly  attached  to  them,  supplied  the  hostile  Koreish  lateri 
with  an  abusive  epithet  to  apply  to  the  Prophet.^  Theii 
daughters  long  survived  the  new  Dispensation.  With  the; 
exception  of  an  occasional  appearance  in  public  when  the; 
exigencies  of  his  position  or  the  necessities  of  the  city  of  his:i 

1  Al-abtar,  literally  without  a  tail  ;   in  its  secondary  sense,  one  without  issue. 


I.  THE  PERIOD  OF  PROBATION  13 

birth  demanded  it,  the  next  fifteen  years  after  his  marriage  is  a 
silent  record  of  introspection,  preparation,  and  spiritual  com- 
munion. Since  the  death  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib  authority  in 
Mecca  had  become  more  or  less  divided.  Each  of  the  senators 
enjoyed  a  somewhat  hmited  authority,  and  among  the  different 
functions  there  was  no  such  institution  as  a  magistracy  to 
insure  the  peaceable  enjoyment  by  individuals  of  their  rights 
and  property.  The  ties  of  blood  and  family  esprit  de  corps 
afforded  some  degree  of  protection  to  every  citizen  against 
injustice  and  spohation,  but  strangers  were  exposed  to  all  kinds 
of  oppression.  They  would  often  find  themselves  robbed,  not 
only  of  their  goods  and  chattels,  but  also  of  their  wives  and 
daughters.  A  famous  poet  of  the  name  of  Hanzala  of  the 
tribe  of  Bani'l  Kayn,  better  known  as  Abu  Tamahan,  was 
publicly  robbed  in  the  streets  of  Mecca,  notwithstanding  that 
he  had  entered  the  city  as  a  client  of  a  Koreishite  notable, 
Abdullah  ibn  Juda'an.  Another  similar  act  of  lawlessness 
brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  At  the  instance  of  Mohammed, 
the  descendants  of  Hashim  and  of  Muttalib  and  the  principal 
members  of  the  family  of  Zuhra  and  Taym  bound  themselves 
by  a  solemn  oath  to  defend  every  individual,  whether  Meccan 
or  stranger,  free  or  slave,  from  any  wrong  or  injustice  to  which 
he  might  be  subjected  in  Meccan  territories,  and  to  obtain 
redress  for  him  from  the  oppressor.  This  chivalrous  league 
received  the  name  of  the  Hilf  ul-Fiizul,  or  the  Federation  of  the 
Fuzul,  in  memory  of  an  ancient  society  instituted  with  a 
similar  object  among  the  Jurhum,  and  composed  of  four 
personages,  named  Fazl,  Fazal,  Muffazzal,  and  Fuzail,  col- 
lectively Fuzul.  Mohammed  was  the  principal  member  of  this 
new  association,  which  was  founded  about  595  A.c,  shortly  after 
his  marriage.  "The  League  of  the  Fuzul"  exercised  efftcient 
protection  over  the  weak  and  oppressed,  and  during  the  first 
year  of  its  institution  the  simple  threat  of  its  intervention  was 
sufficient  to  repress  the  lawlessness  of  the  strong,  and  to  afford 
redress  to  the  helpless.  The  League  continued  to  exist  in  full 
force  for  the  first  half-century  of  Islam.  It  was  some  years 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Hilf  ul-FiizM,  and  towards  the 
commencement  of  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
that  an  attempt  was  made  by  Osman,  son  of  Huwairith,  backed 


14  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

by  Byzantine  gold,  to  convert  Hijaz  into  a  Roman  dependency. 
His  attempt  failed  chiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Mohammed,  and  Osman  was  obliged  to  fly  into  Syria,  where 
he  was  subsequently  poisoned  by  'Amr,  the  Ghassanide  prince. 
In  605  A.c,  when  Mohammed  was  thirty-five,  the  Koreish  took 
in  hand  the  reconstruction  of  the  Kaaba.  In  the  course  of  this 
work  a  dispute  among  the  different  famihes  engaged  in  the 
building  of  the  temple,  which  at  one  time  seemed  likely  to 
lead  to  great  bloodshed,  was  happily  settled  by  the  ready 
intervention  of  Mohammed.  These  are  all  we  know  of  his 
public  acts  within  these  fifteen  years.  His  gentle  disposition,  his 
austerity  of  conduct,  the  severe  purity  of  his -life,  his  scrupu- 
lous refinement,  his  ever-ready  helpfulness  towards  the  poor  and 
the  weak,  his  noble  sense  of  honour,  his  unflinching  fidehty, 
his  stern  sense  of  duty  had  won  him,  among  his  compatriots, 
the  high  and  enviable  designation  of  al-Amin,  the  Trusty. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  he  tried  to  discharge  some  portion 
of  the  debt  of  gratitude  and  obligation  he  owed  his  uncle  Abu 
Talib,  by  charging  himself  with  the  education  of  AH,  one  of 
his  sons.  Abu  Talib's  endeavour  to  maintain  the  old  position 
of  his  family  had  considerably  straitened  his  circumstances. 
Mohammed,  rich  by  his  alhance  with  Khadija,  and  Abbas, 
the  brother  of  Abu  Talib,  were  the  most  opulent  citizens  of 
Mecca.  During  a  severe  famine  which  afflicted  the  country, 
Mohammed  persuaded  his  uncle  Abbas,  to  adopt  one  of  the  sons 
of  Abu  Talib,  whilst  he  adopted  another.  Thus  Abbas  took 
Ja'far  ;  Mohammed,  AH,  and  'Akil  remained  with  his  father.^ 
Mohammed  had  lost  all  his  sons  in  early  infancy.  In  the 
love  of  AH  he  found  some  consolation  for  their  loss  ;  and  the 
future  marriage  of  the  son  of  Abu  Talib  with  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Mohammed,  Fatima,^  sealed  the  bond  of  love 
and  devotedness. 

Mohammed  about  this  time  set  an  example  to  his  fellow- 
citizens  by  an  act  of  humanity  which  created  a  salutary  effect 
upon  his  people.  A  young  Arab  of  the  name  of  Zaid,  son  of 
Harith,  was  brought  as  a  captive  to  Mecca  by  a  hostile  tribe, 

Mbn-Hisham,  p.  109;  al-Halabi, /«sa«-«/-' [/;')«",  vol.  212;  Ibn  ul-Athir, 
vol.  ii.  p.  42. 

^  Born  in  606  A.c. 


I.  THE  PERIOD  OF  COMMUNION  15 

and  sold  to  a  nephew  of  Khadija,  who  presented  the  young 
lad  to  her.  Mohammed  obtained  Zaid  as  a  gift  from  Khadija, 
and  immediately  enfranchised  him.  This  kindness  on  the  one 
side  gave  rise  to  absolute  devotion  on  the  other,  and  the  Arab 
boy  could  not  be  induced,  even  by  his  own  father,  to  return 
to  his  tribe  or  forsake  Mohammed. 

Thus  passed  the  fifteen  years  of  trial  and  probation,  years 
marked  by  many  afflictions  and  yet  full  of  sympathy  with 
human  suffering  and  sorrow. 

Before  him  lay  his  country,  bleeding  and  torn  by  fratricidal 
wars  and  inter-tribal  dissensions,  his  people  sunk  in  ignorance, 
addicted  to  obscene  rites  and  superstitions,  and,  with  all  their 
desert  virtues,  lawless  and  cruel.  His  two  visits  to  Syria  had 
opened  to  him  a  scene  of  unutterable  moral  and  social  desola- 
tion ;  rival  creeds  and  sects  tearing  each  other  to  pieces, 
wrangling  over  the  body  of  the  God  they  pretended  to  worship, 
carrying  their  hatred  to  the  valleys  and  deserts  of  Hijaz,  and 
rending  the  townships  of  Arabia  with  their  quarrels  and 
bitterness.  The  picture  before  him  was  one  of  dreary  hope- 
lessness. The  few  who,  abandoning  their  ancient  behefs,  were 
groping  in  the  dark  for  some  resting-place,  represented  a 
general  feeling  of  unrest.^  In  their  minds  there  was  nothing 
capable  of  appealing  to  the  humanity  beyond  themselves. 
Mohammed's  soul  was  soaring  aloft,  trying  to  peer  into  the 
mysteries  of  creation,  of  life  and  death,  of  good  and  evil,  to 
find  order  out  of  chaos.  And  God's  words  uttered  to  his  soul 
became  at  last  the  life-giving  power  of  the  world.  For  years 
after  his  marriage  it  had  been  his  wont  to  betake  himself, 
sometimes  with  his  family,  at  other  times  alone,  for  prayer 
and  meditation  to  a  cave  on  the  Mount  Hira,^  "  a  huge  barren 

'  Four  men,  Zaid,  Waraka,  son  of  Naufal  and  a  cousin  of  Khadija,  and  two 
others  (Obaidullah  and  Osman),  abandoning  the  fetishism  of  their  countrymen, 
had  betaken  themselves  to  a  search  for  the  true  faith.  Zaid  was  the  principal 
person  among  them.  Before  the  Prophet  retired  into  the  wilderness,  like 
Jesus,  to  commune  with  God,  he  had  come  in  contact  with  Zaid,  and  learnt 
to  esteem  his  abhorrence  of  idolatry.  When  Zaid's  cousin  asked  the  Prophet 
in  later  times  to  supplicate  divine  mercy  for  him,  Mohammed,  who  would  not 
pray  for  his  own  grandfather,  as  he  had  died  in  idolatry,  willingly  did  .so  for 
Zaid. — Ibn-Hisham,  p.  145. 

2  Now  called  the  Mount  of  Light.  Ibn-Hisham,  Ibn  ul-Athir,  and  Abulfeda 
mention  the  month  of  Kamazan  as  the  month  which  Mohammed  usually 
spent  at  Hira  in  prayer  and  the  succour  of  the  poor  and  famished  wayfarers 
of  the  desert.     Tabari  mentions  Kajab. 


i6  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

rock,  torn  by  cleft  and  hollow  ravine,  standing  out  solitary 
in  the  full  white  glare  of  the  desert  sun,  shadowless,  fiowerless, 
without  well  or  rill."  Sohtude  had  indeed  become  a  passion 
with  him.     Here  in  this  cave  he  often  remained  whole  nights 

plunged  in  profoundest  thought,  deep  in  communion  ^  CAisJ^-^i  ) 
with  the  unseen  yet  all-pervading  God  of  the  Universe.  Slowly 
the  heaven  and  earth  fill  with  pre-destined  vision  and  command, 
A  voice  seems  to  issue  even  from  the  inanimate  objects  around 
him,  the  stones  and  rocks  and  trees,  calling  on  him  to  fulfil 
the  task  an  Almighty  Power  was  directing  him  to  undertake. ^ 
Can  the  poetry  of  the  soul  go  further  ?  The  mental  visions 
and  the  apparitions  of  angels  at  these  moments  were  the  bright, 
though  gradual,  dawnings  of  those  truths  with  which  he  was 
to  quicken  the  world  into  life.  Often  in  the  dark  and  benighted 
pathways  of  concrete  existence,  the  soul  of  every  great  man  has 
been  conscious  of  unrealised  yet  not  unseen  influences,  which 
have  led  to  some  of  the  happiest  achievements  of  humanity. 
From  Samuel,  that  ancient  Seer,  wild  and  awful  as  he  stands, 
deep  in  the  misty  horizon  of  the  Past,  to  Jesus  in  the  wilderness, 
pondering  over  the  darksome  fate  of  his  people  and  the  magni- 
tude of  his  work,  listening  to  the  gentle  accents  of  the  God  of 
Truth, — from  Jesus  to  Mohammed  in  the  sohtude  of  his 
mountain  retreat,  there  is  no  break  in  the  action  of  these 
influences.2  In  the  still  hours  of  the  night,  in  the  calm- 
ness of  the  early  dawn,  in  the  depth  of  solitude,  when  no 
human  sympathy  is  near,  a  Voice  comes  to  him  from  heaven, 
softly  as  the  sough  of  the  morning  breeze  :  "  Thou  art  the 
man.  Thou  art  the  Prophet  of  God  "  ;  or,  when  wrapt  in 
thought  it  comes  in  mighty  waves  :  "  Cry  in  the  name  of  thy 
Lord."  ^  The  over- wrought  mind  at  these  moments  raises  a 
vision  before  the  eye,  a  vision  of  the  celestial  ministrants  who 
are  believed  to  form  the  medium  of  inter-communication 
between  the  God  of  Heaven  and  the  man  on  earth.  "  The 
Father  of  Truth  chooses  His  own  prophets,  and  He  speaks  to 
them  in  a  voice  stronger  than  the  voice  of  thunder.     It  is  the 

1  Ibn-IIisham,  p.  151. 

2  Koran,   sura  xcvi.  2  ;    Ibn-Hisham,   p.   153  ;    Al-Iialabi,  Insdn-ul-'Uyihi, 
vol.  i.  p.  249  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  34.  ; 

3  Comp.  Isa.  xl.  6.  ; 


I.  THE  INSPIRATION  17 

same  inner  voice  through  which  God  speaks  to  all  of  us.  That 
voice  may  dwindle  away,  and  become  hardly  audible  ;  it  may 
lose  its  divine  accent,  and  sink  into  the  language  of  worldly 
prudence  ;  but  it  may  also  from  time  to  time  assume  its  real 
nature  with  the  chosen  of  God,  and  sound  in  their  ears  as  a 
voice  from  heaven. "^ 

"  The  natural  relations  of  Mahomet's  vast  conception  of  the 
personality  of  God  with  the  atmosphere  of  his  age,"  says  a 
great  writer,^  "  is  the  only  explanation  of  that  amazing  sober- 
ness and  self-command  with  which  he  entertained  his  all- 
absorbing  visions  "  ;  and  then  adds,  "  it  could  not  have  been 
accidental  that  the  one  supreme  force  of  the  epoch  issued  from 
the  solitudes  of  that  vast  peninsula  round  which  the  tides  of 
empire  rose  and  fell.  Every  ex-clusive  prophetic  claim  in  the 
name  of  a  sovereign  Will  has  been  a  cry  from  the  desert.  The 
symbolic  meaning  given  to  Arabia  by  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Christian  apostle  to  commune  with  a  power  above  flesh  and 
blood,  in  Mahomet  became  more  than  a  symbol.  Arabia  was 
itself  the  man  of  the  hour,  the  prophet  of  Islam  its  concentrated 
word.  To  the  child  of  her  exalted  traditions,  driven  by  secret 
compulsion  out  into  the  lonely  places  of  the  starry  night,  his 
mouth  in  the  dust,  the  desert  spoke  without  reserve." 

One  night — "  the  Night  of  Power  and  Excellence  " — when  a 
divine  peace  rests  on  creation,  and  all  nature  is  lifted  up  towards 
its  Lord — in  the  middle  of  that  night  the  Book  was  opened  to 
the  thirsting  soul.  Whilst  lying  self-absorbed,  he  is  called  by  a 
mighty  Voice,  surging  like  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  to  cry. 
Twice  the  Voice  called,  and  twice  he  struggled  and  waived  its 
caU.  But  a  fearful  weight  was  laid  on  him,  and  an  answer 
was  wrung  out  of  his  heart.  "  Cry  !  "  called  out  the  Voice 
for  the  third  time. 

And  he  said,  "  What  shall  I  cry  ?  "  Came  the  answer  : 
"  Cry — in  the  name  of  thy  Lord  !  " 

When  the  Voice  had  ceased  to  speak,  telling  him  how  from 
minutest  beginnings  man  had  been  called  into  existence  and 
lifted  up  by  understanding  and  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  who  is 

1  Professor  MuUer,  quoted  from  Dean  Stanley's  Lectures  on  the  History  of 
the  Jewish  Church,  Part  i.  Lect.  xviii.  p.  394. 
^  Johnson,  Oriental  Religions,  p.  561. 

S.I.  B 


i8  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

most  beneficent,  and  who  hy  the  Pen  had  revealed  that  which 
men  did  not  know,^  Mohammed  woke  from  his  trance,  and  felt 
as  if  the  words  spoken  to  his  soul  had  been  written  on  his  heart. 
A  great  trembling  came  upon  him,  and  he  hastened  home  to 
his  wife,  and  said,  "  O  Khadija  !  What  has  happened  to  me  ?  " 
He  lay  down,  and  she  watched  by  him.  When  he  recovered 
from  his  paroxysm  he  said,  "  O  Khadija  !  he  of  whom  one 
would  not  have  believed  it  (meaning  himself)  has  become  either 
a  soothsayer  ^  [Kdhin)  or  one  possessed — mad."  She  replied, 
"  God  is  my  protection,  O  Abu'l-Kasim  !  (a  name  of  Mohammed, 
derived  from  one  of  his  boys).  He  will  surely  not  let  such  a 
thing  happen  unto  thee  ;  for  thou  speakest  the  truth,  dost  not 
return  evil  for  evil,  keepest  faith,  art  of  a  good  life,  and  kind  to 
thy  relations  and  friends.  And  neither  art  thou  a  babbler 
in  the  market-places.  What  has  befallen  thee  ?  Hast  thou 
seen  aught  terrible  ?  "  Mohammed  replied,  "  Yes."  And  he 
told  her  what  he  had  seen.  Whereupon  she  answered  and 
said,  "  Rejoice,  O  dear  husband,  and  be  of  good  cheer.  He, 
in  whose  hands  stands  Khadija's  life,  is  my  witness  that  thou 
wilt  be  the  Prophet  of  this  people."  Then  she  arose  and  went 
to  her  cousin  Waraka,  son  of  Naufal,  who  was  old  and  blind, 
and  "  knew  the  Scriptures  of  the  Jews  and  Christians."  When 
she  told  him  what  she  had  heard,  he  cried  out,  "  Kuddusun, 
Kuddusun  !  Holy,  holy  !  Verily  this  is  the  Ndmus  al-akhar  ^ 
who  came  to  Moses  and  Jesus.  He  will  be  the  Prophet  of 
his  people.     Tell  him  this.     Bid  him  be  of  brave  heart." 

In  the  midst  of  the  \vreck  of  empires  and  nations,  in  the  wild 
turmoil  of  tribes  and  clans,  there  was  a  voice  in  the  air — east 
and  west,  north  and  south— that  God's  message  was  close 
at  hand  :    the  shepherd  was  nigh  who  was  to  call  back  the 

^  Sura  xcvi.  vers.  1-5.  "  Ikra  "  is  usually  rendered  into  "  read  "  ;  but  I 
have  preferred  to  follow  the  rendering  suggested  by  Deutsch,  as  more  in 
accordance  with  the  call  to  the  Prophet  ;  see  Rodwell  also,  and  compare 
Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshdf). 

2  Diviners  and  soothsayers  were  his  particular  aversions  ;  most  of  them 
were  attached  to  the  temples. 

'  The  primary  signification  of  the  word  Nchm'is  in  Arabic  is  a  messenger, 
one  who  communicates  a  secret  message.  It  also  means  law,  as  the  Greek 
I'o/xos.  "  In  Talmudical  phraseology,"  says  Deutsch,  "  it  signifies  the  revealed 
law.  In  Waraka's  mind  these  different  significations  were  combined  ;  the 
messenger  and  the  message,  both  divine,  had  come  to  Mohammed  even  as 
they  had  come  to  Moses  and  Jesus," 


I 


I.  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  MINISTRY  19 

erring  flock  into  the  Master's  fold.  It  had  spoken  to  the 
heart  of  Waraka. 

And  when  the  two  men  met  subsequently  in  the  streets,  the 
blind  old  reader  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures,  who  had 
searched  in  them  for  consolation  and  found  none,  but  who 
knew  of  the  promise  held  out  to  mankind  of  a  Dehverer,  spoke 
of  his  faith  and  trust.  "  I  swear  by  Him  in  whose  hand  War- 
aka's  life  is,"  said  the  old  man,  "  God  has  chosen  thee  to  be 
the  prophet  of  this  people  ;  the  Ndnms  al-akbar  has  come  to 
thee.  They  will  call  thee  a  liar,  they  will  persecute  thee,  they 
will  banish  thee,  they  will  fight  against  thee.  Oh,  that  I 
could  live  to  those  days  !  I  would  fight  for  thee."^  And  he 
kissed  him  on  his  forehead.  These  words  of  hope  and  trust 
brought  comfort  to  the  troubled  soul.^  And  then  followed  a 
period  of  waiting  for  the  Voice  to  come  again — the  inspiration 
of  Heaven  to  fall  once  more  on  the  anxious  mind. 

We  can  appreciate  the  spiritual  throes,  the  severe  mental 
conflicts,  the  doubts,  hopes,  and  misgivings  which  alternately 
wrung  the  heart  of  Mohammed,  when  we  are  told  that  before 
he  had  himself  realised  his  Mission  he  was  driven  to  the  verge 
of  self-destruction,  when  the  angel  of  God  recalled  him  to  his 
duty  to  mankind.^  It  spoke  to  the  poor  grieved  heart,  agitated 
by  doubt  and  fear, — of  hope  and  trust,  of  the  bright  future 
when  he  should  see  the  people  of  the  earth  crowding  into  the 
one  true  Faith. 

Saved  by  the  gracious  monition,  he  hurries  home  from  the 
desert,  exhausted  in  mind  and  body,  to  the  bosom  of  his 
devoted  wife,  pra3/ing  only  to  be  covered  from  the  overwhelming 
Presence. 

His  was  not  the  communion  with  God  of  those  egoists  who 
bury  themselves  in  deserts  or  forests,  and  live  a  life  of  quietude 
for  themselves  alone.  His  was  the  hard  struggle  of  the  man 
who  is  led  onwards  by  a  nobler  destiny  towards  the  liberation 
of  his  race  from  the  bondage  of  idolatry.  His  destiny  was 
unfolded  to  him  when,  wrapt  in  profound  meditation,  melan- 
choly and  sad,  he  felt  himself  called  by  that  Voice  from  heaven 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  103;    al-Halabi,  Insan-ul-'UyAn,  vol.  i.  p.  256. 

^Waraka  died  soon  after  this  event. — Ibn-Hisham,  p.  104. 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  35,  36  ;   Tibri  (Zotenberg's  transl.),  vol.  ii.  p.  392. 


20  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

which  had  called  those  who  had  gone  before  him,  to  arise  and 
preach.  "  O  thou,  enwrapped  in  thy  mantle,  arise  and  warn, 
and  glorify  thy  Lord."  ^  And  he  arose  and  girded  himself  for 
the  work  to  which  he  was  called.  Thenceforth  his  life  is 
devoted  to  humanity.  Preaching  with  unswerving  purpose 
amidst  unremitting  persecution,  insulted  and  outraged,  he  held 
on  in  his  path  of  reproof  and  reform. 

Khadija  was  the  first  to  accept  his  Mission.  She  was  the 
first  to  believe  in  the  revelation,  to  abandon  the  idolatry  of  her 
people,  and  to  join  with  him  in  purity  of  heart  in  offering  up 
prayers  to  the  All-Merciful.  Not  only  was  she  the  first  to 
believe  in  him  and  his  divine  message,  but  in  the  struggle  which 
was  to  follow  she  was  his  true  consoler  ;  and  "  God,"  says 
tradition,  "  comforted  him  through  her  when  he  returned  to 
her,  for  she  roused  him  up  again  and  made  his  burden  more 
light  to  him,  assuring  him  of  her  own  faith  in  him,  and  repre- 
senting to  him  the  futility  of  men's  babble." 

In  the  beginning  Mohammed  opened  his  soul  only  to  those 
who  were  attached  to  him,  and  tried  to  wean  them  from  the 
gross  practices  of  their  forefathers.      After  Khadija,  Ali  was 
the  next  disciple.  ^     Often  did  the  Prophet  go  into  the  depths 
of  the  solitary  desert  around  Mecca,  with  his  wife  and  young  j 
cousin,  that  they  might  together  offer  up  their  heartfelt  thanks   ' 
to  the  God  of  all  nations  for  His  manifold  blessings.     Once 
they  were  surprised  in  the  attitude  of  prayer  by  Abu  Talib, 
the  father  of  AH.     And  he  said  to  Mohammed,  "  O  son  of  my  i 
brother,  what  is  this  religion  that  thou  art  following  ?  "     "  It  ' 
is  the  religion  of  God,  of  His  angels,  of  His  prophets,  and  of 
our  ancestor  Abraham,"   answered  the  Prophet.     "  God  has 
sent  me  to  His  servants  to  direct  them  towards  the  truth  ; 
and  thou,  O  my  uncle,  art  the  most  worthy  of  all.     It  is  meet  , 
that  I  should  thus  call  upon  thee,  and  it  is  meet  that  thou  1 
shouldst  accept  the  truth  and  help  in  spreading  it."     "  Son  of 
my  brother,"  replied  Abu  Talib,  in  the  true  spirit  of  the  sturdy 
old  Semite,  "  I  cannot  abjure  the  religion  of  my  fathers  ;   but 
by  the  Supreme  God,  whilst  I  am  alive  none  shall  dare  to  injure 

1  Koran,  sura  Ixxiv. 

2  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  155  ;  al-Halabi,  Insdn-ttl-'Uy4n,  vol.  i.  p.  285. 


I.  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  MINISTRY  21 

thee."  Then  turning  towards  AH,  his  son,  the  venerable 
patriarch  inquired  what  rehgion  was  his.  "  O  father,"  answered 
AH,  "  I  beheve  in  God  and  His  Prophet,  and  go  with  him." 
"  Well,  my  son,"  said  Abu  Tahb,  "  he  will  not  call  thee  to 
aught  save  what  is  good,  wherefore  thou  art  free  to  cleave 
unto  him."  ^ 

Soon  after  Zaid,  the  son  of  Harith,  who  notwithstanding  his 
freedom  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  Mohammed,  became  a  convert 
to  the  new  faith.  He  was  followed  by  a  leading  member  of 
the  Koreishite  community  of  the  name  of  Abdullah,  son  of 
Abu  Kuhafa,  who  afterwards  became  famous  in  history  as 
Abu  Bakr.'^  A  member  of  the  important  family  of  Taym 
ibni-Murra,  a  wealthy  merchant,  a  man  of  clear,  calm  judgment, 
at  the  same  time  energetic,  prudent,  honest,  and  amiable,  he 
enjoyed  great  consideration  among  his  compatriots.  He  was 
but  two  years  younger  than  the  Prophet,  and  his  unhesitating 
adoption  of  the  new  faith  was  of  great  moral  effect.  Five 
notables  followed  in  his  footsteps,  among  them  Osman,  son  of 
Affan,  of  the  family  of  Ommeyya,  who  afterwards  became  the 
third  caliph  ;  Abdur  Rahman,  son  of  'Auf  ;  Sa'd,  son  of  Abi 
Wakkas,  afterwards  the  conqueror  of  Persia  ;  Zubair,  son  of 
Awwam  and  nephew  of  Khadija,  presented  themselves  before 
the  Prophet  and  accepted  Islam  at  his  hands.  Several  prose- 
lytes also  came  from  the  humbler  walks  of  life.  It  is  a  noble 
feature  in  the  history  of  the  Prophet  of  Arabia,  and  one  which 
strongly  attests  the  sincerity  of  his  character,  the  purity  of 
his  teachings  and  the  intensity  of  his  faith  and  trust  in  God, 
that  his  nearest  relations,  his  wife,  his  beloved  cousin,  and 
intimate  friends,  were  most  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  truth 
of  his  Mission  and  convinced  of  his  inspiration.  Those  who 
knew  him  best,  closest  relations  and  dearest  friends,  people 
who  lived  with  him  and  noted  all  his  movements,  were  his 
sincere  and  most  devoted  followers.  If  these  men  and  women, 
noble,  intelligent,  and  certainly  not  less '  educated  than  the 
fishermen    of   GaHlee,    had    perceived    the    slightest   sign   of 

*  The  above  is  a  praraphrase  of  the  account  given  by  Ibn  Hisham,  pp.  159, 
160  ;   and  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  42,  43. 

*  Desvergers  in  a  note  (p.  108)  mentions  that  before  his  conversion  to  Ishtm, 
he  was  called  Abd  ul-Kaaba,  "  servant  of  the  Kaaba." 


22  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

earthliness,  deception,  or  want  of  faith  in  the  Teacher  himself, 
Mohammed's  hopes  of  moral  regeneration  and  social  reform 
would  all  have  been  crumbled  to  dust  in  a  moment.  They 
braved  for  him  persecution  and  dangers  ;  they  bore  up  against 
physical  tortures  and  mental  agony,  caused  by  social  excom- 
munication, even  unto  death.  Would  this  have  been  so  had 
they  perceived  the  least  backsliding  in  their  master  ?  But 
even  had  these  people  not  believed  in  Mohammed  with  such 
earnest  faith  and  trust,  it  would  furnish  no  reason  for  doubting 
the  greatness  of  his  work  or  the  depth  of  his  sincerity.  For  the 
influence  of  Jesus  himself  was  least  among  his  nearest  relations. 
His  brothers  never  believed  in  him,i  and  they  even  went  so 
far  as  once  to  endeavour  to  obtain  possession  of  his  person, 
believing  him  to  be  out  of  his  mind.^  Even  his  immediate 
disciples  were  not  firm  in  their  convictions.^ 

Perhaps  this  unsteadiness  may  have  arisen  from  weakness 
of  character,  or  it  may  have  resulted,  as  Milman  thinks,^  from 
the  varying  tone  of  Jesus  himself  ;  but  the  fact  is  undeniable.^ 
The  intense  faith  and  conviction  on  the  part  of  the  immediate 
followers  of  Mohammed  is  the  noblest  testimony  to  his  sincerity 
and  his  utter  self-absorption  in  his  appointed  task. 

For  three  weary  long  years  he  laboured  quietly  to  wean  his 
people  from  the  worship  of  idols.  But  polytheism  was  deeply 
rooted  among  them  ;  the  ancient  cult  offered  attractions,  which 
the  new  Faith  in  its  purity,  did  not  possess.  The  Koreish 
had  vested  interests  in  the  old  worship  ;  and  their  prestige  was 
involved  in  its  maintenance.  Mohammed  had  thus  to  contend, 
not  only  with  the  heathenism  of  his  city  sanctified  by  ages  of 
observance  and  belief  but  also  with  the  opposition  of  the 
oligarchy  which  ruled  its  destinies,  and  with  whom  like  the 
generality  of  their  people,  superstition  was  allied  to  great 
scepticism.  With  these  forces  fighting  against  him,  little 
wonder  that  the  life  and  death-struggle  of  the  three  years  drew 

^  John  vii.  5.  ^  Mark  iii.  21. 

3  And  these  were  the  men  whom  Jesus  called  "  his  mother  and  brethren," 
in  preference  to  his  own  mother  and  brothers,  Matt.  xii.  45-48  ;  Mark  iii.  32,  33. 

*  Milman,  History  of  Christianity,  vol.  i.  pp.  254,  255. 

*  Sir  W.  Muir  admits  this  in  the  most  positive  terms  (vol.  ii.  p.  274)  ; 
he  says,  "  the  apostles  fled  at  the  first  sound  of  danger." 


I.  THE  DEVOTION  OF  THE  DISCIPLES  23 

only  thirty  followers.  But  the  heart  of  the  great  Teacher 
never  failed.  Steadfast  in  his  trust  in  the  Almighty  Master 
whose  behests  he  was  carrying  out,  he  held  on.  Hitherto  he 
had  preached  quietly  and  unobtrusively.  His  compatriots 
had  looked  askance  at  him,  had  begun  to  doubt  the  sanity  of 
al-x\min,  thought  him  crazed  or  "  possessed,"  but  had  not 
interfered  with  his  isolated  exhortations.  He  now  determined 
to  appeal  publicly  to  the  Koreish  to  abandon  their  idolatry. 
With  this  object  he  convened  an  assembly  on  the  hill  of  Safa, 
and  there  spoke  to  them  of  the  enormities  of  their  crimes  in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord,  their  folly  in  offering  adoration  to  carved 
idols.  He  warned  them  of  the  fate  that  had  overtaken  the 
races  which  had  passed  unheeded  the  words  of  the  preachers 
of  bygone  days,  and  invited  them  to  abjure  their  old  impious 
worship,  and  adopt  the  faith  of  love  and  truth  and  purity. 
But  the  mockers  mocked  his  words,  laughed  at  the  enthusiasm 
of  young  Ah,  and  departed  with  taunts  and  scoffs  on  their 
lips,  and  fear  in  their  hearts  at  the  spirit  of  revolution  which 
had  risen  in  their  midst.  Having  thus  failed  to  induce  the 
Koreish  to  listen  to  the  warnings  of  Heaven,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  strangers  visiting  the  city  for  trade  or  pilgrim- 
age. To  them  he  endeavoured  to  convey  God's  words.  But 
here  again  his  efforts  were  frustrated  by  the  Koreish.     When 

I  the  pilgrims  began  to  arrive  on  the  environs  of  the  city,  the 
Koreishites  posted  themselves  on  the  different  routes  and 
warned  the  strangers  against  holding  any  communication  with 
Mohammed,  whom  they  represented  as  a  dangerous  magician. 

i  This  machination  led,  however,  to  a  result  little  expected  by 
the  Meccans.  As  the  pilgrims  and  traders  dispersed  to  their 
distant  homes,  they  carried  with  them  the  news  of  the  advent 
of  the  strange,  enthusiastic  preacher,  who,  at  the  risk  of  his 
own  life,  was  calling  aloud  to  the  nations  of  Arabia  to  give  up 
the  worship  of  their  fathers. 

If  the  Koreish  were  under  the  impression  that  Mohammed 
would  be  abandoned  by  his  own  kith  and  kin,  they  were  soon 
undeceived  by  a  scathing  denunciation  hurled  at  them  by 
Abu  Talib.  The  old  patriarch,  who  had  refused,  with  char- 
acteristic persistency,  to  abandon  his  ancient  creed,  or  to  adopt 
the  new  faith  rebelled  at  the  injustice  and  intolerance  of  his 


24  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

compatriots  towards  the  reformer,  and  with  true  desert  chivalry  , 
he  deplored,  in  a  poem  which  lies  embalmed  in  history,  the 
enormities  of  the  Koreish  towards  one  who  was  the  benefactor  ' 
of  the  orphan  and  the  widow — al-Amin,  who  never  failed  in 
word  or  deed  ;    and  declared  that  the  children  of  Hashim  and 
of  Muttalib  would  defend  the  innocent  with  their  hves.     About 
the  same  time  an  Yathribite  chief  wrote  to  the  Koreish  of  j 
Mecca,  and,  holding  up  the  examples  of  bygone  ages,  exhorted  ij 
them  not   to   embroil  themselves  with  civil  dissensions  and  ! 
warfare.     He   advised   them   to   give   a  hearing  to   the   new  j 
preacher  :   "  An  honourable  man  has  adopted  a  certain  religion,  j 
why  persecute  him  ?  for  it  is  only  the  Lord  of  the  Heaven  who  | 
can  read  the  heart  of  man  !  "     His  counsel  had  some  effect, 
and  occasioned  a  change  of  tactics  among  the  Koreish.     For 
a  time  accordingly,  calumnies  and  vilifications,  exasperating 
contumelies   and   petty   outrages  were   substituted  for  open 
and   violent    persecution.     The   hostile    Koreish   stopped   the  j 
Prophet  from  offering  his  prayers  at  the  Kaaba  ;   they  pursued  ^ 
him  wherever  he  went ;    they  covered  him  and  his  disciples 
with  dirt  and  filth  when  engaged  in  their  devotions.     They  , 
incited  the  children  and  the  bad  characters  of  the  town  to  follow  | 
and  insult  him.     They  scattered  thorns  in  the  places  which 
he  frequented  for  devotion  and  meditation.     In  this  act  of 
refined  cruelty  the  lead  was  always  taken  by  Umm  ul- Jamil, 
the  wife  of  Abu  Lahab,  one  of  Mohammed's  uncles.     She  was 
the  most  inveterate  of  his  persecutors.     Every  place  which  he  | 
or  his  disciples  frequented  for  devotion  she  covered  with  thorns,  i 
This  exasperating  conduct  brought  down  upon  her  the  designa-  \ 
tion  of  being   "  the  bearer  of  faggots  "    {hammdlat  ul-hatab)  j 
[to  hell].  j 

Amidst  all  these  trials  Mohammed  never  wavered.  Full  of  ' 
the  intensest  confidence  in  his  Mission,  he  worked  steadily  on. 
Several  times  he  was  in  imminent  danger  of  his  life  at  the  , 
hands  of  the  Koreish.  On  one  occasion  he  disarmed  their  il 
murderous  fury  by  his  gentle  and  calm  self-control.  But  t 
persecution  only  added  to  the  strength  of  the  new  faith.  "  The  i 
blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  Church,"  is  a  truth  not  I 
confined  to  one  creed.  The  violence  of  the  Koreish  towards  i 
Mohammed,  their  burning  and  bitter  intolerance,  led  to  the  ( 


I.  THE  DEVOTION  OF  THE  DISCIPLES  25 

conversion  of  the  redoubtable  Hamza,  the  youngest  son  of 
Abd  ul-MuttaUb.  This  intrepid  warrior,  brave,  generous,  and 
true,  vvliose  doughty  sword  was  held  in  dread  by  all  the  Koreish, 
about  this  time  came  to  the  Prophet,  adopted  his  faith,  and 
became  thenceforth  a  devoted  adherent  of  Islam,  and  finally 
laid  down  his  life  in  the  cause. 

Amidst  all  this  persecution  Mohammed  never  ceased  calhng 
to  the  nation  so  wedded  to  iniquity  to  abandon  their  evil  ways 
and  abominations.  He  threw  his  heart  and  soul  into  his 
preachings.  He  told  them  in  burning  words  that  seared 
into  the  hearts  of  the  hsteners,  the  punishment  which  had 
aUghted  on  the  tribes  of  'Ad  and  Thamud  who  had  heeded  not 
the  warnings  of  God's  messengers,  of  the  outpouring  of  Heaven's 
wrath  at  the  iniquities  of  Noah's  people.  He  adjured  them 
by  the  wonderful  sights  of  nature,  by  the  noon-day  brightness, 
by  the  night  when  she  spreadeth  her  veil,  by  the  day  when 
it  appeareth  in  glory,  to  listen  to  the  warning  before  a  like 
destruction  came  upon  them.  He  told  them  of  the  day  of 
reckoning,  when  the  deeds  done  by  man  in  this  world  shall  be 
weighed  before  the  Eternal  Judge,  when  the  children  who  had 
been  buried  alive  shall  be  asked  for  what  crime  they  had  been 
put  to  death,  and  when  heaven  and  earth  shall  be  folded  up 
and  none  be  near  but  God.  He  spoke  to  them  of  the  rewards 
and  punishments  of  the  Hereafter,  describing  to  his  material- 
istic people  the  joys  of  Paradise  and  the  pains  of  hell  "  with 
all  the  glow  of  Eastern  imagery."  He  told  them  what  the 
unbehevers  were  like — "  They  are  like  unto  one  who  kindleth 
a  fire,  and  when  it  hath  thrown  its  light  on  all  around  him, 
God  taketh  away  the  light  and  leaveth  him  in  darkness  and  they 
cannot  see." 

"  Deaf,  dumb,  blind,  therefore  they  shall  not  retrace  their 
steps." 

"  They  are  like  those  who,  when  there  cometh  a  storm-cloud 
of  heaven  big  with  darkness,  thunder,  and  lightning,  thrust 
their  fingers  into  their  ears  because  of  the  thunder-clap  for 
fear  of  death.     God  is  round  about  the  infidels." 

"  The  lightning  almost  snatcheth  away  their  eyes  ;  so  oft 
as  it  gleameth  on  them,  they  walk  on  in  it  ;  but  when  darkness 
closeth  upon  them,  they  stop  ;    and  if  God  pleased,  of  their 


26  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

ears  and  of  their  eyes  would  He  surely  deprive  them  :  verily 
God  is  Almighty."  ^ 

"As  to  the  infidels,  their  works  are  like  the  Sardb  on  the 
plain, 2  which  the  thirsty  [traveller]  thinketh  to  be  water,  and 
then  when  he  cometh  thereto,  he  findeth  it  [to  be]  nothing  ; 
but  he  findeth  God  round  about  him,  and  He  will  fully  pay 
him  his  account  ;   for  swift  in  taking  an  account  is  God." 

"  Or,  as  the  darkness  over  a  deep  sea,  billows  riding  upon 
billows  below,  and  clouds  above  ;  one  darkness  over  another 
darkness  ;  when  a  man  stretcheth  forth  his  hand  he  is  far 
from  seeing  it ;  he  to  whom  God  doth  not  grant  light,  no  light 
at  all  hath  he."  ^ 

The  people  were  awestruck,  and  conversions  grew  frequent. 

The  Koreish  were  now  thoroughly  alarmed  ;  Mohammed's 
preaching  betokened  a  serious  revolutionary  movement. 
Their  power  and  prestige  were  at  stake.  They  were  the 
custodians  of  the  idols  whom  Mohammed  threatened  with 
destruction  ;  they  were  the  ministers  of  the  worship  which 
Mohammed  denounced — their  very  existence  depended  upon 
their  maintaining  the  old  institutions  intact.  If  his  predictions 
were  fulfilled,  they  would  have  to  efface  themselves  as  a  nation 
pre-eminent  among  the  nationalities  of  Arabia.  The  new 
preacher's  tone  was  intensely  democratic  ;  in  the  sight  of  his 
Lord  all  human  beings  were  equal.  This  levelling  of  old 
distinctions  was  contrary  to  all  their  traditions.  They  would 
have  none  of  it,  for  it  boded  no  good  to  their  exclusive  privileges. 
Urgent  measures  were  needed  to  stifle  the  movement  before 
it  gained  further  strength. 

They  accordingly  decided  upon  an  organised  system  of 
persecution.  In  order,  however,  not  to  violate  their  laws  of 
vendetta,  each  family  took  upon  itself  the  task  of  strangling 
the  new  religion  within  its  own  circle.  Each  household  tortured 
its  own  members,  or  clients,  or  slaves,  who  were  supposed  to 
have  attached  themselves  to  the  new  faith.  Mohammed, 
owing  to  the  protection  of  Abu  Talib  and  his  kinsmen,  Abu 
Bakr  and  a  few  others,  who  were  either  distinguished  by  their 
rank  or  possessed  some  influential  friend  or  protector  among 
the    Koreish,    were,   for   the   time,    exempt   from   immediate 

1  Sura  ii.  ^  i.e.  the  mirage  of  the  desert.  ^  Sura  xxiv.  39,  40. 


I.     THE  KOREISH  TEMPTING  MOHAMMED    27 

violence.  The  others  were  thrown  into  prison,  starved,  and 
then  beaten  with  sticks.  The  hill  of  Ramdha  and  the  place 
called  Batha  became  thus  the  scenes  of  cruel  tortures.^  The 
men  or  women  whom  the  Koreish  found  abandoning  the 
worship  of  the  idol-gods,  were  exposed  to  the  burning  heat 
of  the  desert  on  the  scorching  sand,  where,  when  reduced  to 
the  last  extremity  by  thirst,  they  were  offered  the  alternative 
of  adoring  the  idols  or  death.  Some  recanted  only  to  profess 
Islam  once  more  when  released  from  their  torments  ;  but  the 
majority  held  firmly  to  their  faith.  Such  a  one  was  Bilal, 
the  first  Muezzin,  of  Islam.  His  master,  Ommeyya,  son  of 
Khalaf,  conducted  him  each  day  to  Batha  when  the  heat  of 
the  sun  was  at  its  greatest,  and  there  exposed  him  bare-backed 
with  his  face  to  the  burning  sun,  and  placed  on  his  chest  a 
large  block  of  stone  with  the  words,  "  There  shaft  thou 
remain  until  thou  art  dead  or  thou  hast  abjured  Islam." 
As  he  lay  half -stifled  under  his  heavy  weight,  dying  with 
thirst,  he  would  only  answer,  "  Ahadun,  ahadun,"  "  one 
[God],  one."  This  lasted  for  days,  until  the  poor  sufferer  was 
reduced  to  the  verge  of  death,  when  he  was  ransomed  by  Abu 
Bakr,  who  had  in  like  manner  purchased  the  liberty  of  six 
other  slaves.  They  killed  with  excruciating  torments  Yasar 
and  Samiya  his  wife  ;  they  inflicted  fearful  tortures  on  'Ammar 
their  son.  Mohammed  was  often  an  eye-witness  to  the 
sufferings  of  his  disciples — sufferings  borne  with  patience  and 
fortitude  as  became  martyrs  in  the  cause  of  truth.  And 
these  were  not  the  only  martyrs  in  the  early  history  of  Islam. ^ 
Like  the  Pharisees  tempting  Jesus,  the  Koreish  came  to 
Mohammed  with  temptations  of  worldly  honour  and  aggrand- 
isement, to  draw  him  from  the  path  of  duty.  One  day,  says 
the  chronicler,  he  was  sitting  in  the  Kaaba,  at  a  little  distance 
from  an  assembly  of  the  antagonistic  chiefs,  when  one  of  them, 
'Otba,  son  of  Rab'ia,  a  man  of  moderate  views  came  to  him 

'  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  50  ;    Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  205-209. 

^  E.g.  Khobaib  bin  'Adi,  who,  being  perfidiously  sold  to  the  Koreish,  was 
by  them  put  to  death  in  a  cruel  manner  by  mutilation  and  cutting  off  his 
flesh  piece-meal.  In  the  midst  of  his  tortures,  being  asked  whether  he  did 
not  wish  Mohammed  in  his  place,  answered,  "  /  would  not  wish  to  be  with  my 
family,  my  substance,  and  my  children  on  condition  that  Mohammed  was  only 
to  be  pricked  with  a  thorn." 


28  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

and  said,  "  0  son  of  my  brother,  thou  art  distinguished  by  thy 
quahties    and    thy   descent.     Now    thou   hast    sown    division! 
among  our  people,  and  cast  dissension  in  our  famihes  ;    thou 
denouncest    our    gods    and    goddesses ;     thou    dost    tax    our 
ancestors  with  impiety.     We  have  a  proposition  to  make  to 
thee  ;  think  well  if  it  will  not  suit  thee  to  accept  it."     "  Speak, 
O  father  of  Walid,"  ^  said  the  Prophet,  "  I  listen,  O  son  of  my 
brother."     Commenced  'Otba  :     "K  thou  wishest  to  acquire 
riches  by  this  affair,  we  will  collect  a  fortune  larger  than  is' 
possessed  by  any  of  us  ;   if  thou  desirest  honours  and  dignity,  i 
we  shall  make  thee  our  chief,  and  shall  not  do  a  thing  without 
thee  ;   if  thou  desirest  dominion,  we  shall  make  thee  our  king  ;  | 
and  if  the  spirit  (demon)  which  possesses  thee  cannot  be  over- ' 
powered,  we  will  bring  thee  doctors  and  give  them  riches  till! 
they  cure  thee."     And  when  he  had  done,  "  Hast  thou  finished,  | 
O  father  of  Wahd  ?  "  asked  the  Prophet.     "  Yes,"  replied  he. : 
"  Then  listen  to  me."     "  I  listen,"  he  said.     "  In  the  name  of 
the  most  merciful  God,"  commenced  the  Warner,  "  this  is  ai 
revelation  from  the  most  Merciful  :   a  book,  the  verses  whereof ! 
are  distinctly  explained,  an  Arabic  Koran,  for  the  instruction  \ 
of  people  who  understand  ;  bearing  good  tidings,  and  denounc-  I 
ing  threats  :    but  the  greater  part  of  them  turn  aside,  and  ' 
hearken  not  thereto.     And  they  say,  '  Our  hearts  are  veiled  \ 
from  the  doctrine  to  which  thou  invitest  us  ;    and  there  is  a 
deafness  in  our  ears,   and  a  curtain  between  us  and  thee  : 
wherefore  act  thou  as  thou  shalt  think  fit  ;    for  we  shall  act 
according  to  our  own  sentiments.'     Say  '  verily  I  am  only  a 
man  like  you.     It  is  revealed  unto  me  that  your  God  is  one  j 
God  :    wherefore  direct  your  way  straight  unto  Him  ;    and  ask  , 
pardon  of  Him  for  what  is  past.'     And  woe  be  to  the  idolaters, 
who  give  not  the  appointed  alms,  and  believe  not  in  the  life 
to  come  !  ^    But  as  to  those  who  believe  and  work  righteous- 1 
ness,  they  shall  receive  an  everlasting  reward."  ^     When  the  i|  ' 
Prophet   finished  this  recitation,   he  said  to    'Otba,   "  Thou  i; 

1  Walid  being  a  son  of  'Otba.  It  was  usual,  and  is  so  even  now,  among  the  ; 
Arabs  to  call  a  man  as  the  father  of  so-and-so,  instead  of  using  his  own  name,  . 
as  a  mark  of  consideration. 

^  Whilst  hospitality  was  regarded  as  a  great  virtue,  charity  was  considered 
a  weakness  among  the  Arabs  ;   and  a  future  life,  an  old  woman's  fable. 
3  Koran,  Sura  xli. 


I.  THE  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  KOREISH  29 

hast  heard,  now  take  the  course  which  seemeth  best  to 
thee."  ^ 

Profoundly  afflicted  by  the  sufferings  of  his  disciples,  whose 
position,  as  time  went  on,  became  more  and  more  unbearable, 
he  advised  them  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the  neighbouring  Christian 
kingdom  of  Abyssinia,  where  ruled  a  pious  sovereign,  till  God 
in  His  mercy  wrought  a  change  in  the  feelings  of  the  Koreish. 
He  had  heard  of  the  righteousness  of  this  Christian  king, 
of  his  tolerance  and  hospitality,  and  was  certain  of  a  welcome 
for  his  followers. 

Some  immediately  availed  themselves  of  the  advice,  and 
sailed,  to  the  number  of  fifteen,  to  the  hospitable  shores  of  the 
Negus  (Najashi).  This  is  called  the  first  Exile  {muhdjarat) 
in  the  history  of  Islam,  and  occurred  in  the  fifth  year  of 
Mohammed's  Mission  (615  a.c).  These  emigrants  were  soon 
joined  by  many  more  of  their  fellow-sufferers  and  labourers 
in  the  cause  of  truth,  until  their  number  amounted  to  eighty- 
three  men  and  eighteen  women. ^  But  the  untiring  hostility 
of  the  Koreish  pursued  them  even  here.  They  were  furious 
at  the  escape  of  their  victims,  and  sent  deputies  to  the  king  to 
demand  the  delivery  of  these  refugees  that  they  might  be  put 
to  death.  They  stated  the  chief  charges  against  the  poor 
fugitives  to  be  the  abjuration  of  their  old  religion,  and  the 
adoption  of  a  new  one.  The  Negus  sent  for  the  exiles,  and 
inquired  of  them  whether  what  their  enemies  had  stated  was 
true.  "  What  is  this  religion  for  which  you  have  abandoned 
your  former  faith,"  asked  the  king,  "  and  adopted  neither 
mine  nor  that  of  any  other  people  ?  "  Ja'far,  son  of  Abu 
TaUb,  and  brother  of  Ali,  acting  as  spokesman  for  the  fugitives, 
spoke  thus  :  "  O  king,  we  were  plunged  in  the  depth  of  ignor- 
ance and  barbarism  ;  we  adored  idols,  we  lived  in  unchastity  ; 
we  ate  dead  bodies,  and  we  spoke  abominations  ;  we  disre- 
garded every  feeling  of  humanity,  and  the  duties  of  hospitality 
and  neighbourhood  ;  we  knew  no  law  but  that  of  the  strong, 
when  God  raised  among  us  a  man,  of  whose  birth,  truthfulness, 
honesty,  and  purity  we  were  aware  ;  and  he  called  us  to  the 
unity  of  God,  and  taught  us  not  to  associate  anything  with 

^  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  185,  186. 

^  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  208  et  seq.  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  58  ;    Abulfeda,  p.  20. 


30  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i 

Him  ;  ^  he  forbade  us  the  worship  of  idols  ;  and  enjoined  m 
to  speak  the  truth,  to  be  faithful  to  our  trusts,  to  be  merciful; 
and  to  regard  the  rights  of  neighbours  ;  he  forbade  us  to  speal?!; 
evil  of  women,  or  to  eat  the  substance  of  orphans  ;  he  ordered 
us  to  fly  from  vices,  and  to  abstain  from  evil ;  to  offer  prayers, 
to  render  alms,  to  observe  the  fast.  We  have  believed  in  him,; 
we  have  accepted  his  teachings  and  his  injunctions  to  worship; 
God,  and  not  to  associate  anything  with  Him.  For  thisi 
reason  our  people  have  risen  against  us,  have  persecuted  us' 
in  order  to  make  us  forego  the  worship  of  God  and  return  to 
the  worship  of  idols  of  wood  and  stone  and  other  abominations. 
They  have  tortured  us  and  injured  us,  until  finding  no  safetyl 
among  them,  we  have  come  to  thy  country,  and  hope  thou' 
wilt  protect  us  from  their  oppression."  ^  j 

The  demands  of  the  Koreish  were  scouted  by  the  king,  andj 
the  deputies  returned  in  confusion  to  Mecca. 

Whilst  the  disciples  of  Mohammed  were  seeking  safety  in 
other  lands  from  the  persecution  of  their  enemies,  he  himself 
stood  bravely  at  his  post,  and  amidst  every  insult  and  outrage 
pursued  his  mission.  Again  they  came  to  him  with  promises 
of  honour  and  riches,  to  seduce  him  from  his  duty  ;  the  reply 
was  as  before,  full  of  life,  full  of  faith  :  "I  am  neither  desirous 
of  riches  nor  ambitious  of  dignity  nor  of  dominion  ;  I  am  sent 
by  God,  who  has  ordained  me  to  announce  glad  tidings  unto 
you.  I  give  you  the  words  of  my  Lord  ;  I  admonish  you. 
If  you  accept  the  message  I  bring  you,  God  will  be  favourable 
to  you  both  in  this  world  and  in  the  next  ;  if  you  reject  my 
admonitions,  I  shall  be  patient,  and  leave  God  to  judge  between 
you  and  me."  They  mocked  him,  scoffed  at  him,  tried  by 
insidious  questions  to  expose  the  fallacy  of  his  teachings.^ 
His  simple  trust  and  sublime  faith  in  his  Master  rose  superior 
to  all  their  materialistic  scepticism.  They  asked  him  to 
cause  wells  and  rivers  to  gush  forth,  to  bring  down  the  heaven 

^  The  idolaters  are  almost  always  called  "  Associaters,"  MitsJirikiii,  in  the 
Koran,  or  men  who  associate  other  beings  with  God. 

2  Can  there  be  a  better  summary  of  Mohammed's  work  or  of  his  teachings  ? 
Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  6i  ;    and  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  219,  220. 

3  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  188.  A  Christian  historian  goes  into  raptures  at  the 
subtlety  of  the  idolaters  ;    see  Osborn,  Islam  under  the  Arabs, 


I.      MORAL  EVIDENCES  OF  MOHAMMED'S  MISSION     31 

in  pieces,  to  remove  mountains,  to  have  a  house  of  gold  erected, 
to  ascend  to  heaven  by  a  ladder. ^  It  was  a  repetition  of  the 
old  story,  with  this  difference,  that  in  the  case  of  Jesus  his  own 
followers  insisted  upon  his  performing  miracles  to  satisfy 
them  of  the  truth  of  his  mission.  "  His  immediate  disciples," 
says  Professor  Momerie,  "  were  always  misunderstanding  him 
and  his  work  :  wanting  him  to  call  down  fire  from  heaven  ; 
wanting  him  to  declare  himself  king  of  the  Jews  ;  wanting  to 
sit  on  his  right  hand  and  on  his  left  hand  in  his  kingdom  ; 
wanting  him  to  show  them  the  Father,  to  make  God  visible 
to  their  bodily  eyes  ;  wanting  him  to  do,  and  wanting  to  do 
themselves,  anything  and  everything  that  was  incompatible 
with  his  great  plan.  This  was  how  they  treated  him  until 
the  end.  When  that  came,  they  all  forsook  him,  and 
fled." 

To  these  unsatisfied,  lukewarm  spirits,  whose  craving  for 
wonders  was  no  less  strong  than  that  of  the  Koreish,  and  who 
afterwards  clothed  the  revered  figure  of  Jesus  in  a  mist,  a  legacy 
which  even  modern  ideaHstic  Christianity  cannot  shake  off, 
the  Master  was  wont  to  reply,  at  times  angrily,  that  it  was  an 
evil  and  adulterous  age  which  sought  after  a  sign,  and  that  no 
sign  should  be  given  to  it  ;  and  that  if  a  man  believed  not  in 
Moses  and  the  prophets,  he  would  not  repent  even  though  one 
rose  from  the  dead.^ 

It  must  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the  disciples  of  the  Arabian 
Teacher,  that  they  never  called  for  a  miracle  from  their  Master. 
They — scholars,  merchants,  and  soldiers — looked  to  the  moral 
evidences  of  his  mission.  They  ranged  themselves  round  the 
friendless  preacher  at  the  sacrifice  of  all  their  worldly  interests 
and  worldly  hopes,  and  adhered  to  him  through  life  and  death 
with  a  devotion  to  his  human  personality  to  which  there  is 
scarcely  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

In  an  age  when  miracles  were  supposed  to  be  ordinary 
occurrences  at  the  beck  of  the  commonest  saint,  when  the 

'  Sura  xvii.  92-96. 

-  Patristic  Christianity  has  held,  and  still  holds,  to  the  miracles  as  a  proof 
of  the  divinity  of  Jesus  ;  modern  Christianity  calls  them  Aberglauhe.  It  may 
well  be,  as  the  author  of  Literature  and  Dogma  says,  that  the  miracles  arc 
doomed,  and  that  the  miracle-saga  of  Christianity  must,  sooner  or  later,  go 
with  all  lesrends,  Eastern  or  Western. 


32  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

whole  atmosphere  was  surcharged  with  supematurahsm,  not 
only  in  Arabia,  but  in  the  neighbouring  countries  where 
civilisation  had  made  far  greater  progress,  the  great  Pioneer  of 
rationalism  unhesitatingly  replies  to  the  miracle-seeking 
heathens — "  God  has  not  sent  me  to  work  wonders  ;  He  has 
sent  me  to  preach  to  you.  My  Lord  be  praised  !  Am  I  more 
than  a  man  sent  as  an  apostle  ?  .  .  ,  Angels  do  not  commonly 
walk  the  earth,  or  God  would  have  despatched  an  angel  to 
preach  His  truth  to  you.^  I  never  said  that  Allah's  treasures 
are  in  my  hand,  that  I  knew  the  hidden  things,  or  that  I  was 
an  angel.  ...  I  who  cannot  even  help  or  trust  myself,  unless 
God  pleaseth."  ...  No  extraordinary  pretensions,  no  indulg- 
ence in  hyperbolical  language,  no  endeavour  to  cast  a  glamour 
round  his  character  or  personahty.  "I  am  only  a  preacher 
of  God's  words,  the  bringer  of  God's  message  to  mankind," 
repeats  he  always.  From  first  to  last  no  expression  escapes 
him  "  which  could  be  construed  into  a  request  for  human 
worship  "  ;  2  from  first  to  last  there  is  unvarying  soberness  of 
expression,  which,  considering  the  age  and  surrounding,  is 
more  marvellous  ;  from  first  to  last  the  tone  is  one  of  simple, 
deep  humility  before  the  Creator.  And  in  the  moment  of  his 
greatest  exaltation  the  feeling  is  one  of  humble,  sweet  thank- 
fulness : — 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  the  Merciful,  the  Compassionate  ! 
Whatsoever  is  in  heaven  and  on  earth  praises  God  the  King, 
the  Holy  One,  the  Almighty,  the  All-wise.  It  is  He  who  out 
of  the  midst  of  the  illiterate  Arabs  has  raised  an  apostle  to  show 
unto  them  His  signs,  and  to  sanctify  them,  and  to  teach  them 
the  Scripture  and  the  Wisdom,  them  who  before  had  been 
in  great  darkness.  .  .  .  This  is  God's  free  grace,  which 
He  giveth  unto  whomsoever  He  wills.  God  is  of  great 
mercy  !  "  ^ 

Disclaiming  every  power  of  wonder-working,  the  Prophet 
of  Islam  ever  rests  the  truth  of  his  divine  commission  entirely 
upon  his  Teachings.  He  never  resorts  to  the  miraculous  to 
assert  his  influence  or  to  enforce  his  warnings.  He  invariably 
appeals  to  the  familiar  phenomena  of  nature  as  signs  of  the 

1  Sura  xvii.  95-98  ;   sura  Ixxii.  21-24.  ^  Professor  Momerie. 

^  Sura   Ixii.  vv.  i-io. 


I.  MOHAMMED'S  APPEAL  TO  REASON  33 

divine  presence. ^  He  unswervingly  addresses  himself  to  the 
inner  consciousness  of  man,  to  his  reason,  and  not  to  his  weak- 
ness or  his  credulit3^  Look  round  yourself  :  is  this  wonderful 
world,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars,  holding  their  swift  silent 
course  in  the  blue  vault  of  heaven,  the  law  and  system  prevaihng 
in  the  universe  ;  the  rain-drops  falling  to  revive  the  parched 
earth  into  life  ;  the  ships  moving  across  the  ocean,  beladen 
with  what  is  profitable  to  mankind ;  the  beautiful  palm 
covered  with  its  golden  fruit — are  these  the  handiwork  of  your 
wooden  or  stone  gods  ?  - 

Fools  !  do  you  want  a  sign,  when  the  whole  creation  is  full 
of  the  signs  of  God  ?  The  structure  of  your  body,  how  wonder- 
fully complex,  how  beautifully  regulated  ;  the  alternations 
of  night  and  day,  of  life  and  death  ;  your  sleeping  and  awaking  ; 
your  desire  to  accumulate  from  the  abundance  of  God  ;  the 
winds  driving  abroad  the  pregnant  clouds  as  the  forerunners 
of  the  Creator's  mercy  ;  the  harmony  and  order  in  the  midst 
of  diversity  ;  the  variety  of  the  human  race,  and  yet  their 
close  affinity  ;  fruits,  flowers,  animals,  human  beings  them- 
selves— are  these  not  signs  enough  of  the  presence  of  a  Master- 
Mind  ?  3 

To  the  Prophet  of  Islam,  nature  in  itself  is  a  revelation  and 
a  miracle. 

"  There  is  a  tongue  in  every  leaf, 
A  voice  in  every  rill, 
A  voice  that  speaketh  everywhere, 
In  flood  and  fair,  through  earth  and  air, 
A  voice  that's  never  still."  * 

The  Prophet  of  Monotheism  is  pre-eminently  the  Prophet  of 
Nature.     His  ethical  appeal  and  his  earnest  assertion  of  divine 

'  The  passage  of  Sir  W.  Muir  on  this  point  is,  to  say  the  least,  remarkable. 
He  says  :  "  Whether  the  idolatry  of  Mecca  would  not  have  succumbed  with- 
out a  struggle  before  such  preaching  as  Mahomet's,  sitstaivcd  by  reasonable 
evidence,  may  be  matter  for  speculation  "  (the  italics  are  his  own),  vol.  ii.  p. 
144.  Like  the  Koreish,  Sir  W.  Muir  is  not  satisfied  with  the  teachings,  unless 
supported  by  wonder-workings. 

*  Sura  XXV.  49-59  ;   sura  1.  9,  etc. 

'  Sura  vi.  96-99,  li.  20,  xv.  20,  xx.  50-57,  xxxiv.  20-28,  39,  etc. 

'  Comp.  j^/   if   ^j  j^    ^    i^:^j    *    »>Jjj   c;^>  31    <*^   t±.^  jA 

"  Every  blade  that  springs  from  the  earth  bears  testimony  to  the  unity  of 
God." 


34  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

Unity  are  founded  upon  the  rational  and  intellectual  recognition 
of  all-pervading  order,  of  the  visible  presence  of  one  Mind,  one 
Will,  regulating,  guiding,  and  governing  the  Universe.  His 
grandest  miracle  is  the  Book  in  which  he  has  poured  forth  with 
an  inspired  tongue  all  the  "  revelations  of  nature,  conscience, 
and  prophecy."  Ask  you  a  greater  miracle  than  this,  0 
unbelieving  people  !  than  to  have  your  vulgar  tongue  chosen 
as  the  language  of  that  incomparable  Book,  one  piece  of  which 
puts  to  shame  all  your  golden  poesy  and  suspended  songs — to 
convey  the  tidings  of  universal  mercy,  the  warnings  to  pride 
and  tyranny  ! 

But  to  all  his  exhortations  the  Koreish  turned  a  deaf  ear. 
They  were  blind  to  the  signs  of  God,  blind  to  the  presence  of  a 
Divine  Personality  in  nature,  deaf  to  the  call  of  the  Seer  to 
come  back  to  righteousness,  to  forego  the  crimes  and  abomina- 
tions of  antiquity.  Their  answer  to  him  breathes  a  fierce 
animosity  paralleled  only  by  the  darkest  days  of  Arian  or 
Pelagian  persecution  in  Christendom.  "  Know  this,  O  Moham- 
med," said  they,  "  we  shall  never  cease  to  stop  thee  from 
preaching  till  either  thou  or  we  perish." 

During  this  interval  occurred  an  incident  which  has  been 
differently  construed  by  the  Moslem  historians  and  the  Christian 
biographers  of  the  Prophet.  One  day,  in  one  of  his  prophetic 
trances,  Mohammed  was  reciting  within  the  Kaaba  some 
verses  which  now  form  part  of  the  fifty-third  chapter  of  the 
Koran.  When  he  came  to  the  words,  "  What  think  ye  of 
al-Lat,  al-'Uzza,  and  Man  at  ?  the  third  besides,"  an  idolater 
who  was  present  on  the  occasion,  and  whom  tradition  has 
converted  into  the  devil,  anxious  to  avert  the  threatened 
denunciation  called  out,  "  They  are  exalted  damsels,  and  their 
intercession  with  God  may  be  hoped  for."  These  words  were 
supposed  to  form  part  of  the  Prophet's  revelation.  And  the 
Koreish,  overjoyed  either  at  the  trick  or  at  Mohammed's 
supposed  concession,  hastened  to  express  their  willingness  to 
come  to  terms.  When  Mohammed  learnt  what  had  happened, 
he  immediately  proclaimed  the  words,  "  They  are  nought  but 
empty  names,  which  you  and  your  fathers  have  invented." 
This  is  the  version  given  by  Mohammedan  historians  and 
traditionists.     According   to    the    Christian    biographers,    the 


PERSECUTION  CONTINUES 


35 


incident  is  supposed  to  indicate  a  momentary  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  Prophet  to  end  the  strife  with  the  Koreish  by  some 
compromise.  The  bigot  calls  it  "  a  lapse  "  and  "  a  fall  "  ; 
but  the  generous  and  unbiased  historian  considers  the  episode 
as  throwing  additional  lustre  on  the  Prophet  of  Arabia. 
Persecution  was  becoming  fiercer  and  fiercer  every  day,  the 
sufferings  of  his  followers  were  increasing,  and  the  whole  city 
was  up  in  arms  against  them.  The  sight  of  his  poor  disciples 
afflicted  him  deeply  ;  his  weary  struggle  with  the  Arabian 
idolatry  filled  him  with  grief.  What  wonder  that  a  momentary 
thought  crossed  his  mind  to  end  the  conflict  by  making  a  slight 
concession  to  the  bigotry  of  his  enemies.  "  And  so  Mohammed 
made  his  first  and  last  concession.  He  recited  a  revelation 
to  the  Koreish,  in  which  he  spoke  respectfully  of  the  three 
moon-goddesses,  and  asserted  that  their  intercession  with 
God  might  be  hoped  for  :  '  Wherefore  bow  down  before  God 
and  serve  Him  '  ;  and  the  whole  audience,  overjoyed  at  the 
compromise,  bowed  down  and  worshipped  at  the  name  of  the 
God  of  Mohammed — the  whole  city  was  reconciled  to  the 
double  religion.  But  this  dreamer  of  the  desert  was  not  the 
man  to  rest  upon  a  he.  At  the  price  of  the  whole  city  of  Mecca 
he  would  not  remain  untrue  to  himself.  He  came  forward 
and  said  he  had  done  wrong — the  devil  had  tempted  him. 
He  openly  and  frankly  retracted  what  he  had  said  ;  and 
'  as  for  their  idols,  they  were  but  empty  names  which  they 
and  their  fathers  had  invented.'  " 

"  Western  biographers  have  rejoiced  greatly  over  '  Moham- 
med's fall'  Yet  it  was  a  tempting  compromise,  and  few 
would  have  withstood  it.  And  the  life  of  Mohammed  is  not 
the  life  of  a  god,  but  of  a  man  ;  from  first  to  last  it  is  intensely 
human.  But  if  for  once  he  was  not  superior  to  the  temptation 
of  gaining  over  the  whole  city,  and  obtaining  peace  where 
before  had  been  only  bitter  persecution,  what  can  we  say  of 
his  manfully  thrusting  back  the  rich  prize  he  had  gained, 
freely  confessing  his  fault,  and  resolutely  giving  himself  over 
again  to  the  old  indignities  and  insults  ?  If  he  was  once 
insincere — and  who  is  not  ? — how  intrepid  was  his  after 
sincerity  !  He  was  untrue  to  himself  for  a  while,  and  he  is 
ever  referring  to  it  in  his  public  preaching  with  shame  and 


36  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

remorse  ;   but  the  false  step  was  more  than  atoned  for  by  his ,, « 
magnificent  recantation."  ^  P 

Upon  the  promulgation  that  Lat,  'Uzza,  and  Manat  were  ' 
but  empty  names,  the  persecution  burst  out  anew  with  re- 
doubled fury. 

Supported,  however,  by  a  firm  conviction  of  divine  assistance, 
and  upheld  by  the  admonitions  of  the  heavenly  voice  within, 
conveyed  to  him  by  the  ministrators  of  heavenly  mercy,  he 
continued  his  preaching  undeterred  by  the  hostility  of  his 
enemies,  or  by  the  injuries  they  inflicted  upon  him.  In  spite  [ 
of  all  opposition,  however,  slowly  but  surely  the  new  teachings 
gained  ground.  The  seeds  of  truth  thus  scattered  could  not 
fail  to  fructify.  The  wild  Arab  of  the  desert,  the  trading 
citizen  of  distant  townships  who  came  to  the  national  fair,  heard 
the  words  of  the  strange  man  whom  his  enemies  thought 
possessed,  listened  to  the  admonitions  in  which  he  poured 
forth  his  soul,  listened  with  awe  and  wonder  to  his  denunciations 
of  their  divinities  and  of  their  superstitions,  of  their  unright- 
eousness, of  their  evil  ways,  and  carried  back  to  their  far-off 
homes  new  light  and  new  life,  even  unconsciously  to  themselves. 
And  the  satires,  the  ill-names  his  enemies  heaped  upon 
Mohammed,  only  tended  to  make  his  words  more  extensively 
known. 

The  Meccans,  on  their  side,  were  by  no  means  quiet.  Several 
times  the  Koreish  sent  deputations  to  Abu  TaUb,  asking  him 
to  stop  his  nephew  from  preaching  against  their  religion.  At 
first  Abu  Talib  turned  them  away  with  soft  and  courteous 
words.  But  as  Mohammed  persisted  in  his  fiery  denunciations 
against  their  godlessness  and  impiety,  they  expelled  him  from 
the  Kaaba  where  he  had  been  wont  to  preach,  and  then 
came  in  a  body  to  his  uncle. ^  "  We  respect  thy  age  and  thy 
rank,"  said  they,  "  but  our  respect  for  thee  has  bounds,  and 
verily  we  can  have  no  further  patience  with  thy  nephew's 
abuse  of  our  gods,  and  his  ill  words  against  our  ancestors ; 
wherefore  do  thou  either  prevent  him  from  so  doing,  or  thyself 
take  part  with  him,  so  that  we  may  settle  the  matter  by  fight 

1  Stanley  Lane-Poole,  Introd.  to  the  Selections  from  the  Koran,  p.  xlix.  j 

2  Tabari,  vol.  ii.  p.  406  ;  according  to  this  author's  authorities,  ver.  214  ol'j 
chap.  xxi.  of  the  Koran  was  revealed  about  this  period.  j 


I.       KOREISHITE  LEAGUE  AGAINST  MOHAMMED    37 

until  one  of  the  two  parties  is  exterminated."  ^  Having  thus 
spoken,  they  departed.  Abu  Talib  was  unwiUing  to  separate 
himself  from  his  people,  neither  did  he  like  abandoning  his 
nephew  to  the  idolaters.  Sending  for  Mohammed,  he  informed 
him  of  the  speech  of  the  Koreish,  and  begged  him  to  renounce 
his  task,  Mohammed  thought  his  uncle  washed  to  withdraw 
his  protection  ;  but  his  high  resolve  did  not  fail  him  even  at 
this  moment.  Firmly  he  rephed  :  "  O  my  uncle,  if  they 
placed  the  sim  on  my  right  hand  and  the  moon  on  my  left,  to 
force  me  to  renounce  my  work,  verily  I  would  not  desist  there- 
from until  God  made  manifest  His  cause,  or  I  perished  in  the 
attempt."  But  overcome  by  the  thought  of  desertion  by  his 
kind  protector,  he  turned  to  depart.  Then  Abu  Talib  called 
aloud  :  "  Son  of  my  brother,  come  back  "  ;  and  he  came. 
And  Abu  Talib  said  :  "  Say  whatsoever  thou  pleasest  ;  for 
by  the  Lord,  I  shall  not  abandon  thee,  nay,  never."  ^  The 
Koreish  made  another  attempt  to  persuade  Abu  Talib  to  dehver 
up  his  nephew  to  them.  They  offered  in  exchange  a  young 
man  of  the  family  of  Makhzum,  but  it  was  of  no  avail. ^  The 
declared  intention  of  Abu  Tahb  to  support  his  nephew  excited 
their  fury,  and  they  renewed  their  menaces  of  violence.  The 
venerable  patriarch  appealed  to  the  sense  of  honour  of  the 
Bani-Hashim  and  Bani-Muttalib,  the  kinsmen  of  Mohammed, 
to  protect  a  distinguished  member  of  their  family  from  falling 
a  victim  to  the  hatred  of  rival  clans.  And  the  appeal  was 
nobly  responded  to,  with  the  sohtary  exception  of  the  squint- 
eyed  Abu  Lahab,  "  the  Father  of  the  Flame,"  as  the  sequel 
will  show. 

At  this  time  the  new  Faith  gained  a  valuable  adherent  in 
Omar,  whose  energy  of  character  made  him  an  important 
factor  in  the  future  commonwealth  of  Islam.  His  services  to 
the  religion  of  Mohammed  have  engraved  his  name  on  the 
pages  of  history.  A  distinguished  member  of  the  family  of 
'Adi  ibn-Ka'b,  and  the  son  of  Khattab,  notorious  for  the 
persecution  of  the  Moslems,  he  was  hitherto  a  violent  opponent 
of    Islam,    and    a    bitter    adversary    of    the    Prophet.     His 

*  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  47  ;   Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  167,  168. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  168  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  48  ;    Abulfeda,  p.  17. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  169  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  48. 


38  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

conversion  is  said  to  have  been  worked  by  the  magic  effect 
on  his  mind  of  a  chapter  of  the  Koran  which  he  heard  recited 
in  his  sister's  house,  where  he  had  gone  in  a  furious  rage  and 
with  murderous  intent. 

Struck  with  the  words  which  he  had  heard,  he  went  straight 
to  the  Prophet  with  the  naked  sword  in  his  hand  with  which 
he  had  meant  to  slay  Mohammed  and  his  disciples,  causing 
considerable  consternation  among  the  assembly  of  the  Faithful ; 
listening  to  the  Preacher.     He  kissed  the  Master's  hand,  and  \ 
then  demanded  to  be  taken  into  the  fold  of  God  ;  and  heartfelt ! 
thanks  went  up  to  heaven  from  the  Moslems  for  the  grace! 
that  had  fallen  on  Omar.     After  his  conversion  he  became  I 
one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  Faith.  ! 

Islam  need  no  more  hide  its  head  in  byways  and  corners,  go  j 
about  in  concealment,  or  offer  its  prayers  to  God  in  secret  and  j 
trepidation.     Besides  a  large  following  taken  from  the  humbler  : 
walks  of  life,  there  were  now  gathered  round  the  Prophet  a 
chosen  band  of  apostles,  consisting,  not  of  ignorant  folk,  but 
of  men  of  energy,  talent,  and  worth,  like  Hamza,  Abu  Bakr, 
and  Omar.     And  though  Ali  was  in  his  youth,  he  was  fast 
rising  into  prominence. 

These  important  adhesions  gave  heart  to  the  Moslems,  and 
they  now  ventured  to  perform  their  devotions  in  public.  The 
Koreish,  who  were  at  first  thunderstruck  at  the  conversion  of 
Omar,  saw  the  gravity  of  the  situation.  And  yet  they  waited 
to  strike  the  decisive  blow. 

The  return  of  the  deputies,  however,  from  Abyssinia,  and  the 
announcement  of  their  unsuccessful  mission,  roused  them  to 
frenzy.  They  determined  at  last  to  exterminate  with  one 
stroke  the  entire  clan  of  Hashim  and  Muttahb.  With  that 
purpose  they,  in  the  7th  year  of  the  Mission,  towards  the 
end  of  616  A.c,  formed  a  league  against  the  descendants  of 
Hashim  and  Muttalib.  They  bound  themselves  by  a  solemn 
document,  which  was  deposited  in  the  Kaaba,  not  to  enter 
into  any  contract  of  marriage  with  the  Hashimites,  or  to  buy 
and  sell  with  them.  The  Hashimites  and  Muttalibites, 
Musulmans  as  well  as  idolaters,  were  struck  with  dismay, 
and  fearful  that  this  might  be  the  prelude  to  some  other  attack, 
judged  it  safer  to  abandon  their  houses  dispersed  in  the  city, 


I.  THE  YEAR  OF  MOURNING  39 

and  concentrate  themselves  at  one  point.  They  betook 
themselves  accordingly  to  the  Shi'b  (or  quarter)  of  Abu  Talib 
— a  long,  narrow  mountain  defile  on  the  eastern  skirts  of 
Mecca,  cut  off  by  rocks  or  walls  from  the  city,  except  for  one 
narrow  gateway.  Abu  Lahab  alone  remained  aloof,  and 
ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  the  enemy. 

They  lived  in  this  defensive  position  with  Mohammed  in 
their  midst  for  nearly  three  years,  beleaguered  by  the  Koreish, 
and  subjected  to  every  privation.  The  provisions  which  they 
had  carried  with  them  were  soon  exhausted,  and  the  cries  of 
the  starving  children  could  be  heard  outside.  Probably  they 
would  have  entirely  perished  but  for  the  occasional  help  they 
received  surreptitiously  from  less  bigoted  compatriots.  Some 
of  the  chiefs,  however,  were  beginning  to  be  ashamed  of  their 
injustice.  Towards  the  tenth  year  of  the  Mission  (619  A.c), 
Hisham,  son  of  'Amr,  who  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  Hashi- 
mites,  tried  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  the 
Koreishites  and  the  two  families  of  Hashim  and  Muttalib. 
He  succeeded  in  winning  over  Zubair,  son  of  Abu  Ommeyya, 
to  his  side  ;  and,  seconded  by  him  and  others,  the  pact  was 
annulled,  and  the  two  families  were  taken  back  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  communal  rights,  and  were  allowed  to  return  to 
Mecca. 

During  the  period  Mohammed  was  shut  up  in  the  Shi'b  with 
his  kinspeople,  Islam  made  no  progress  outside.  In  the 
sacred  months,  when  violence  was  considered  a  sacrilege,  the 
Teacher  would  come  out  of  his  prison  and  endeavour  to  obtain 
hearers  among  the  pilgrims  ;  but  the  squint-eyed  "  Father  of 
the  Flame  "  followed  him  about,  and  made  his  words  nought 
by  calling  him  "  a  liar  and  a  Sabean." 

The  year  which  followed  is  called  in  the  history  of  Islam 
"  the  Year  of  Mourning  "  for  the  loss  of  Abu  Talib  and  Khadija, 
who  followed  each  other  to  the  grave  within  a  short  interval. 
In  Abu  Talib,  Mohammed  lost  the  guardian  of  his  youth,  who 
had  hitherto  stood  between  him  and  his  enemies.  The  death 
of  Khadija  was  a  severe  blow.  When  none  believed  in  him, 
when  he  himself  had  not  yet  awakened  to  the  full  consciousness 
of  his  mission,  and  his  heart  was  full  of  doubts,  when  all  around 
him  was  dark  and  despairing,  her  love,  her  faith  had  stood  by 


40  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

him.  "  She  was  ever  his  angel  of  hope  and  consolation." 
To  the  end  of  his  hfe  he  retained  the  tenderest  recollection  of 
her  love  and  devotion. 


Note  to  Chapter  I. 

Sir  W.  Muir  thinks  M.  Caussin  de  Perceval  has  made  a 
mistake  in  supposing  Batha  to  be  the  name  of  a  place.  He 
thinks  it  signifies  the  nature  of  the  soil  over  which  these 
people  were  tortured ;  vol.  ii,  p.  128.  To  corroborate  M. 
Caussin  de  Perceval  and  myself,  I  have  only  to  add  that  the 
existence  of  this  place  is  an  undoubted  fact ;  and  Batha 
especially  has  been  frequently  referred  to  by  Mohammedan 
authors  as  a  place  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Mecca.  For 
example,  the  celebrated  Hakim  Sanai  says  : 

Cho  'ilniat  hast  khidmat  kun  cho 

bi-'ilman,  ke  zisht  aid, 
Girifta  Chinian  ihram,  wa  Mekki 

khufta  dar  Batha. 

"  If  thou  possessest  knowledge,  serve  like  those  who  are 
ignorant  ;  for  it  is  unseemly  that  people  from  China  should 
adopt  the  Ihram  (that  is  to  say,  come  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca),  and  the  native  of  Mecca  should  lie  sleeping  at  Batha." 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  HEGIRA 


'» 


THE  children  of  Ommeyya  and  other  hostile  clans, 
actuated  as  much  by  their  attachment  to  the  old  cult 
as  by  their  jealousy  of,  and  hatred  towards,  the 
Hashimites,  considered  this  a  favourable  opportunity  to  crush 
out  Islam  in  Mecca  ;  and  the  death  of  Abu  Tahb,  whose 
personal  influence  and  character  had  restrained  their  fury 
within  some  limits,  became  the  signal  for  the  Koreish  to 
redouble  their  persecutions.^ 

Weighed  down  by  the  loss  of  his  venerable  protector  and  of 
his  cherished  wife,  hopeless  of  turning  the  Koreish  from 
idolatry,  with  a  saddened  heart,  and  yet  full  of  trust,  he 
determined  to  turn  to  some  other  field  for  the  exercise  of  his 
ministry.  Mecca  had  rejected  the  words  of  God,  hapless 
Tayef  may  listen  to  them.  Accompanied  by  his  faithful 
servant  Zaid,  he  arrived  among  the  Thakif.^  He  spoke  to 
them  about  his  Mission  ;  told  them  about  their  iniquities,  and 
called  them  to  the  worship  of  God.  His  words  caused  a  storm 
of  indignation.  Who  was  this  crazy  man,  said  they,  who 
invited  them  to  abandon  the  beautiful  divinities  they  wor- 
shipped with  such  hghtness  of  heart  and  such  freedom  of 
morals  ?  They  drove  him  from  the  city  ;  and  the  rabble  and 
the  slaves  followed,  hooting  and  pelting  him  with  stones  until 
the  evening,  when  they  left  him  to  pursue  his  way  alone. 
Wounded  and  bleeding,  footsore  and  weary,  he  betook  himself 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  69.  -  The  people  of  Tayef. 


42  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

to  prayer  under  the  shade  of  some  palm  trees,  which  afforded 
a  welcome  shelter  to  the  thirsty  and  famished  wayfarer. 
Raising  his  hands  towards  heaven,  he  cried  :  "  O  Lord  !  I 
make  my  complaint  unto  Thee,  out  of  my  feebleness,  and  the 
vanity  of  my  wishes,  I  am  insignificant  in  the  sight  of  men. 

0  Thou  most  merciful !  Lord  of  the  weak  !  Thou  art  my 
Lord  !  Do  not  forsake  me.  Leave  me  not  a  prey  to  strangers, 
nor  to  mine  enemies.     If  Thou  art  not  offended,  I  am  safe. 

1  seek  refuge  in  the  light  of  Thy  countenance,  by  which  all 
darkness  is  dispersed,  and  peace  comes  here  and  hereafter. 
Let  not  Thy  anger  descend  on  me  ;  solve  my  difficulties  as 
it  pleaseth  Thee.  There  is  no  power,  no  help,  but  in 
Thee."  1 

Mohammed  returned  to  Mecca  sorely  stricken  in  heart.  He 
lived  here  for  some  time,  retired  from  his  people,  preaching 
occasionally,  but  confining  his  efforts  mainly  to  the  strangers 
who  congregated  in  Mecca  and  its  vicinity  during  the  season 
of  the  annual  pilgrimage,  hoping,  as  Tabari  expresses  it,  to  find 
among  them  some  who  would  believe  in  him,  and  carry  the 
truth  to  their  people. 

One  day,  whilst  thus  sadly  but  yet  hopefully  working  among 
these  half-traders,  half-pilgrims,  he  came  upon  a  group  of  six 
men  from  the  distant  city  of  Yathrib  conversing  together. 
He  asked  them  to  sit  down  and  listen  to  him  ;  and  they  sat 
down  and  listened.  Struck  by  his  earnestness  and  the  truth 
of  his  words,  they  became  his  proselytes  (620  a.c.)  ;  ^  and 
returning  to  their  city,  they  spread  the  news,  with  lightning 
rapidity,  that  a  Prophet  had  risen  among  the  Arabs  who  was 
to  call  them  to  God,  and  put  an  end  to  their  dissensions,  which 
had  lasted  for  centuries. 

The  next  year  these  Yathribites  returned,  and  brought  six 
more  of  their  fellow-citizens  as  deputies  from  the  two  principal 
tribes  who  occupied  that  city.^ 

On  the  self-same  spot  which  had  witnessed  the  conversion 
of  the  former  six,  the  new-comers  gave  in  their  adhesion  to 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  279,  280  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  70,  71. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  286,  287  ;    Tabari  (Zotenberg's  transl.),  vol.  ii.  p.  438. 

3  Aus  and  Khazraj. 


II.  THE  FIRST  PLEDGE  OF  'AKABA  43 

Mohammed.  This  is  called  the  first  Pledge  of  'Akaba,  from  the 
name  of  the  hill  on  which  the  conference  was  lield.^ 

The  pledge  they  took  was  as  follows  :  ' '  We  will  not  associate 
anything  with  God  ;  we  will  not  steal,  nor  commit  adultery, 
nor  fornication  ;  we  will  not  kill  our  children  ;  we  will  abstain 
from  calumny  and  slander  ;  we  will  obey  the  Prophet  in 
everything  that  is  right  ;  and  we  will  be  faithful  to  him  in  weal 
and  in  sorrow."  ^ 

After  the  pledge,  they  returned  home  with  a  disciple  of 
Mohammed  to  teach  them  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the 
new  rehgion,  which  rapidly  spread  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Yathrib. 

The  interval  which  elapsed  between  the  first  and  second 
pledge  is  remarkable  as  one  of  the  most  critical  periods  of 
Mohammed's  Mission.  The  subhme  trust  of  Mohammed  in 
God,  and  the  grandeur  of  his  character,  never  stand  forth 
more  prominently  than  at  this  period.  He  was  sad  at  the 
sight  of  his  people  so  sternly  wedded  to  idolatry  ;  ^  but  his 
sorrow  was  assuaged  by  the  hope  that  the  truth  would  in  the 
end  prevail.'*  He  might  not  Hve  to  see  it  ;  ^  but  as  surely 
as  darkness  flies  before  the  rays  of  the  sun,  so  surely  falsehood 
will  vanish  before  truth. ^  Regarding  this  epoch,  a  few  words 
of  unconscious  admiration  escape  even  the  lips  of  Muir : 
"  Mahomet,  thus  holding  his  people  at  bay,  waiting,  in  the 
still  expectation  of  victory,  to  outward  appearance  defenceless, 
and  with  his  little  band,  as  it  were,  in  the  Hon's  mouth,  yet 
trusting  in  His  Almighty  power  whose  messenger  he  beUeved 
himself  to  be,  resolute  and  unmoved — presents  a  spectacle  of 
sublimity  paralleled  only  in  the  sacred  records  by  such  scenes 
as  that  of  the  prophet  of  Israel,  when  he  complained  to  his 
Master,  '  I,  even  I  only,  am  left.'  "  ' 

^  In  the  history  of  Islam,  this  pledge  is  also  called  the  "  Pledge  of  Women," 
in  contradistinction  to  the  second  pledge,  in  which  the  deputies  of  Yathrib 
took  an  oath  to  assist  the  Moslems,  even  by  arms  against  the  attacks  and 
outrages  of  their  enemies. 

2  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  289  ;   Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol  ii.  pp.  73,  74. 

*  Koran,  sura  vi.  ver.  107. 

*  Koran,  sura  xl.  ver.  78,  xliii.  ver.  40,  etc. 
^  Koran,  sura  xxi.  ver.  18. 

6  Koran,  sura  xvii.  ver.  18.  '  Life  of  Mahomet,  vol   ii.  p.  228. 


44  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

This  period  of  anxious  waiting  is  also  remarkable  for  that 
notable  Vision  of  the  Ascension  which  has  furnished  worlds 
of  golden  dreams  for  the  imaginative  genius  of  poets  and 
traditionists.  They  have  woven  beautiful  and  gorgeous 
legends  round  the  simple  words  of  the  Koran  :  "  Praise  be 
to  Him  who  carried  His  servant  by  night  from  the  sacred 
temple  to  the  temple  that  is  more  remote,  whose  precincts 
We  have  blessed,  that  We  might  show  him  some  of  our  signs  ! 
for  He  is  the  Hearer,  the  Seer."  ^  And  again  :  "  And  remember 
we  said  to  thee.  Verily,  thy  Lord  is  round  about  mankind  ; 
We  ordained  the  Vision  which  We  showed  thee."  ^  In  spite 
of  the  beautiful  garb  in  which  the  traditionists  have  dressed 
this  incident,  "it  is  still  a  grand  vision  full  of  glorious 
imagery,  fraught  with  deep  meaning."  ^ 

The  following  year  (622  a.c),  the  Yathribites  who  had  adopted 
the  new  religion  repaired  to  Mecca,  to  the  number  of  seventy- 
five,  in  company  with  their  idolatrous  brethren,  to  invite  the 
Prophet  to  their  city  ;  ^  but  the  idolaters  had  no  knowledge 
ot  the  intention  of  their  companions. 

In  the  stillness  of  night,*  when  all  hostile  elements  appeared 
slumbering,  these  pioneers  of  the  new  faith  met  under  the  hill 
which  had  witnessed  the  first  pledge.  Mohammed  appeared 
among  them,  accompanied  by  his  uncle  Abbas,  who,  though 
not  a  convert,  yet  took  a  warm  interest  in  the  progress  of 
Islam.  He  opened  the  conference,  and  vividly  described  to 
the  Yathribites  the  risk  they  incurred  by  adopting  Islam  and 
inviting  its  Teacher  to  their  city.     They  replied   with  one 

^  Koran,  chap.  xvii.  ver.  i.  "  All  that  Mohammedans  must  believe  res- 
pecting the  Meraj  is,  that  the  Prophet  saw  himself,  in  a  vision,  transported 
from  Mecca  to  Jerusalem,  and  that  in  such  vision  he  really  beheld  some  of 
the  greatest  signs  of  his  Lord.  It  must  be  evident  to  the  reader  that  the 
visions  also  of  a  prophet  are  a  mode  of  divine  inspiration." — Syed  Ahmed 
Khan,  Ess.  xi.  p.  3.4.  Muir  says  that  "  the  earliest  authorities  point  only  to 
a  vision,  not  to  a  real  bodily  journey,"  vol.  ii.  p.  221,  note.  Compare  the  early 
traditions  given  by  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  267,  which  support  this  view.  It  may,  I 
think,  be  fairly  asked  why  Christians,  who  believe  in  the  bodily  resurrection 
and  bodily  ascension  of  Jesus  and  of  Elijah,  should  look  upon  those  Moslems 
who  believe  in  the  bodily  ascension  of  Mohammed  as  less  rational  than  them- 
selves ? 

2  Stanley  Lane-Poole,  Introd.  to  the  Selections  from  the  Koran,  p.  Ivi. 

'  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  296  ;    al-Halabi,  Insdn  iil-'Uyiln,  vol.  i.  p.  389. 

*  In  the  night  of  the  first  and  second  day  of  the  Tashrik,  the  period  of 
three  days  which  follow  immediately  the  celebration  of  the  rites  of  the 
pilgrimage. 


II.  THE  SECOND  PLEDGE  OF  'AKABA  45 

voice,  that  they  adopted  the  rehgion  fully  conscious  of  the 
dangers  that  surrounded  them.  "  Speak,  O  Prophet  of  God," 
said  they,  "  and  exact  any  pledge  for  thyself  and  thy  Lord." 
The  Prophet  began,  as  was  his  wont,  by  reciting  several  passages 
of  the  Koran  ;  he  then  invited  all  present  to  the  service  of 
God,  and  dwelt  upon  the  blessings  of  the  new  dispensation.^ 
The  former  pledge  was  repeated,  that  they  would  worship 
none  but  God  ;  that  they  would  observe  the  precepts  of  Islam  ; 
that  they  would  obey  Mohammed  in  all  that  was  right,  and 
defend  him  and  his,  even  as  they  would  their  women  and 
children.2  "  And,"  said  they,  "  if  we  die  in  the  cause  of  God, 
what  shall  be  our  return  ?  "  "  Happiness  hereafter,"  was  the 
reply. ^  "  But,"  said  they,  "  thou  wilt  not  leave  us  in  the 
hour  of  prosperity  to  return  to  thy  people  ?  "  The  Prophet 
smiled  and  said  :  "  Nay  never  ;  your  blood  is  my  blood  ;  I  am 
yours,  you  are  mine."  "  Give  us  then  thy  hand  "  ;  and  each 
one  placing  his  hand  on  that  of  the  Prophet,  swore  allegiance 
to  him  and  his  God.  Scarcely  had  the  compact  been  concluded, 
when  the  voice  of  a  Meccan,  who  had  been  watching  this 
scene  from  a  distance,  came  floating  on  the  night  air,  striking 
a  sudden  panic  into  the  self-denying  hearts  there  assembled. 
The  firm  words  of  Mohammed  restored  their  presence  of  mind. 

Mohammed  then  selected  twelve  men  from  among  them — 
men  of  position,  pointed  out  to  him  by  the  voice  of  the  people 
— as  his  delegates  [Nakihs]}  Thus  was  concluded  the  second 
Pledge  of  'Akaba. 

The  Meccan  spy  had.  already  spread  the  news  of  this  confer- 
ence through  the  city.  Astounded  at  the  temerity  of  Moham- 
med and  his  followers,  the  Koreish  proceeded  in  a  body  to  the 
caravan  of  the  Yathribites  to  demand  the  men  who  had  entered 
into  the  pledge  with  him.  Finding  no  clue,  however,  as  to 
the  persons  who  had  taken  part  at  the  meeting,  they  allowed 
the  caravan  to  depart  unmolested.     But  this  apparent  modera- 

1  Ibn-Hishain,  p.  296  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  76.  -  Ibid. 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  77. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  2Q7-300.  Seventy- five  people,  men  and  women,  took 
part  in  thi.s  Pledge.  This  event  occurred  in  the  month  of  Zu'1-Hijja,  and  the 
Prophet  stopped  at  Mecca  throughout  the  remainder  of  this  month,  and 
Muharram  and  Safar.  In  Rabi  I.  he  left  for  Medina  ;  Ibn  ul  Athir,  vol.  ii. 
p.  78. 


46  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

tion  on  the  part  of  the  Koreish  formed  only  a  prelude  to  a 
furious  persecution  of  Mohammed  and  his  disciples.  The 
position  of  the  latter  became  every  day  more  and  more  perilous. 
The  Prophet,  fearing  a  general  massacre,  advised  his  followers 
to  seek  immediate  safety  at  Yathrib  ;  whereupon  about  one 
hundred  families  silently  disappeared  by  twos  and  threes  from 
Mecca  and  proceeded  to  Yathrib,  where  they  were  received 
with  enthusiasm.  Entire  quarters  of  the  city  thus  became 
deserted  ;  and  'Otba,  the  son  of  Rab'ia,  at  the  sight  of  these 
vacant  abodes,  once  so  full  of  life,  "  sighed  heavily,"  and 
recited  the  old  verse  :  "  Every  dwelling-place,  even  if  it  has 
been  blessed  ever  so  long,  will  one  day  become  a  prey  to 
unhappiness  and  bitter  wind "  ;  "  And,"  he  sorrowfully 
added,  "  all  this  is  the  work  of  the  son  of  our  brother,  who  has 
scattered  our  assemblies,  ruined  our  affairs,  and  created 
dissension  amongst  us."  ^ 

As  it  was  with  Jesus,  so  it  was  with  Mohammed  ;  only  with 
this  difference,  that  in  one  case  the  Teacher  himself  says  : 
"  Think  not  that  I  came  to  send  peace  on  earth  ;  I  came  not 
to  send  peace,  but  a  sword  :  for  I  am  come  to  set  a  man  at 
variance  against  his  father,  and  the  daughter  against  her 
mother,  and  the  daughter-in-law  against  her  mother-in-law."  ^ 
In  Mohammed's  case  it  was  one  of  his  most  persevering  oppon- 
ents who  accused  him  of  creating  dissension  in  families. 

Throughout  this  period,  when  the  storm  was  at  its  height 
and  might  at  any  moment  have  burst  over  his  head,  Mohammed 
never  quailed.  All  his  disciples  had  left  for  Yathrib  ;  alone 
he  remained  bravely  at  his  post,  with  the  devoted  Ali  and  the 
venerable  Abu  Bakr. 

Meanwhile  the  clouds  were  gathering  fast.  Fearful  of  the 
escape  of  the  Prophet,  an  assembly  of  the  Koreish  met  in  all 
despatch  in  the  town-hall  (Dar  un-Nadwa),  and  some  chiefs 
of  other  clans  were  invited  to  attend.  The  matter  had  become 
one  of  life  and  death.  Stormy  was  the  meeting,  for  fear  had 
entered  their  hearts.  Imprisonment  for  Hfe,  expulsion  from 
the  city,  each  was  debated  in  turn.  Assassination  was  then 
proposed  ;  but  assassination  by  one  man  would  have  exposed 
him  and  his  family  to  the  vengeance  of  blood.     The  difificulty 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  316.  2  Matt.  x.  34,  35. 


II.  THE  HEGIRA  47 

was  at  last  solved  by  Abu  Jahl/  who  suggested  that  a  number 
of  courageous  men,  chosen  from  different  families,  should 
sheathe  their  swords  simultaneously  in  Mohammed's  bosom,  in 
order  that  the  responsibility  of  the  deed  might  rest  upon  all, 
and  the  relations  of  Mohammed  might  consequently  be  unable 
to  avenge  it.  This  proposal  was  accepted,  and  a  number  of 
noble  youths  were  selected  for  the  sanguinary  deed.  As  the 
night  advanced,  the  assassins  posted  themselves  round  the 
Prophet's  dwelling.  Thus  they  watched  all  night  long,  waiting 
to  murder  him  when  he  should  leave  his  house  in  the  early 
dawn,  peeping  now  and  then  through  a  hole  in  the  door  to 
make  sure  that  he  still  lay  on  his  bed.  But,  meanwhile,  the 
instinct  of  self-preservation,  the  instinct  which  had  often  led 
the  great  Prophet  of  Nazareth  to  evade  his  enemies, ^  had 
warned  Mohammed  of  the  danger.  In  order  to  keep  the 
attention  of  the  assassins  fixed  upon  the  bed,  he  put  his  own 
green  garment  upon  the  devoted  and  faithful  Ali,  bade  him 
lie  on  his  bed,^  "  and  escaped,  as  David  had  escaped,  through 
the  windows."  He  repaired  to  the  house  of  Abu  Bakr,  and 
they  fled  together  unobserved  from  the  inhospitable  city  of 
their  birth.  They  lay  hid  for  several  days  in  a  cavern  of 
Mount  Thaur,  a  hill  to  the  south  of  Mecca. ^ 

The  fury  of  the  Koreish  was  now  unbounded.  The  news 
that  the  would-be  assassins  had  returned  unsuccessful,  and 
Mohammed  had  escaped,  aroused  their  whole  energy.  Horsemen 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  323-32,5  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  79  ;  the  Koran,  sura 
viii.  vcr.  30.  According  to"  Ibn-Hisham,  this  proposal  of  Abu  Jahl,  one  of 
the  Koreish,  was  seconded  by  a  stranger,  in  the  guise  of  a  venerable  Sheikh 
from  Najd  whom  tradition  has  resolved  into  Satan  himself.  Abii  Jahl  was 
one  of  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  Prophet.  His  real  name  was  'Amr  and  he 
was  surnamed,  for  his  sagacity,  Abit'l  Hikam  ("  father  of  wisdom,"  in  the 
plural).  Owing  to  his  fanaticism  and  bigotry,  which  prevented  his  perceiving 
any  good  in  the  new  Teachings,  Mohammed  called  him  instead  Abil  Jahl 
{"  father  of  ignorance  ").  Ignorance  has  in  all  ages  posed  as  the  champion 
of  orthodoxy.  Abu  Jahl  has  thus  become  a  type.  It  is  to  this  fact  Hakim 
Sanai,  the  great  mystical  poet,  refers  in  the  following  couplet  : — 

"  Ahmed-i-Mursal  nishista  kai  raivci  darad  Khirad. 
Dil  asir-i-s'iyat-i-Bii  Jahl-i-Kdfir  ddshtan." 

"  Ahmed  the  Prophet  is  sitting  (in  your  midst),  how  can  reason  allow 

"  The  heart  to  become  captive  of  the  qualities  of  Bu-Jahl  the  unbeliever." 

-  Comp.  Milman,  Hist,  of  Christiauity,  vol.  i.  p.  253. 
'  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  325  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  80. 
'  See  Desvergers'  note  (57)  to  his  Abulfeda,  p.  116. 


48  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED 


I 


scoured  the  country.  A  price  was  set  upon  Mohammed 
head.^  Once  or  twice  the  danger  approached  so  near  that  th( 
heart  of  old  Abu  Bakr  quaked  with  fear.  "  We  are  but  two,' 
said  he.  "  Nay,"  said  Mohammed,  "  we  are  three,  God  i; 
with  us  ;  "  and  He  was  with  them.  After  three  days  th( 
Koreish  slackened  their  efforts.  All  this  time  Mohammec 
and  his  companion  were  sustained  by  food  brought  to  therr 
at  night  by  a  daughter  of  Abu  Bakr.^  On  the  evening  of  th( 
third  day  the  fugitives  left  the  cavern,  and,  procuring  witt 
great  difficulty  two  camels,  endeavoured  to  reach  Yathrib  bj^ 
unfrequented  paths.  But  even  here  the  way  was  full  of 
danger.  The  heavy  price  set  upon  Mohammed's  head  had 
brought  out  many  horsemen  from  Mecca,  and  they  were  still 
diligently  seeking  for  the  helpless  wanderer.  One,  a  wild  and 
fierce  warrior,  actually  caught  sight  of  the  fugitives  and 
pursued  them.  Again  the  heart  of  Abu  Bakr  misgave  him, 
and  he  cried,  "  We  are  lost."  "  Be  not  afraid,"  said  the 
Prophet,  "  God  will  protect  us."  As  the  idolater  overtook 
Mohammed,  his  horse  reared  and  fell.  Struck  with  sudden 
awe,  he  entreated  the  forgiveness  of  the  man  whom  he  was 
pursuing  and  asked  for  an  attestation  of  his  pardon.  This 
was  given  to  him  on  a  piece  of  bone  by  Abu  Bakr.^ 

The  fugitives  continued  their  journey  without  further 
molestation  and  after  three  days'  journeying  reached  the 
territories  of  Yathrib.  It  was  a  hot  day  in  June,  622  of  the 
Christian  era,  when  Mohammed  alighted  from  his  camel  upon 
the  soil  which  was  thenceforth  to  become  his  home  and  his 
refuge.  A  Jew  watching  on  a  tower  first  espied  him,*  and 
thus  were  the  words  of  the  Koran  fulfilled  :  "  They,  to  whom 
the  Scriptures  have  been  given,  recognise  him  as  they  do  their 
own  children."  ^  Mohammed  and  his  companion  rested  for  a 
few  days  "^  at  a  village  called  Koba,'  situated  only  two  miles 
to  the  south  of  Yathrib,  and  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and 

^  Of  a  hundred  camels,  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  328  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  81. 

2  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  81. 

3  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  331,  332  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  ibid. 

■*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  330.  *  Koran,  sura  vi.  ver.  20. 

fi  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday  and  Thursday,  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  335  ; 
Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  83. 

'  See  Desvergers'  Abulfeda,  p.  116,  note  59. 


II.  THE  HEGIRA  49 

fertility.  Here  he  was  joined  by  Ali,  who  had  been  severely 
maltreated  by  the  idolaters  after  their  disappointment  at 
Mohammed's  escape. ^  Ah  fled  from  Mecca  and  journeyed 
on  foot,  hiding  himself  in  the  daytime  and  travelling  only  at 
night,  lest  he  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Koreish.^ 

The  Bani  'Amr  bin-'Auf,  to  whom  the  village  belonged, 
invited  the  Prophet  to  prolong  his  stay  amongst  them. 
But  his  duty  lay  before  him  ;  and  he  proceeded  towards 
Yathrib,  attended  by  a  numerous  body  of  his  disciples.  He 
entered  the  city  on  the  morning  of  a  Friday,  i6th  of  Rabi 
I.,  corresponding  (according  to  M.  Caussin  de  Perceval)  with 
the  2nd  of  July  622. ^ 

.  Thus  was  accomplished  the  Hijrat,  called  in  European  annals 
"  the  flight  of  Mohammed,"  from  which  dates  the  Mohammedan 
calendar. 


Note  i  to  Chapter  II 

The  "  Hegira,"  or  the  era  of  the  Hijrat,  was  instituted 
seventeen  years  later  by  the  second  Caliph.  The  commence- 
ment, however,  is  not  laid  at  the  real  time  of  the  departure 
from  Mecca,  which  happened  on  the  4th  of  Rabi  I.,  but  on  the 
first  day  of  the  first  lunar  month  of  the  year,  viz.  Muharram 
— which  day,  in  the  year  when  the  era  was  estabhshed,  fell 
on  the  15th  of  July. 

But  though  Omar  instituted  the  official  era,  the  custom  of 
referring  to  events  as  happening  before  or  after  the  Hijrat 
originated,  according  to  some  traditions,  with  the  Prophet 
himself ;  this  event  naturally  marking  the  greatest  crisis  in 
the  history  of  his  Mission. — Conip.  al-Halabi,  Insdn-ul-'Uyun, 
in  loco. 


Note  2  to  Chapter  II 

The  twelve  Moslem  months   are  ;    Muharram   (the  sacred 
month),  Safar  (the  month  of  departure),  Rabi  I.  (first  month 

'  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  80. 

^  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  82. 

=>  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  pp.  17-20;    IbnHisham,  p.  335. 

S.I.  D 


50  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

of  the  spring),  Rabi  H.  (second  month  of  the  spring),  Jumadi 
I.   (first  dry  month),  Jumadi  H.   (second  dry  month),  Rajab  ! 
{respected,  called  often  Rajab  ul-Murajjah),  Sha'ban  (the  month  ! 
of  the  budding  of  trees),  Ramazan  (month  of  heat),  Shawwal 
(month   of   junction),    Zu'1-Ka'da    (month   of   truce,  rest,    or 
relaxation),  Zu'l   Hijja   (month  of  pilgrimage).     The  ancient 
Arabs  observed  the  lunar  year  of  354  days,  8  hours,  48  seconds, 
divided  into  twelve  months  of  29  and  30  days  alternately. 
In  order  to  make  them  agree  with  the  solar  year  of  their  neigh- 
bours, the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  also  in  order  to  make 
the  months  fall  in  the  right  season,  they  added  a  month  every  , 
third  year.     This  intercalation  was  called  Nasi ;   and  although  i 
it  was  not  perfectly  exact,  it  served  to  maintain  a  sort  of  } 
correlation  between  the  denomination  of  the  months  and  the  ] 
seasons.     Since  the  suppression  of  the  Nasi,  on  account  of  the 
orgies  and  various  heathen  rites  observed  in  the  intercalary 
years,  the  names  of  the  months  have  no  relation  to  the  seasons. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE 

PROPHET  AT  MEDINA 

U^\ 

'  y-i 

^Uv.>A  ,UJb    \] 

U^l 

IjV 

i   M^' 

>T    ^ 

Jia^^fe 

S^  >/«^U/«  yi  i^Ji  jj.*u,  Jliw  ^j^l 

ij-i 

i     ,v 

jI;     j      IcX^I 

'      /J^ 

FEW  Musulmans  of  the  present  day  understand  the 
full  import  of  the  mystical  verses  quoted  at  the 
head  of  this  chapter,  but  all  appreciate  the  deep 
devotion  to  the  grand  Seer  implied  in  those  words.  And 
this  devotion  is  not  one  which  has  twined  itself  round  a 
mythical  ideal,  or  has  grown  with  the  lapse  of  time.  From 
the  moment  of  his  advent  into  Yathrib  he  stands  in  the 
full  blaze  of  day — the  grandest  of  figures  upon  whom  the 
light  of  history  has  ever  shone.  The  minutest  details  of 
his  life  are  carefully  noted  and  handed  down  to  posterity, 
to  become  crystallised,  often  against  the  spirit  of  his  own 
Teachings,  which  aimed  at  the  perpetual  growth  of  the 
human  race.  We  have  seen  this  wonderful  man  as  an  orphan 
child  who  had  never  known  a  father's  love,  bereft  in  infancy 
of  a  mother's  care,  his  early  life  so  full  of  pathos,  growing  up 
from  a  thoughtful  childhood  to  a  still  more  thoughtful  youth. 
His  youth  as  pure  and  true  as  his  boyhood  ;  his  manhood  as 
austere  and  devout  as  his  youth.  His  ear  ever  open  to  the 
sorrows  and  sufferings  of  the  weak  and  the  poor  ;  his  heart 
ever  full  of  sympathy  and  tenderness  towards  all  God's  creatures. 
He  walks  so  humbly  and  so  purely,  that  men  turn  round  and 


52  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

point,  there  goes  al-Amin,  the  true,  the  upright,  the  trusty. 
A  faithful  friend,  a  devoted  husband  ;  a  thinker  intent  on  the 
mysteries  of  Ufe  and  death,  on  the  responsibihties  of  human 
actions,  the  end  and  aim  of  human  existence, — he  sets  himself 
to  the  task  of  reclaiming  and  reforming  a  nation,  nay,  a  world, 
with  only  one  loving  heart  to  comfort  and  solace  him.  Baffled, 
he  never  falters  ;  beaten,  he  never  despairs.  He  struggles 
on  with  indomitable  spirit  to  achieve  the  work  assigned  to  him. 
His  purity  and  nobleness  of  character,  his  intense  and  earnest 
belief  in  God's  mercy,  bring  round  him  ultimately  many  a 
devoted  heart ;  and  when  the  moment  of  the  severest  trial 
comes,  like  the  faithful  mariner,  he  remains  steadfast  at  his 
post  until  all  his  followers  are  safe,  and  then  betakes  himself 
to  the  hospitable  shore  :  such  we  have  seen  him.  We  shall 
see  him  now  the  king  of  men,  the  ruler  of  human  hearts,  chief, 
lawyer,  and  supreme  magistrate,  and  yet  without  any  self- 
exaltation,  lowly  and  humble.  His  history  henceforth  is 
merged  in  the  history  of  the  commonwealth  of  which  he  was 
the  centre.  Henceforth  the  Preacher  who  with  his  own 
hands  mended  his  clothes,  and  often  went  without  bread,  was 
mightier  than  the  mightiest  sovereigns  of  the  earth. 

"  Mohammed  had  shown  men  what  he  was  ;  the  nobility 
of  his  character,  his  strong  friendship,  his  endurance  and 
courage,  above  all,  his  earnestness  and  fiery  enthusiasm  for 
the  truth  he  came  to  preach — these  things  had  revealed  the 
hero ;  the  master  whom  it  was  aUke  impossible  to  disobey 
and  impossible  not  to  love.  Henceforward  it  is  only  a  question 
of  time.  As  the  men  of  Medina  come  to  know  Mohammed, 
they  too  will  devote  themselves  to  him  body  and  soul ;  and 
the  enthusiasm  will  catch  fire  and  spread  among  the  tribes, 
till  all  Arabia  is  at  the  feet  of  the  Prophet  of  the  one  God. 
'  No  emperor  with  his  tiaras  was  obeyed  as  this  man  in  a  cloak 
of  his  own  clouting.'  He  had  the  gift  of  influencing  men,  and 
he  had  the  nobihty  only  to  influence  them  for  good." 

Medina,  the  "  illuminated  "  ^ — the  city  of  many  names — 
is  situated  about  eleven  days'  journey  to  the  north  of  Mecca. 
Now  a  walled  city  of  considerable  strength,  in  those  days  it 
was  completely  open  and  exposed  to  outside  attacks  until  the 

1  Munawwareh. 


III.  THE  PROPHET  AT  MEDINA  53 

Prophet  made  the  famous  moat  as  a  defence  against  the 
Koreishites.  The  city  is  said  to  have  been  estabUshed  by  an 
'Amalekite  chief,  whose  name  it  bore  until  the  advent  of  the 
Prophet.  In  early  times  Yathrib^  and  its  environs  were 
inhabited  by  the  'Amalekites  ;  these  are  said  to  have  been 
overwhelmed  and  destroyed  by  successive  colonies  of  Jews, 
who,  flying  before  Babylonian  and  Greek  and  Roman  perse- 
cutors or  avengers,  entered  Arabia  and  established  themselves 
in  the  northern  part  of  Hijaz.  The  most  important  of  these 
colonies  were  the  Bani-Nazir  at  Khaibar,  the  Bani-Kuraizha 
at  Fidak,  the  Bani-Kainuka'a  near  Medina  itself.  Living  in 
fortified  cantons,  they  had  domineered  over  the  neighbouring 
Arab  tribes,  until  the  estabhshment  of  two  Kahtanite  tribes, 
Aus  and  Khazraj  at  Yathrib.  These  two  tribes,  who  yielded 
at  first  some  sort  of  obedience  to  the  Jews,  were  able  to  reduce 
them  to  a  state  of  clientage.  Before  long,  however,  they 
commenced  quarrelling  among  themselves,  and  it  was  only 
about  the  time  when  the  Prophet  announced  his  Mission  at 
Mecca  that,  after  long  years  of  decimating  warfare,  they  had 
succeeded  in  patching  up  a  peace. 

Such  was  the  political  condition  of  Yathrib  when  the  Prophet 
made  his  appearance  among  the  Yathribites.  With  his 
advent  a  new  era  dawned  upon  the  city. 

The  two  tribes  of  Aus  and  Khazraj,  forgetting  their  inveterate 
and  mortal  feuds  in  the  brotherhood  of  the  Faith,  rallied  round 
the  standard  of  Islam  and  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Moslem 
commonwealth.  The  old  divisions  were  effaced,  and  the  honor- 
able designation  of  Ansdr  (Helpers)  became  the  common  title 
of  all  who  had  helped  Islam  in  its  hour  of  trial.  The  faithful 
band  who  had  forsaken  their  beloved  birthplace,  and  every  tie  of 
home,  received  the  name  of  Muhdjirin  (Emigrants  or  Exiles). 

In  order  to  unite  the  Ansdr  and  the  Muhdjirin  in  closer 
bonds,  the  Prophet  estabUshed  a  brotherhood  between  them, 
which  linked  them  together  in  sorrow  and  in  happiness. 

Yathrib  changed  its  ancient  name,  and  was  henceforth 
styled  Medinat  un-Nabi,  the  City  of  the  Prophet,  or  shortly, 
Medina,  the  city  par  excellence. 

1  With  a  Cl»  (pronounced  by  the  Arabs  Hke  ih  in  thiv,  by  all  non-Arabs 
likes). 


54  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

A  mosque  was  soon  built,  in  the  erection  of  which  Mohammed 
assisted  with  his  own  hands ;  and  houses  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  exiles  rose  apace.  Two  brothers,  who  owned 
the  land  on  which  it  was  proposed  to  build  the  mosque,  had 
offered  it  as  a  free  gift  ;  but  as  they  were  orphans,  the  Prophet 
paid  them  its  value. 

The  building  was  simple  in  form  and  structure,  suited  to  the 
unostentatious  religion  he  taught.  The  walls  were  of  brick 
and  earth,  and  the  roof  of  palm  leaves.  A  portion  of  the 
mosque  was  set  apart  as  a  habitation  for  those  who  had  no 
home  of  their  own. 

Everything  in  this  humble  place  of  worship  was  conducted 
with  the  greatest  simplicity.  Mohammed  preached  and 
prayed  standing  on  the  bare  ground  or  leaning  against  a 
palm  tree,  and  the  devoted  hearts  around  him  beat  in  unison 
with  his  soul-stirring  words. 

"  He  who  is  not  affectionate  to  God's  creatures  and  to  his 
own  children,"  he  would  say,  "  God  will  not  be  affectionate  to 
him.  Every  Moslem  who  clothes  the  naked  will  be  clothed  by 
God  in  the  green  robes  of  Paradise."  ^ 

In  one  of  his  sermons  he  thus  dwelt  on  the  subject  of  charity  : 
"  When  God  created  the  earth,  it  shook  and  trembled,  until 
He  put  mountains  upon  it  to  make  it  firm.  Then  the  angels 
asked,  '  O  God,  is  there  anything  in  Thy  creation  stronger  than 
these  mountains  ?  '  And  God  replied,  '  Iron  is  stronger  than 
the  mountains,  for  it  breaks  them.'  '  And  is  there  anything 
in  Thy  creation  stronger  than  iron  ?  '  '  Yes  ;  lire  is  stronger 
than  iron,  for  it  melts  it.'  '  Is  there  anything  in  Thy  creation 
stronger  than  fire  ?  '  '  Yes,  water,  for  it  quenches  fire.'  '  0 
Lord,  is  there  anything  in  Thy  creation  stronger  than  water  ?  ' 
'  Yes  ;  wind,  for  it  overcomes  water  and  puts  it  in  motion.' 
'  Oh,  our  Sustainer,  is  there  anything  in  Thy  creation  stronger 
than  wind  ?  '  '  Yes  ;  a  good  man  giving  alms  ;  if  he  give 
with  his  right  hand  and  conceal  it  from  his  left,  he  overcomes 
all  things.'  " 

His  definition  of  charity  embraced  the  wide  circle  of  kindness  : 
"  Every  good  act,"  he  would  say,  "  is  charity.  Your  smiling 
in  3^our  brother's  face  is  charity  ;   an  exhortation  addressed  to 

1  From  Abu  Huraira,  Mishkat,  book  xii.  chap.  iii.  part  i. 


III.  THE  PROPHET  AT  MEDINA  55 

your  fellow-men  to  do  virtuous  deeds  is  equal  to  alms-giving. 
Putting  a  wanderer  in  the  right  path  is  charity  ;  assisting  the 
blind  is  charity ;  removing  stones  and  thorns  and  other 
obstructions  from  the  road  is  charity  ;  giving  water  to  the 
thirsty  is  charity."  ^  "A  man's  true  wealth  hereafter  is  the 
good  he  does  in  this  world  to  his  fellow-men.  When  he  dies, 
people  will  ask,  What  property  has  he  left  behind  him  ?  But 
the  angels,  who  examine  him  in  the  grave, ^  will  ask,  What  good 
deeds  hast  thou  sent  before  thee  ?  " 

"  Oh  Prophet  !  "  said  one  of  his  disciples,  "  my  mother, 
Umm  Sa'd,  is  dead  ;  what  is  the  best  alms  I  can  give  away 
for  the  good  of  her  soul  ?  "  "  Water  !  "  replied  Mohammed, 
bethinking  himself  of  the  panting  heat  of  the  desert.  "  Dig 
a  well  for  her,  and  give  water  to  the  thirsty."  The  man 
dug  a  well  in  his  mother's  name,  and  said,  "  This  is  for  my 
mother,  that  its  blessings  may  reach  her  soul." 

"  Charity  of  the  tongue,"  says  Irving,  "  that  most  important 
and  least  cultivated  of  charities,  was  likewise  earnestly  incul- 
cated by  Mahomet."  Abu  Jariya,  an  inhabitant  of  Basra, 
coming  to  Medina,  and  being  convinced  of  the  apostolic  office 
of  Mohammed,  begged  of  him  some  great  rule  of  conduct. 
"  Speak  evil  of  no  one,"  answered  the  Prophet.  "  From  that 
time,"  says  Abu  Jariya,  "  I  never  abused  any  one,  whether 
freeman  or  slave." 

The  teachings  of  Islam  extended  to  the  courtesies  of  life. 
Make  a  salutation  to  the  dwellers  of  a  house  on  entering  and 
leaving  it.^  Return  the  salute  of  friends  and  acquaintances, 
and  wayfarers  on  the  road.  He  who  rides  must  be  the  first  to 
make  the  salute  to  him  who  walks  ;  he  who  walks  to  him 
who  is  sitting ;  a  small  party  to  a  large  party,  and  the  young 
to  the  old."  ■* 

^  From  Abu  Sa'id  Khazri.  ^  See  post,  pt.  ii.  chap.  x. 

^  Compare  Koran,  chap.  xxiv.  vers.  27,  28,  61  and  62. 

■•  From  Abu  Hurairah,  Mishkdt,  Bk.  xxii.  chap.  i.  part  i.  Besides  the 
references  already  given,  consult  the  Kitub  ul-Mustatraf,  chaps,  iv.  v.  x.  xiii. 
xix.  xxii.  xxiii.  and  xxv  The  Mustatraf  gives  fully  the  references  to  Tirmizi, 
Muslim,  and  Bukhari.     Consult  also  the  Majcdis  ul-Abrdr.  Majlis  (seance),  84. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  HOSTILITY    OF  THE  KOREISH  AND  THE  JEWS 

I  A.H.^igth  April  622-'/ th  May  623  A.C. 

.^iJ!  ^Ikxj  >lsv-,    ^^^i^l  ^w'»»=>'' 

AT  this  time  there  were  three  distinct  parties  in  Medina. 
The  Muhajirin  (the  Exiles)  and  the  Ansar  (the  Helpers)    ; 
^     formed  the  kernel  of  Islam.     Their  devotion  to  the   ' 
Prophet    was    unbounded.     The    Exiles    had    forsaken    their    ' 
I  A.H.  =  i9th        homes,   and  abandoned,  contrary  to  all  Arab 
April  622  to  7th    traditions,   the  ties  of  kith  and  kin,   in   the 
ay  23  A.C.  cause    of   the    Faith.     They   had    braved    all 

sufferings,  withstood  all  temptations  in  the  service  of  the 
Lord.  Many  of  them  had  come  to  the  City  of  Safety  ■ 
without  means.  They  had  been  received  with  open  arms  1 
by  the  Medinite  converts,  who  in  many  cases  shared  their  \ 
worldly  goods  with  the  poorer  of  the  new-comers.  The  i 
brotherhood  of  Faith,  so  wisely  established  by  the  Prophet,  ; 
whilst  it  prevented  the  growth  of  jealousy,  gave  rise  to  a    I 


IV.  THE  PROPHET  IN  MEDINA  57 

generous  emulation,  both  among  the  Ansar  and  the  Muhajiiin, 
as  to  who  would  bring  the  greatest  sacrifice  in  the  service  of 
God  and  His  Prophet.  The  enthusiasm  and  earnestness  with 
which  these  men  and  women  devoted  themselves  to  the  new 
awakening,  the  zeal  with  which  they  laid  down  their  lives, 
was  a  manifestation  such  as  had  not  been  seen  since  the  best 
days  of  the  Christian  phase  of  religious  development.  The 
second,  and  at  first  by  no  means  an  unimportant  party,  was 
composed  principally  of  lukewarm  converts  to  the  Faith, 
who  retained  an  ill-concealed  predilection  for  idolatry  ;  and 
was  headed  by  Abdullah  ibn-Ubayy,  a  chief  of  some  position 
in  the  city,  who  aspired  to  the  kinghood  of  Medina.  With 
this  object  he  had  gathered  round  him,  like  Abu  Sufian  at 
Mecca,  a  strong  body  of  partizans.  Everything  was  ripe 
for  him  to  seize  the  reins  of  power,  when  the  arrival  of  the 
Prophet  upset  his  designs.  The  popular  enthusiasm  compelled 
him  and  his  followers  to  make  a  nominal  profession  of  Islam  ; 
but,  ever  ready  as  they  were  to  turn  against  the  Moslems  at  the 
least  opportunity,  they  were  a  source  of  considerable  danger 
to  the  new-bom  commonwealth,  and  required  unceasing 
watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  Prophet.  Towards  them  he 
always  showed  the  greatest  patience  and  forbearance,  hoping 
in  the  end  to  win  them  over  to  the  Faith.  And  this  expectation 
was  fully  justified  by  the  result.  With  the  death  of  Abdullah 
ibn-Ubayy  his  party,  which  has  been  stigmatised  ^  as  the  party 
of  the  Mundfikin  (the  Disaffected),  disappeared  for  a  time 
from  view. 

But  the  Jews,  who  may  be  said  to  have  formed  the  third 
party,  constituted  the  most  serious  element  of  danger.  They 
had  close  business  relations  with  the  Koreish,  and  their 
ramifications  extended  into  various  parts  hostile  to  the 
Faith.  At  first  they  were  inclined  to  look  with  some  favour  on 
the  preachings  of  Mohammed.  He  could  not,  of  course,  be 
their  promised  Messiah,  but  perhaps  a  weak  dreamer,  a  humble 
preacher,  dependent  upon  the  hospitaUty  of  their  old  enemies, 

^  Koran,  sura  xlii.  ;  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  363,  411.  The  Mundfikin  or  the 
Ineconcilables  have  never  disappeared  completely  from  the  Islamic  body 
politic.  Ever  and  anon  they  have  exercised  the  most  disastrous  effects  in 
Islam.  In  later  times  they  posed  as  the  champions  of  orthodoxy  ;  note  for 
example,  the  Khurijis  of  Africa. 


58  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

now  their  patrons,  the  Aus  and  the  Khazraj,  might  become 
their  avenger,  help  them  in  conquering  the  Arabs,  and  found 
for  them  a  new  kingdom  of  Judali.     With  this  aim  in  view, 
they  had  joined  with  the  Medinites  in  a  half-hearted  welcome 
to  the  Prophet.     And  for  a  time  they  maintained  a  pacific   ' 
attitude.     But  it  was  only  for  a  time  ;  for  barely  a  month  had   i 
gone  by  before  the  old  spirit  of  rebellion,  which  had  led  them   \ 
to  crucify  their  prophets,  found  vent  in  open  seditions  and   ' 
secret  treachery.     One  of  the  first  acts  of  Mohammed  after   i 
his  arrival  in  Medina  was  to  weld  together  the  heterogeneous   i 
and  conflicting  elements  of  which  the  city  and  its  suburbs   t 
were   composed,    into   an   orderly   confederation.     With   this   i 
object  he  had  granted  a  charter  to  the  people,  by  which  the    ; 
rights  and  obligations  of  the  Moslems  inter  se,   and  of  the    j 
Moslems  and  Jews,  were  clearly  defined.     And  the  Jews,  borne    ? 
down  for  the  moment   by  the  irresistible  character  of  the    ' 
movement,  had  gladly  accepted  the  Pact.     This  document,    i 
which  has  been  carefully  preserved  in  the  pages  of  Ibn-Hisham,    ' 
reveals  the  Man  in  his  real  greatness — a  master-mind,  not  only    ' 
of  his  own  age,  as  Muir  calls  him,  but  of  all  ages.     No  wild    ' 
dreamer  he,  bent  upon  pulling  down  the  existing  fabrics  of    | 
society,  but  a  statesman  of  unrivalled  powers,  who  in  an  age    j 
of  utter  and  hopeless  disintegration,  with  such  materials  and 
such  polity  as  God  put  ready  to  his  hands,  set  himself  to  the    ' 
task  of  reconstructing  a   State,  a  commonwealth,  a  society, 
upon  the  basis  of  universal  humanity.     "  In  the  name  of  the 
most  merciful  and  compassionate  God,"  says  this  first  charter 
of  freedom  of  conscience,  "  given  by  Mohammed,  the  Prophet, 
to  the  Believers,  whether  of  the  Koreish  or  of  Yathrib,  and  all    \ 
individuals  of  whatever  origin  who  have  made  common  cause    i 
with   them,    all   these   shall   constitute   one   nation."     Then, 
after  regulating  the  payment  of  the  Diyat^  by  the  various  clans, 
and  fixing  some  wise  rules  regarding  the  private  duties  of 
Moslems  as  between  themselves,  the  document  proceeds  thus  :     ' 
"  The  state  of  peace  and  war  shall  be  common  to  all  Moslems  ;     i 
no  one  among  them  shall  have  the  right  of  concluding  peace    ! 
with,  or  declaring  war  against,  the  enemies  of  his  co-religionists. 

^  Diyat,  Wehrgeld,  price  which  a  homicide  had  to  pay  to  the  family  of  the 
victim,  if  they  consented  to  it. 


IV.  THE  CHARTER  OF  MOHAMMED  59 

The  Jews  who  attach  themselves  to  our  commonwealth  shall 
be  protected  from  all  insults  and  vexations  ;  they  shall  have 
an  equal  right  with  our  own  people  to  our  assistance  and  good 
offices  :  the  Jews  of  the  various  branches  of  'Auf,  Najjar, 
Harith,  Jashm,  Th'alaba,  Aus,  and  all  others  domiciled  in 
Yathrib,  shall  form  with  the  Moslems  one  composite  nation  ; 
they  shall  practise  their  religion  as  freely  as  the  Moslems  ; 
the  clients  ^  and  allies  of  the  Jews  shall  enjoy  the  same  security 
and  freedom  ;  the  guilty  shall  be  pursued  and  punished  ;  the 
Jews  shall  join  the  Moslems  in  defending  Yathrib  (Medina) 
against  all  enemies  ;  the  interior  of  Yathrib  shall  be  a  sacred 
place  for  all  who  accept  this  Charter  ;  the  clients  and  alhes 
of  the  Moslems  and  the  Jews  shall  be  as  respected  as  the 
patrons  ;  all  true  Moslems  shall  hold  in  abhorrence  every  man 
guilty  of  crime,  injustice,  or  disorder  :  no  one  shall  uphold  the 
culpable,  though  he  were  his  nearest  kin."  Then,  after  some 
other  provisions  regarding  the  internal  management  of  the 
State,  this  extraordinary  document  concluded  thus  :  "All 
future  disputes  between  those  who  accept  this  Charter  shall 
be  referred,  under  God,  to  the  Prophet."  ^ 

A  death-blow  was  thus  given  to  that  anarchic  custom  of  the 
Arabs,  which  had  hitherto  obliged  the  aggrieved  and  the  injured 
to  rely  upon  his  own  or  his  kinsmen's  power  in  order  to  exact 
vengeance,  or  satisfy  the  requirements  of  justice.  It  constituted 
Mohammed  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  nation,  as  much  by  his 
prophetic  function  as  by  a  virtual  compact  between  himself 
and  the  people. 

The  Jewish   tribes  of  the  Bani-un-Nazir,^  Bani-Kuraizha, 
and  Bani-Kainuka'a  settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
Medina,    were   not    at    first   included   in   this     ^2  ah.  7th  May 

^,  ,  ,  ,  .  ,  623  to  26th  April 

Charter ;    but  after  a  short  time  they,   too,     624  a.c. 
gratefully  accepted  its  terms. 

No  kindness  or  generosity,  however,  on  the  part  of  the 
Prophet  would  satisfy  the  Jews  ;  nothing  could  conciliate  the 
bitter  feelings  with  which  they  were  animated.  Enraged  that 
they  could  not  use  him  as  their  instrument  for  the  conversion 

^  I.e.  the  protected. 

-  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  341-343.     This  is  a  paraphrase  of  an  important  historical 
document. 
■'  With  a  zdd. 


6o  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i.; 

of  Arabia  to  Judaism,  and  that  his  behef  was  so  much  simpler, 
than  their  Talmudic  legends,  they  soon  broke  off,  and  ranged  j 
themselves  on  the  side  of  the  enemies  of  the  new  Faith.     And  J 
when  asked  which  they  preferred,  idolatry  or  Islam,  they/ 
like  many  Christian  controversiahsts,  declared  they  preferred  ( 
idolatry,  with  all  its  attendant  evils,  to  the  creed  of  Mohammed. ! 
They  reviled  him;    they  "twisted  their  tongues"  and  mis- j 
pronounced  the   Koranic  words  and  the  daily  prayers  and] 
formulae   of   Islam,    rendering   them   meaningless,    absurd,   or  \ 
blasphemous  ;    and  the  Jewish  poets  and  poetesses,  of  whom  • 
there  existed  many  at  the  time,  outraged  all  common  decency 
and  the  recognised  code  of  Arab  honour  and  chivalry  by 
lampooning  in  obscene  verse  the  Moslem  women.     But  these] 
were  minor  offences.     Not  satisfied  with  insulting  the  women  ' 
of   the   Believers   and   reviling   the   Prophet,    they   sent   out 
emissaries  to  the  enemies  of  the  State,  the  protection  of  which  . 
they  had  formally  accepted.     The  Koreish,  who  had  sworn 
Mohammed's    death,    were    well    acquainted,    thanks    to    the 
party  of  Abdullah-ibn-Ubayy  and  the  faithless  Israelites,  with 
the  exact  strength  of  the  Moslems.     They  also  knew  that  the 
Jews  had  accepted  Mohammed's  alliance  only  from  motives 
of  temporary  expediency,  and  that  the  moment  they  showed 
themselves   in    the    vicinity    of    Medina   the    worshippers   of 
Jehovah  would  break  away  from  him  and  join  the  idolaters. 
And   now   came   the   moment   of   severest   trial   to   Islam 
Barely  had  the  Prophet  time  to  put  the  city  in  a  state  of 
defence  and  organise  the  Believers,  before  the  blow  descended 
upon    him.^     Medina    itself    was    honeycombed   by   sedition 
and  treachery.     And  it  became  the  duty  of   Mohammed  to 
take  serious  measures  to  guard  against  that  dreaded  catastrophe 
which  a  rising  within,  or  a  sudden  attack  from  without,  would 
have  entailed  upon  his  followers.     He  was  not  simply  a  preacher 
of  Islam  ;   he  was  also  the  guardian  of  the  lives  and  Hberties 
of  his  people.     As  a  Prophet,  he  could  afford  to  ignore  the  . 
revilings  and  the  gibes  of  his  enemies  ;   but  as  the  head  of  the  ij 
State,  "  the  general  in  a  time  of  almost  continual  warfare,"  1 
when  Medina  was  kept  in  a  state  of  military  defence  and  under 

1  Koran,  sura  ix.  ver.   13  ;     Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshdf),  Egypt,  ed.,   pp. 
314,  315  ;    al-Halabi,  Insdn-ul-'Uyiin,  vol.  ii. 


IV.  THE  BATTLE  OF  BADR  6i 

a  sort  of  military  discipline,  he  could  not  overlook  treachery. 
He  was  bound  by  his  duty  to  his  subjects  to  suppress  a  party 
that  might  have  led,  and  almost  did  lead  to  the  sack  of  the 
city  by  investing  armies.  The  safety  of  the  State  required  the 
proscription  of  the  traitors,  who  were  either  sowing  the  seeds 
of  sedition  within  Medina  or  carrying  information  to  the 
common  enemy.  Some  half  a  dozen  were  placed  under  the 
ban,  outlawed,  and  executed.  We  are,  however,  anticipating 
the  course  of  events  in  referring  to  these  executions. 

The  Koreish  army  was  afield  before  Mohammed  received 
God's  command  to  do  battle  to  His  enemies. 

He  who  never  in  his  life  had  wielded  a  weapon,  to  whom  the 
sight  of  human  suffering  caused  intense  pain  and  pity,  and  who, 
against  all  the  canons  of  Arab  manliness,  wept  bitterly  at  the 
loss  of  his  children  or  disciples,  whose  character  ever  remained 
so  tender  and  so  pathetic  as  to  cause  his  enemies  to  call  him 
womanish,^ — this  man  was  now  compelled,  from  the  necessities 
of  the  situation,  and  against  his  own  inclination,  to  repel  the 
attacks  of  the  enemy  by  force  of  arms,  to  organise  his  followers 
for  purposes  of  self-defence,  and  often  to  send  out  expeditions 
to  anticipate  treacherous  and  sudden  onslaughts.  Hitherto, 
Arab  warfare  consisted  of  sudden  and  murderous  forays,  often 
made  in  the  night  or  in  the  early  morn  ;  isolated  combats  or  a 
general  melee,  when  the  attacked  were  aware  of  the  designs 
of  the  attacking  party.  Mohammed,  with  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  habits  of  his  people,  had  frequently  to  guard 
against  these  sudden  onslaughts  by  sending  forth  reconnoitring 
parties. 

The  Meccans  and  their  allies  commenced  raiding  up  to  the 
very  vicinity  of  Medina,  destroying  the  fruit-trees  of  the 
Moslems,  and  carrying  away  their  flocks.  A  force,  consisting 
of  a  thousand  well-equipped  men,  marched  under  the  noted 
Abu  Jahl,  "  the  Father  of  Ignorance,"  towards  Medina  to 
destroy  the  Moslems,  and  to  protect  one  of  their  caravans 
bringing  munitions  of  war.  The  Moslems  received  timely 
notice  of  the  movement,  and  a  body  of  three  hundred  disciples 
proceeded  at  once  to  forestall  the  heathens  by  occupying  the 
valley  of  Badr,  upon  which  Abu  Jahl  was  moving.     When 

1  Compare  Dozy,  Histoire  des  Musidmans  d'Espagne,  vol.  i.  p.  32. 


62  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  ij 

Mohammed  saw  the  infidel  army  arrogantly  advancing  intc 
the  valley,  raising  his  hands  towards  heaven,  Hke  the  prophets 
of  Israel,  he  prayed  that  the  little  band  of  the  Faithful  might 
not  be  destroyed  :  "  O  Lord,  forget  not  Thy  promise  of  assist- 
ance. O  Lord,  if  this  httle  band  were  to  perish,  there  will  be 
none  to  offer  unto  Thee  pure  worship."  ^ 

Three  of  the  Koreish  advanced  into  the  open  space  which 
divided  the  Moslems  from  the  idolaters,  and,  according  to 
Arab  usage,  challenged  three  champions  from  the  Moslem 
ranks  to  single  combat.  Hamza,  Ali,  and  Obaidah  accepted 
the  challenge,  and  came  out  conquerors.  The  engagement 
then  became  general.  At  one  time  the  fortunes  of  the  field 
wavered,  but  Mohammed's  appeal  to  his  people  decided  the 
fate  of  the  battle.  "  It  was  a  stormy  winter  day.  A  piercing; 
blast  swept  across  the  valley."  It  seemed  as  if  the  angels  ■ 
of  heaven  were  warring  for  the  Moslems.  Indeed,  to  the 
earnest  minds  of  Mohammed  and  his  followers,  who,  like  the ; 
early  Christians,  saw  God's  providence  "  in  all  the  gifts  of 
nature,  in  every  relation  of  life,  at  each  turn  of  their  affairs, 
individual  or  public," — to  them  those  blasts  of  wind  and 
sand,  the  elements  warring  against  the  enemies  of  God,  at  that 
critical  moment  appeared  veritable  succour  sent  from  heaven  ; 
as  angels  riding  on  the  wings  of  the  wind,  and  driving  the 
faithless  idolaters  before  them  in  confusion. ^  The  Meccans 
were  driven  back  with  great  loss  ;  many  of  their  chiefs  were 
slain  ;    and  Abu  Jahl  fell  a  victim  to  his  unruly  pride. ^ 

A  large  number  remained  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the 
Moslems,  but  only  two  of  them  were  executed.  They  had 
been  noted  for  their  virulent  animosity  towards  the  followers 
of  the  new  Faith,  and  by  the  laws  of  war  among  the  Arabs 
they  now  paid  the  penalty  of  their  conduct.^ 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  444  ;   Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  97. 

^  Koran,  Sura  viii.  ver.  9,  and  Sura  iii.  vers.  11,  121-128.  Comp.  also  Muir, 
vol.  iii.  p.  106. 

3  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  443  et  seq.  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  26  et  seq.  Sir  W. 
Muir  mentions  that  when  the  head  of  Abii  Jahl  was  brought  to  Mohammed, 
he  said,  "  It  is  more  acceptable  to  me  than  the  choicest  camel  in  Arabia." 
This  passage,  which  is  not  to  be  found  either  in  Ibn-Hisham,  Ibn  ul-Athir, 
Abulfeda  or  Tabari,  is  apocryphal. 

*  Nazr,  son  of  Harith,  referred  to  in  ver.  32  of  Sura  viii.  of  the  Koran,  was 
one  of  these  men. 


IV.  THE  VICTORY  OF  THE  MOSLEMS  63 

The  rest  of  the  prisoners,  contrary  to  all  the  usages  and 
traditions  of  the  Arabs,  were  treated  with  the  greatest  human- 
ity. The  Prophet  gave  strict  orders  that  respect  should  be 
paid  to  their  misfortunes,  and  that  they  should  be  treated 
with  kindness.  The  Moslems,  to  whose  care  he  confided  them, 
faithfully  obeyed  his  instructions.  They  shared  their  own 
food  with  the  prisoners,  giving  them  the  bread  which  forms  the 
best  part  of  their  repast,  and  contenting  themselves  with 
dates  alone.  1 

The  division  of  the  spoil  gave  rise  to  sharp  dissensions  among 
the  Moslem  soldiery.  For  the  present,  Mohammed  calmed 
their  disputes  by  dividing  it  equally  amongst  all.^  But  as 
such  dissensions  among  an  unruly  people  were  likely  to  lead 
to  mischief,  the  Prophet,  with  a  view  to  prevent  all  future 
quarrels  over  spoil  acquired  in  war,  promulgated  a  special 
ordinance,  which  is  incorporated  in  the  chapter  of  the  Koran 
entitled  al-Anfdl  (the  Spoils).  By  this  law  the  division  of  the 
spoils  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  chief  of  the  common- 
wealth ;  a  fifth  being  reserved  for  the  public  treasury  for  the 
support  of  the  poor  and  indigent.^ 

The  remarkable  circumstances  which  led  to  the  victory  of 
Badr,  and  the  results  which  followed  from  it,  made  a  deep 
impression  on  the  minds  of  the  Moslems.  They  firmly  believed 
that  the  angels  of  heaven  had  battled  on  their  side  against  the 
unbelieving  host. 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  459,  460  ;  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  79.  M"ir 
speaks  thus  :  "  In  pursuance  of  Mahomet's  commands,  the  citizens  of  Medina, 
and  such  of  the  refugees  as  possessed  houses,  received  the  prisoners,  and 
treated  them  with  much  consideration.  '  Blessings  be  on  the  men  of  Medina  !  ' 
said  one  of  these  prisoners  in  later  days  ;  '  they  made  us  ride,  while  they 
themselves  walked  ;  they  gave  us  wheaten  bread  to  eat  when  there  was  little 
of  it  ;   contenting  themselves  with  dates,'  "  vol.  iii.  p.  122. 

2  "  It  is  remarkable,"  says  Sale,  "  that  the  dispute  among  Mohammed's 
men  about  sharing  the  booty  at  Badr  arose  on  the  same  occasion  as  did  that 
among  David's  soldiers  in  relation  to  the  spoils  taken  from  the  Amalekites  ; 
those  who  had  been  in  the  action  insisting  that  they  who  tarried  by  the  stuff 
should  have  no  part  of  the  spoil  ;  and  that  the  same  decision  was  given  in 
both  cases,  which  became  a  law  for  the  future,  to  wit,  that  they  should  part 
alike."     Prel.  Disc.  sec.  vi. 

•■'  Koran,  chap.  viii.  ver.  41.  Though  the  distribution  was  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  chief  of  the  State,  certain  customs  were  invariably  observed 
which  under  the  Cahphs  became  precedents,  and  thus  gave  a  more  definite 
shape  to  the  law.  Compare  M.  Querry's  splendid  work,  entitled  Droit  Mussul- 
man (Paris  1871),  tome  i.  p.  335. 


64  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

The  few  simple  touches  in  the  Koran  which  bring  into  vivid 
prominence  the  poetic  element  involved  in  the  conception  of 
the  angels  fighting  the  battle  of  the  Lord,  will  not  yield  in 
beauty  or  sublimity  to  the  most  eloquent  words  of  the  Psalmist. 
Indeed,  the  same  poetic  character  is  perceptible  in  both.^ 

Probably  Mohammed,  like  Jesus  and  other  teachers,  believed 
in  the  existence  of  intermediate  beings,  celestial  messengers 
from  God  to  man.  The  modern  disbelief  in  angels  furnishes 
no  reason  for  ridicuUng  the  notions  of  our  forefathers.  Our 
disbelief  is  as  much  open  to  the  name  of  superstition  as  their 
belief  ;  only  one  is  negative,  the  other  positive.  What  we, 
in  modern  times,  look  upon  as  the  principles  of  nature,  they 
looked  upon  as  angels,  ministrants  of  heaven.  Whether  there 
exist  intermediate  beings,  as  Locke  thinks,  between  God  and 
man,  just  as  there  are  intermediate  beings  between  man  and  i  ' 
the  lowest  form  of  animal  creation,  is  a  question  too  deep  to  be  ; 
fathomed  by  the  reason  of  man.  • 

Mohammed  also,  like  Jesus,  probably  beheved  in  the  existence 
of  the  Principle  of  Evil  as  a  personal  entity.     But  an  analysis 
of  his  words  reveals  a  more  rationalistic  element,  a  subjective 
conception  clothed  in  language  suited  for  the  apprehension  ^ 
of  his  followers.     When  somebody  asked  him  where  Satan  j 
lived,    he   replied    "  In  the  heart   of   man,"   whilst   Christian  : 
tradition  converts  the  Pharisee  who  tempted  Jesus,  into  the 
veritable  Prince  of  Hell.^ 

The  belief  in  angels  and  devils  has  given  rise  to  an  extra- 
ordinary number  of  legends  both  in  Islam  and  in  Christianity.  ! 
The  saints  of  heaven  and  angels  fight  for  the  Christian.     The  , 
Moslem  only  accepts  the  assistance  of  angels  in  the  battles  of  i 
life.  ', 

^  Ps.  xviii.  ; 

2  All  the  Schleicrmacher  school  believe  the  tempter  to  have  been  the  head 
priest.  Milman  mentions  this  view  as  well  as  the  patristic  and  orthodox  one, 
but  dexterously  leaves  for  the  reader  to  choose  which  he  likes.  The  chapter  , 
of  Reuss  on  Angels  {History  of  Christian  Theology  in  the  Apostolic  Age,  Engli-sh  ' 
translation,  note  i,  pp.  401-404),  with  the  mass  of  references  arrayed  therein,  i 
distinctly  proves  that  the  early  Christians,  the  immediate  disciples  of  Jesus,  | 
firmly  believed  the  angels  and  devils  to  be  personal  entities,  beings  slightly  I 
ethereal,  but  in  every  way  human-like  ;  and  this  belief  those  disciples  of  Jesus  ■ 
must  have  received  from  the  Master  himself,  who,  indeed,  as  Renan  says,  .j 
could  not  have  been,  in  these  respects,  intellectually  different  from  the  people  ij 
of  his  age  ;    Vie  de  Jesus,  3rd  ed.  1867,  p.  267.  ; 


IV.  CALUMNY  AGAINST  MOHAMMED  65 


Note  to  Chapter  IV 

The  story  of  Mohammed's  inhuman  reply  to  the  appeal  of 
'Okba,  son  of  Abu  Mu'ait,  when  he  was  being  led  forward  to 
execution,  is  utterly  false  ;  it  is  said  that  on  'Okba's  asking, 
"  \Vlio  will  take  care  of  my  little  children  ?  "  Mohammed 
answered,  "  Hell  lire."  This  story  is  so  preposterous  in  itself, 
so  opposed  to  Mohammed's  true  character  (one  of  whose 
noblest  traits  was  his  love  for  children,  and  who  always  in- 
culcated love  and  protection  of  orphans  as  an  absolute  duty, 
and  an  act  most  acceptable  to  God),  that  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  search  for  its  true  origin.  Christian  writers,  however,  seem 
to  gloat  over  it,  and  hence  it  becomes  needful  to  examine  how 
the  story  arose. 

It  originated  most  probably  from  the  sobriquet  of  Sihyat 
nn-Ndr  (children  of  fire),  applied  to  the  children  of  'Okba. 
'Okba  himself  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  'Ajlan,^  a  branch  of 
which  inhabited  certain  valleys  near  Safra,  and  were  known  by 
the  name  of  Bani  un-Nar  (children  or  descendants  of  fire) .  The 
sobriquet  was  probably  derived  from  this  circumstance  ;  and 
the  story  of  Mohammed's  reply  from  the  nickname. 

Another  story  of  Mohammed's  having  bitterly  apostrophised 
the  dead  of  the  idolaters  on  their  burial  is,  to  say  the  least, 
distorted.  Tabari  thus  narrates  the  circumstances  which  have 
given  rise  to  this  calumny  :  "  The  Prophet  placed  himself 
by  the  side  of  the  large  grave  or  pit  which  had  been  prepared 
for  the  corpses  ;  and  as  the  bodies  were  lowered,  the  names 
were  called  out,  and  Mohammed  then  uttered  these  words, 
'  You,  my  kindred,  you  accused  me  of  lying,  when  others 
believed  in  me  ;  you  drove  me  from  my  home,  when  others 
received  me  ;  what  destiny  has  been  yours  !  Alas  !  all  that 
God  threatened  is  fulfilled.'  "  These  words,  which  were 
palpably  meant  to  express  pity,  have  been  distorted  to  imply 
bitterness. 

^Aghani,  according  to  C.  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  79. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   INVASION  OF  MEDINA   BY  THE  KOREISH 
2  A.H.  =  624A.C. 

SUCCESS  is  always  one  of  the  greatest  criterions  of  truth. 
Even  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity,  the  good 
Pharisee  said,  "  Let  them  alone  ;  if  these  men  be  false, 
they  will  come  to  nought,  or  else  you  yourselves  shall  perish." 
If  Constantine  had  not  seen,  or  fancied  he  had 
^  '  '  seen,  the  notable  cross  in  the  heavens  ;  if  he 
had  not  marched  to  success  under  its  auspices  ;  if  it  had  not 
led  him  on  to  victory  and  to  the  throne — we  can  hardly  conceive 
what  would  have  been  the  fate  of  Christianity.  What  the 
victory  of  Badr  was  for  Islam,  the  victory  of  the  Milvian 
Bridge  was  for  Christianity.^  It  thenceforth  ruled  from  the 
throne  of  the  Caesars. 

For  the  Moslems  the  victory  of  Badr  was  indeed  most 
auspicious.  It  was  not  surprising  that  they,  like  the  Israelites 
or  Christians  of  yore,  saw  the  hand  of  Providence  in  their 
success  over  the  idolaters.  Had  the  Moslems  failed,  we  can 
imagine  what  their  fate  would  have  been — a  universal  massacre. 
Whilst  Mohammed  was  engaged  in  this  expedition,  he  lost 

1  The  Christians  themselves  look  upon  the  defeat  of  Maxentius  by  Con- 
stantine {312  A.c.)  as  the  greatest  triumph  of  their  faith.  The  chapter  of 
Gibbon,  vol.  iii.  chap,  xx.,  mingled  satire  Snd  historj-,  shows  how  the  success 
of  Christianity  dates  from  that  event. 


V  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  JEWS  AND  ARABS  67 

one  of  his  favourite  daughters,  Rukaiya,  married  to  Osman, 
who  had  only  recently  returned  from  the  Abyssinian  exile. 
But  the  desire  for  revenge  with  which  the  idolaters  were 
burning  allowed  him  no  time  to  indulge  in  domestic  sorrow. 
As  soon  as  all  the  Koreishite  prisoners  had  returned  liome,  Abu 
Sutian  issued  forth  from  Mecca  with  two  hundred  horsemen, 
vowing  solemnly  never  to  return  until  he  had  avenged  himself 
on  Mohammed  and  his  followers.  Scouring  the  country  to 
within  a  few  miles  of  Medina,  he  came  down  with  a  fell  swoop 
on  the  unprepared  Moslems,  slaying  the  people,  and  ravaging 
date-groves  which  furnished  the  staple  food  of  the  Arabs. 
The  Meccans  had  provided  themselves  with  bags  of  "  sawik  "  ^ 
for  the  foray.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  Moslems  sallied  forth 
from  Medina  to  avenge  the  murders,  the  Meccans  turned  bridle 
and  fled,  dropping  the  bags  in  order  to  lighten  their  beasts  : 
whence  this  affair  was  derisively  called  by  the  Moslems,  Ghazwat 
us-sau'ik,  "  the  battle  of  the  meal-bags."  ^ 

It  was  on  this  occasion  that  an  incident  happened  to  the 
Prophet,  which  has  been  exceedingly  well  told 
by  Washington  Irving.  Mohammed  was  sleep-  J^g,.  Aprir624 
ing  one  day  alone  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  at  a 
distance  from  his  camp,  when  he  was  awakened  by  a  noise, 
and  beheld  Durthur,  a  hostile  warrior,  standing  over  him  with 
a  drawn  sword.  "  O  Mohammed,"  cried  he,  "  who  is  there 
now  to  save  thee  ?  "  "  God  !  "  replied  the  Prophet.  The  wild 
Bedouin  was  suddenly  awed,  and  dropped  his  sword,  which 
was  instantly  seized  upon  by  Mohammed.  Brandishing  the 
weapon,  he  exclaimed  in  turn,  "  Who  is  there  now  to  save  thee, 
0  Durthur  ?  "  "  Alas,  no  one  !  "  replied  the  soldier.  "  Then 
learn  from  me  to  be  merciful."  So  saying,  he  returned  the 
sword.  The  Arab's  heart  was  overcome  ;  and  in  after  years 
he  proved  one  of  the  staunchest  adherents  of  the  Prophet,^ 

^  Sawik  is  the  old  and  modern  Arabic  name  for  a  dish  of  green  grain,  toasted, 
pounded,  mixed  with  dates  or  sugar,  and  eaten  on  journeys  when  it  is  found 
difficult  to  cook. 

-  The  place  where  the  affair  took  place  bears  now  the  name  of  Suwayka — a 
few  hours'  journey  to  the  south-west  of  Medina. 

^  The  last  month  of  this  year  was  marked  by  the  death  of  Osman,  son 
of  Mahzun,  and  the  marriage  of  AH,  son  of  Abu  Talib,  to  Fatima,  Mohammed's 
daughter. 

Osman  was   one   of   the   earliest   believers,  and   he   was   the   first   of   the 


68  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

But  this  skirmish,  between  the  idolaters  and  the  Moslems, 
like  others  which  followed,  proved  only  a  prelude  to  the  great 
drama  that  was  about  to  be  enacted. 

The  idolaters  were  burning  for  revenge.     They  made  formid- 
able  preparations  for  another  war  upon  the 

3  A.H.=26th  Moslems.  Their  emissaries  succeeded  in  ob- 
Aprii  6^25  A.c.  taining  the  assistance  of  the  tribes  of  Tihama 
and  Kinana,  and  their  united  forces  soon 
amounted  to  three  thousand  well-equipped  soldiers  (of  whom 
seven  hundred  were  mailed  warriors),  animated  with  but  one 
desire,  that  of  revenge.  This  army  was  as  formidable  to  the 
petty  tribes  of  Arabia  as  the  multitudinous  hordes  of  Xerxes 
to  the  Grecian  States. 

Marching  under  the  command  of  the  relentless  Abu  Sufian, 
and  meeting  with  no  opposition  from  any  side,  they  took  up  a 
well-chosen  position  to  the  north-east  of  Medina,  where  only 
the  hill  of  Ohod  and  a  valley  separated  them  from  the  devoted 
city.  From  this  safe  vantage-ground  they  ravaged  the  fields 
and  fruit  groves  of  the  Medinites. 

Forced  by  the  enthusiasm  of  his  followers,  and  by  their  fury 
at  the  destruction  of  their  property,  Mohammed  marched  out 
of  Medina  with  a  thousand  men.     The  ill-concealed  enmity  of 
the  Jews  led  to  the  defection  of  Abdullah  ibn-Ubayy,  the  leader 
of  the  Munafikin  (the  Disaffected),  with  three  hundred  of  his 
followers.     This  desertion  reduced  the  strength  of  Mohammed's 
small  force  to  seven  hundred  men,  who  only  possessed  two  i 
horses  amongst  them.     But  still  this  gallant  band  marched  j 
steadily  forward.     Advancing  quietly  through  groves  of  fruit  | 
trees,  they  soon  gained  the  hill  of  Ohod.     They  passed  the 
night  in  the  defile,  and  in  the  morning,  after  offering  prayers  as  1 
they  stood  to  arms,  they  debouched  into  the  plain.    Mohammed  1 
now  took  up  his  position  immediately  under  the  hill.^     Posting 

Muhajirin  who  died  at.  Medina,  and  was  interred  at  Baki,  a  suburb  of  Medina, 
where  he  buried  a  number  of  illustrious  and  saintly  people,  whose  tombs  are  , 
up  to  the  present  day  venerated  by  the  Moslems.  ' 

Ali  had  been  betrothed  to  Fatima  several  days  before  the  expedition  to  ! 
Badr,  but  the  marriage  was  only  celebrated  three  months  later,  Ali  being  in  ' 
his  twenty-first,  and  Fatima  in  her  fifteenth  year. 

1  Burton  thus  describes  the  spot  :  "  This  spot,  so  celebrated  in  the  annals 
of  El  Islam,  is  a  shelving  strip  of  land,  close  to  the  southern  base  of  Mount  . 
Ohod.     The  army  of  the  infidels  advanced  from  the  fiumara  in  crescent  shape,  1 


V.  THE  BATTLE  OF  OHOD  69 

a  few  archers  on  a  height  behind  the  troops,  he  gave  them 
strict  injunctions  not  to  abandon  their  place  whatever  happened 
but  to  harass  the  cavahy  of  the  enemy  and  protect  the  flanks 
of  the  Moslems.  The  idolaters,  confident  in  their  numbers, 
marched  down  into  the  plain  with  their  idols  in  the  centre  of 
their  army,  and  the  wives  of  the  chiefs  chanting  their  war- 
songs  and  beating  their  timbrels. ^  The  first  violent  onslaught 
of  the  Koreish  was  bravely  repulsed  by  the  Moslems,  led  by 
Hamza,  who,  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  of  the  enemy, 
dashed  into  the  midst  of  the  Koreishites,  deahng  havoc  on  all 
sides.  Victory  had  almost  declared  for  the  Moslems,  when  the 
archers,  forgetting  the  injunctions  of  the  Prophet,  and  seeing 
the  enemy  in  flight,  dispersed  in  search  of  plunder. ^  And  what 
happened  in  later  days  at  Tours  happened  at  Ohod.  Khalid 
bin  Walid,  one  of  the  Koreish,  at  once  perceived  their  error, 
and  rallying  his  horse,  fell  on  the  rear  of  the  Moslems.^  The 
infantry  of  the  Koreish  also  turned,  and  the  Moslem  troops,  taken 
both  in  rear  and  front,  had  to  renew  the  battle  at  fearful  odds. 
Some  of  the  bravest  chiefs  in  the  Moslem  army  fell  fighting. 
The  intrepid  Hamza,  with  several  others,  was  killed  ;  Ah,  who 
had  chivalrously  answered  the  first  call  of  defiance  (Rajz)  of  the 
idolaters,^  and  Omar  and  Abu  Bakr  were  severely  W'ounded. 

with  Abu  Sufiyan,  the  general,  and  his  idols  in  the  centre.  It  is  distant 
about  three  miles  from  El  IMedinah  in  a  northerly  direction.  All  the  visitor 
sees  is  hard  gravelly  ground,  covered  with  little  heaps  of  various  coloured 
granite,  red  sandstone,  and  bits  of  porphyry,  to  denote  the  different  places 
where  the  martyrs  fell  and  were  buried.  Seen  from  this  point,  there  is  some- 
thing appalling  in  the  look  of  the  holy  mountain.  Its  seared  and  jagged 
flanks  rise  like  masses  of  iron  from  the  plain,  and  the  crevice  into  which  the 
Moslem  host  retired,  when  the  disobedience  of  the  archers  in  hastening  to 
plunder  enabled  Khalid  ben  Walid  to  fall  upon  Mohammed's  rear,  is  the 
only  break  in  the  grim  wall.  Reeking  with  heat,  its  surface  produces  not 
one  green  shrub  or  stunted  tree  ;  not  a  bird  or  beast  appeared  upon  its  in- 
hospitable sides,  and  the  bright  blue  sky  glaring  above  its  bald  and  sullen 
brow  made  it  look  only  the  more  repulsive." — Burton's  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  236,  237. 

1  Extracts  from  their  war-songs  are  given  by  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  Ii8. 
"  Courage  !  Ye  sons  of  Abd  ud-Dar  ;  courage  !  defenders  of  women  !  strike 
home  with  the  edges  of  your  swords."  Another  runs  thus  :  "  We  are  daughters 
of  the  Star  of  the  JNIorn  (Tarik)  ;  we  tread  softly  on  silken  cushions  {nanulrik)  ; 
face  the  enemy  boldly,  and  we  shall  press  you  in  our  arms  ;  fly,  and  we  shall 
shun  you,  shun  you  with  disgust." 

-  This  disobedience  is  referred  to  in  the  Koran,  sura  iii.  ver.  146. 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  119  ;    al-Halabi,  Tnscni  ul-'UyiXn,  vol.  ii.  p.  239. 

^  Tabari  says  that  Talha,  the  standard-bearer  of  the  idolaters,  a  man  of 
heroic  bravery,  placed  himself  before  AH,  and  brandishing  his  sabre,  defied 


70  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

The  efforts  of  the  idolaters  were,  however,  principally  directed 
towards  Mohammed,  who,  surrounded  by  a  few  disciples  and 
separated  from  the  main  body  of  his  people,  became  now  the 
chief  object  of  their  assaults.  His  friends  fell  fast  around  him. 
Though  wounded  and  bleeding  he  did  not  forget  their  loving 
hearts,  and  blessed  the  hand  that  tried  to  stanch  the  blood 
which  flowed  from  his  forehead.^  But  rescue  was  nigh.  The 
brave  warriors  who  under  Ali  had  been  fighting  in  the  centre 
with  the  energy  of  despair,  succeeded  in  retreating  to  a  point 
on  the  hill,  where  they  were  secure  from  the  attacks  of  the 
enemy,  but  full  of  consternation  at  the  loss,  as  they  supposed, 
of  their  great  Master.  Seeing,  however,  their  brethren  still 
fighting  in  another  part  of  the  field,  they  rushed  down  into  the 
midst  of  the  idolaters.  Penetrating  to  the  place  where  the 
small  group  of  Moslems  yet  defended  the  Prophet,  and  finding 
that  he  still  lived,  they  succeeded,  after  great  exertions,  in 
retreating  with  him  to  the  heights  of  Mount  Ohod,  where  they 
breathed  again.  Ali  fetched  water  in  his  shield  from  the  hollow 
of  a  rock.  With  this  he  bathed  Mohammed's  face  and  wounds, 
and  with  his  companions  offered  up  the  mid-day  prayers  sitting. 

The  Koreish  were  too  exhausted  to  follow  up  their  advantage, 
either  by  attacking  Medina  or  driving  the  Moslems  from  the 
heights  of  Ohod.  They  retreated  from  the  Medinite  territories 
after  barbarously  mutilating  their  slain  enemies.  The  wife  of 
Abu  Sufian,  Hind,  the  daughter  of  'Otba,  with  the  other 
Koreishite  women,  showed  the  greatest  ferocity  in  this  savage 
work  of  vengeance,  tearing  out  the  heart  of  Hamza,  and  making 
bracelets  and  necklaces  of  the  ears  and  noses  of  the  dead. 

The  barbarities  practised  by  the  Koreish  on  the  slain 
created  among  the  Moslems  a  feeling  of  bitter  exasperation. 
Even  Mohammed  was  at  first  so  moved  by  indignation  as  to 

him,  crying,  "  You  Moslems  say  that  our  dead  will  go  to  hell,  and  yours  to 
heaven  ;  let  me  see  whether  I  cannot  send  thee  to  heaven."  Upon  this  Ali 
replied,  "  Be  it  so  '  "  and  they  fought,  and  Talha  was  struck  to  the  ground. 
"  Mercy,  O  son  of  my  uncle,"  cried  he.  Ali  replied,  "  Mercy  be  it  ;  thou  dost 
not  deserve  the  fire." — Vol.  iii.  p.  25. 

1  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  114,  and  Abulfeda,  p.  44,  mention  the  date  of  the 
battle  of  Ohod  as  the  7th  of  Shawwal ;  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  21,  mentions  the  8th  ; 
Ibn-Hisham,  the  5th  ;  and  several  others  the  nth.  C.  de  Perceval,  however, 
calculates  the  nth  to  have  been  the  real  date  of  the  battle,  as  according  to 
all  the  chroniclers  the  day  was  a  Saturday,  and  the  nth  of  Shawwal  (26th  of 
January)  fell  on  a  Saturday. — Hist,  des  Arabes,  vol.  iii.  p.  96,  note. 


V.  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  JEWS  71 

declare  that  the  dead  of  the  Koreish  should  in  future  be  treated 
in  like  manner.^  But  the  gentleness  of  his  nature  conquered  the 
bitterness  of  his  heart.  "  Bear  wrong  patiently,"  he  preached  ; 
"  verily,  best  it  will  be  for  the  patiently  enduring."  ^  And 
from  that  day  the  horrible  practice  of  mutilation  which  pre- 
vailed among  all  the  nations  of  antiquity  was  inexorably 
forbidden  to  the  Moslems.^ 

On  his  return  to  Medina  the  Prophet  directed  a  small  body 
of  the  disciples  to  pursue  the  retreating  enemy,  and  to  impress 
on  them  that  the  Moslems,  though  worsted  in  battle,  were  yet 
unbroken  in  spirit,  and  too  strong  to  be  attacked  again  with 
impunity.  Abu  Sutian,  hearing  of  the  pursuit,  hastened  back 
to  Mecca,  having  first  murdered  two  Medinites  whom  he  met 
on  his  route.  He,  however,  sent  a  message  to  the  Prophet, 
saying  that  he  would  soon  return  to  exterminate  him  and  his 
people.  The  reply  as  before  was  full  of  trust  and  faith — "  God 
is  enough  for  us,  a  good  guardian  is  He  !  "  ^ 

The  moral  effect  of  this  disastrous  battle  was  at  once  visible 
in  the  forays  which  the  neighbouring  nomads  prepared  to 
make  on  the  Medinite  territories.  Most  of  them,  however, 
were  repressed  by  the  energetic  action  of  Mohammed,  though 
some  of  the  hostile  tribes  succeeded  in  enticing  Moslem 
missionaries  into  their  midst,  under  the  pretence  of  embracing 
Islam,  and  then  massacred  them.  On  one  such  occasion 
seventy  Moslems  were  treacherously  murdered  near  a  brook 
called  Bir-Ma'una,  within  the  territories  of  two  tribes,  the 
Bani-'Amir  and  the  Bani-Sulaim,  chiefly  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  latter.  One  of  the  two  survivors  of  the 
slaughter  escaped  towards  Medina.  Meeting  on  the  way  two 
unarmed  Arabs  belonging  to  the  Bani-'Amir  who  were 
travelhng  under  a  safe-conduct  of  the  Prophet,  and  mistaking 

'  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  580  et  seq.  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  115-126;  Tabari, 
vol.  iii.  p.  16  et  seq.  ;   al-Halabi,  Insdn  ul-'Uyun,  vol.  ii.  p.  242. 

^  Koran,  sura  xvii.  ver.  127  ;  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  584,  585  ;  Zamakhshari 
(the  Kashshaf),  Egypt,  ed.,  p.  446. 

^  The  Jews  used  to  burn  their  prisoners  alive,  and  most  barbarously 
mutilate  the  slain.  The  Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the  Persians  all  practised 
similar  barbarities.  Christianity  effected  no  improvement  in  these  frightful 
customs,  for  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century  we  read  of  the  most  horrible 
mutilations. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  590  ;    Koran,  sura  iii.  ver.  167. 


72  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

them  for  enemies,  he  killed  them.  When  Mohammed  heard  of 
this  he  was  deeply  grieved.  A  wrong  had  been  committed  b}- 
one  of  his  followers,  though  under  a  mistake,  and  the  relatives 
of  the  men  that  were  killed  were  entitled  to  redress.  Accord- 
ingly orders  were  issued  for  collecting  the  diyat  (the  Wehrgeld) 
from  the  Moslems  and  the  people  who  had  accepted  the  Charter. ^ 
The  Jewish  tribes  of  the  Bani  un-Nazir,  the  Kuraizha,  and 
others  were  bound  equally  with  the  Moslems  to  contribute 
towards  this  payment.-  Mohammed  himself,  accompanied  by  \ 
a  few  disciples,  proceeded  to  the  Bani  un-Nazir,  and  asked  I 
from  them  their  contribution.  They  seemingly  agreed  to  the 
demand,  and  requested  him  to  wait  awhile.  Whilst  sitting 
with  his  back  to  the  wall  of  a  house,  he  observed  sinister  move- 
ments amongst  the  inhabitants,  which  led  him  to  divine  their 
intention  of  murdering  him.  j 

But  to  explain  the  hostility  of  the  Jews  we  must  trace  back  | 
the  course  of  events.  We  have  seen  with  what  bitter  animosity 
they  dogged  Mohammed's  footsteps  from  the  moment  of  his 
arrival  at  Medina.  They  tried  to  sow  disaffection  among  his 
people.  They  libelled  him  and  his  followers.  They  mis- 
pronounced the  words  of  the  Koran  so  as  to  give  them  an 
offensive  meaning.  But  this  was  not  aU.  By  their  superior 
education  and  intelligence,  by  their  union  with  the  party  of 
the  Munafikin  (the  Disaffected),  and  by  the  general  unanimity 
which  prevailed  among  them  (so  different  from  the  disunion 
of  the  Arabs),  the  Jews  formed  a  most  dangerous  element 
within  the  federated  State  which  had  risen  under  the  Teacher 
of  Islam.  Among  unadvanced  nations  poets  occupy  the 
position  and  exercise  the  influence  of  the  press  in  modern 
times.  ^     The  Jewish  poets  by  their  superior  culture  naturally 

^  See  a>ite,  pp.  58-59. 

^  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  iii.  p.  133  ;  Tabari,  vol.  iv.  p.  50.  Muir  and  Sprenger 
have  strangely  garbled  thi.s  part  of  the  affair.  Sir  \V.  Muir  does  not  find 
any  authority  for  M.  C.  de  Perceval's  saying,  that  the  Jews  were  bound  by 
treaty  to  contribute  towards  the  Diyat.  If  he  had  referred  to  Tabari  he  would 
have  seen  the  following  statement'  "En  suite  il  ordonna  de  reunir  cette 
somme,  ou  la  repartissant  sur  la  ville  de  Medine,  et  d'y  faire  contribuer  egale-  , 
ment  les  Juifs,  tels  que  les  Beni-Nadhir,  les  Koraizha  et  ceux  de  Fadak,  qu'y 
etaient  obliges  par  le  traite." — Zotenberg's  Iransl.  vol.  iii.  p.  50.  So  also 
Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  133. 

3  An  example  of  the  influence  which  poets  and  rhapsodists  exercise  among 
unprogressed  nations  is  afforded  by  one  of  the  episodes  connected  with  the 


V.  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  JEWS  73 

exercised  a  vast  influence  among  the  Medinites  ;  and  this 
influence  was  chiefly  directed  towards  sowing  sedition  among 
the  Moslems,  and  widening  the  breach  between  them  and  the 
opposing  faction.  The  defeat  of  the  idolaters  at  Badr  was  felt 
as  keenly  by  the  Jews  as  by  the  Meccans.  Immediately  after 
this  battle  a  distinguished  member  of  their  race,  called  Ka'b, 
the  son  of  Ashraf,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Nazir,  publicly 
deploring  the  ill-success  of  the  idolaters,  proceeded  towards 
Mecca.  Finding  the  people  there  plunged  in  grief,  he  spared 
no  exertion  to  revive  their  courage.  By  his  satires  against  the 
Prophet  and  his  disciples,  by  his  elegies  on  the  Meccans  who 
had  fallen  at  Badr,  he  succeeded  in  exciting  the  Koreish  to  that 
frenzy  of  vengeance  which  found  vent  on  the  plains  of  Ohod, 
Having  attained  his  object,  he  returned  to  his  home  near 
Medina  in  the  canton  of  Nazir,  where  he  continued  to  attack 
Mohammed  and  the  Musulmans  in  ironical  and  obscene  verses, 
not  sparing  even  the  women  of  the  Believers,  whom  he  addressed 
in  terms  of  the  grossest  character.  His  acts  were  openly 
directed  against  the  commonwealth  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
He  belonged  to  a  tribe  which  had  entered  into  the  Compact  ^ 
with  the  Moslems,  and  pledged  itself  for  the  internal  as  well  as 
the  external  safety  of  the  State.  Another  Jew  of  the  Nazir, 
Abu  Raf'e  Sallam,  son  of  Abu'l  Hukaik,  was  equally  wild  and 
bitter  against  the  Musulmans.  He  inhabited,  with  a  fraction 
of  his  tribe,  the  territories  of  Khaibar,  four  or  five  da3's'  journey 
to  the  north-west  of  Medina.  Detesting  Mohammed  and  the 
Musulmans,  he  made  use  of  every  endeavour  to  excite  the 
neighbouring  Arab  tribes,  such  as  the  Sulaim  and  the  Ghatafan, 
against  them.  It  was  impossible  for  the  Musulman  Common- 
wealth to  tolerate  this  open  treachery  on  the  part  of  those  to 

war  of  Ohod.  Whilst  preparing  for  this  eventful  campaign,  the  Koreish 
requested  a  poet  of  the  name  of  Abu  'Uzza  to  go  round  the  tribes  of  the  desert, 
and  excite  them  by  his  songs  and  poetry  against  the  Moslems,  and  persuade 
them  to  join  the  confederacy^  formed  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meccans,  for 
the  destruction  of  Mohammed  and  his  followers  This  man  had  been  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Moslems  in  the  battle  of  Badr,  but  was  released  by  the  Prophet, 
without  ransom,  on  pledging  himself  never  again  to  take  up  arms  against  the 
Medinites.  In  spite  of  this,  he  was  tempted  to  break  his  word,  and  went 
round  the  tribes,  rousing  them  to  arms  by  his  poetry  ;  and  it  is  said  he  was 
eminently  successful  in  his  work.  After  Ohod  he  was  again  taken  prisoner 
and  executed  by  the  Moslems;   Ibn-Hisham,  p.  591. 

1  See  ante,  p.  58. 


74  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

whom  every  consideration  had  been  shown,  with  the  object  of 
securing  their  neutrality,  if  not  their  support.  Tlie  very 
existence  of  the  Moslem  community  was  at  stake  ;  and  every 
principle  of  safety  required  that  these  traitorous  designs 
should  be  quietly  frustrated.  The  sentence  of  outlawry  was 
executed  upon  them  by  the  Medinites  themselves — in  one 
case  by  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Aus,  in  the  other  by  a 
Khazrajite. 

C'hristian  controversialists  have  stigmatised  these  executions 
as  ' '  assassinations. ' '  And  because  a  Moslem  was  sent  secretly  to 
kill  each  of  the  criminals,  in  their  prejudice  against  the  Prophet, 
they  shut  their  eyes  to  the  justice  of  the  sentence,  and  the 
necessity  of  a  swift  and  secret  execution.  There  existed  then 
no  police  court,  no  judicial  tribunal,  nor  even  a  court-martial, 
to  take  cognisance  of  individual  crimes.  In  the  absence  of  a 
State  executioner  any  individual  might  become  the  executioner 
of  the  law.  These  men  had  broken  their  formal  pact  ;  it  was 
impossible  to  arrest  them  in  public,  or  execute  the  sentence  in 
the  open  before  their  clans,  without  causing  unnecessary  blood- 
shed, and  giving  rise  to  the  feud  of  blood,  and  everlasting 
vendetta.  The  exigencies  of  the  State  required  that  whatever 
should  be  done  should  be  done  swiftly  and  noiselessly  upon 
those  whom  public  opinion  had  arraigned  and  condemned.^ 
The  existence  of  the  republic,  and  the  maintenance  of  peace 
and  order  within  the  city,  depended  upon  the  prompt  execution 
of  the  sentence  passed  upon  the  culprits  before  they  could  rally 
their  clansmen  round  them. 

The  fate  of  these  two  traitors,  and  the  expulsion  of  their 

2  A  H    Shaw-        brethren  the  Bani-Kainuka'  from  the  Medinite 
wal,  February        territories,  had  given  rise  to  a  bitter  feeling  of 

^'^^■^-  animosity     among     the     Nazir     against     the 

Prophet.  The  circumstances  connected  with  the  banishment 
of  the  Kainuka'  require  a  brief  notice.  Whilst  the  other 
Jewish  tribes  were  chiefly  agricultural,  the  Banu-Kainuka' 
hardly  possessed  a  single  field  or  date  plantation.     They  were 

*  Our  Christian  historians  forget  that  the  "  wise  "  Solon  himself,  for  the 
safety  of  his  small  city,  made  it  obligatory  on  the  Athenians  to  become 
executioners  of  the  law,  by  pursuing  the  factious,  or  taking  one  or  two  sides 
in  a  public  riot.  They  also  forget  that  even  the  laws  of  Christian  England 
allow  any  person  to  pursue  and  kill  "  an  outlaw." 


V.  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  JEWS  75 

for  the  most  part  artisans  employed  in  handicraft  of  all  kinds.' 
Seditious  and  unruly,  always  ready  for  a  broil  like  their  co- 
religionists of  Alexandria,  the  Banu-Kainuka'  were  also  noted 
for  the  extreme  laxity  of  their  morals.  One  day  a  young  girl 
from  the  country  came  to  their  bazaar  or  market  (Suk)  to  sell 
milk.  The  Jewish  youths  insulted  her  grossly.  A  Moslem 
passer-by  took  the  part  of  the  girl,  and  in  the  fray  which  ensued 
the  author  of  the  outrage  was  killed  ;  whereupon  the  entire 
body  of  the  Jews  present  rose  and  slaughtered  the  Moslem.  A 
wild  scene  then  followed.  The  Moslems,  enraged  at  the  murder 
of  their  compatriot,  flew  to  arms,  blood  flowed  fast,  and  many 
were  killed  on  both  sides.  At  the  first  news  of  the  riots, 
Mohammed  hastened  to  the  spot,  and,  by  his  presence,  suc- 
ceeded in  restraining  the  fury  of  his  followers.  He  at  once 
perceived  what  the  end  would  be  of  these  seditions  and  disorders 
if  allowed  to  take  their  course.  Medina  would  be  turned  into 
an  amphitheatre,  in  which  members  of  hostile  factions  might 
murder  one  another  with  impunity.  The  Jews  had  openly  and 
knowingly  infringed  the  terms  of  their  compact.  It  was 
necessary  to  put  a  stop  to  this  with  a  firm  hand,  or  farewell  to 
all  hope  of  peace  and  security.  Consequently  Mohammed 
proceeded  at  once  to  the  quarter  of  the  Bani-Kainuka',  and 
required  them  to  enter  definitely  into  the  Moslem  Common- 
wealth by  embracing  Islam,  or  to  vacate  Medina.  The  reply 
of  the  Jews  was  couched  in  the  most  offensive  terms.  "  O, 
Mohammed,  do  not  be  elated  with  the  victory  over  thy 
people  (the  Koreish).  Thou  hast  had  an  affair  with  men 
ignorant  of  the  art  of  war.  If  thou  art  desirous  of 
having  any  dealings  with  us,  we  shall  show  thee  that 
we  are  men,"  ^  They  then  shut  themselves  up  in  their  fortress, 
and  set  Mohammed's  authority  at  defiance.  But  their  reduc- 
tion was  an  absolute  duty,  and  siege  was  accordingly  laid  to 
their  stronghold  without  loss  of  time.  After  fifteen  days  they 
surrendered.  At  first  it  was  intended  to  infiict  some  severe 
punishment  on  them,  but  the  clemency  of  Mohammed's  nature 

'  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  8. 

Mbn-Hisham,  p.  545.  Tabari  gives  the  speech  of  the  Kainuka'  with  a 
sHght  variation.  But  all  historians  agree  in  its  being  defiant  and  offensive. 
I  cannot  understand  whence  Gibbon  obtained  the  excessively  meek  reply  he 
puts  into  the  mouth  of  these  people. 


76  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

overcame  the  dictates  of  justice,  and  the  Bani-Kainuka'  were 
simply  banished. 

All  these  circumstances  were  rankling  within  the  breasts  of 
the  Bani  un-Nazir.  They  only  waited  for  a  favourable 
opportunity  to  rid  themselves  of  Mohammed,  and  therefore' 
looked  upon  his  arrival  amongst  them  as  providential.  But 
their  sinister  designs,  as  we  have  before  said,  did  not  escape  the 
eye  of  the  Prophet.  He  immediately  left  the  place  without 
raising  the  suspicions  of  the  Jews,  and  thus  saved  himself  and 
his  disciples  from  almost  certain  destruction. ^ 

The  Bani  un-Nazir  had  now  placed  themselves  in  exactly 
the  same  position  as  the  Bani-Kainuka'  had  previously  done. 
They  had  by  their  own  act  put  themselves  outside  the  pale  of 
the  Charter  ;  and  therefore  on  his  arrival  at  Medina,  Mohammed 
sent  them  a  message  of  the  same  import  as  that  which  was  sent 
to  the  Kainuka'.  Relying  on  the  support  of  the  Munafikin 
and  Abdullah  ibn-Ubayy,  the  Bani  un-Nazir  returned  a 
defiant  answer.  Disappointed,  however,  in  the  promised 
assistance  of  Abdullah,  and  of  their  brethren,  the  Bani- 
Kuraizha,  after  a  siege  of  fifteen  days  ^  they  sued  for  terms. 
The  previous  offer  was  renewed,  and  they  agreed  to  evacuate 
their  territories.  They  were  allowed  to  take  all  their  movables 
with  them,  with  the  exception  of  arms.^  In  order  to  prevent 
the  Moslems  from  occupying  their  dwellings,  they  destroyed 
these  before  leaving.^ 

Their  lands,  warlike  materials,  etc.,  which  they  could  not 

R  bi  I     AH       carry  away,  were  distributed  by  the  Prophet 

=  June  to  July     with  the  consent  and  cordial  approval  of  the 

625  A.c.  Ansar,  among  the  Muhajirin,  who,  up  to  this 

time  had  been  entirely  dependent  for  support  on  the  generosity 

of  the  Medinites.     Notwithstanding  the  strong  brotherly  love 

which  existed  between  the  "  Refugees  "  and  the  "  Helpers,"  ^ 

Mohammed  knew  that  the  assistance  of  the  Medinites  afforded 

1  As  any  betrayal  of  suspicion  by  Mohammed  or  his  disciples  of  the  intents 
of  the  Jews  would  have  made  these  people  desperate,  and  precipitated  matters, 
the  Prophet  went  away  by  himself,  leaving  his  followers  behind,  which  led  the 
Jews  to  suppose  he  was  not  gone  far,  and  would  quickly  return. 

2  Tabari  says  eleven  days  (vol.  iii  p.  54). 

3  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  652,  653  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  133  ;    Abulfeda,  p.  49- 
■*  Koran,  sura  lix.  ver.  5.  ^  See  ante,  p.  53. 


V.  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  JEWS  77 

but  a  precarious  means  of  subsistence.  He  accordingly 
assembled  the  principal  men  from  among  the  Ansar,  and  asked 
them  whether  they  had  any  objection  to  his  distributing  among 
their  poor  brethren  who  had  followed  him  from  Mecca  the  goods 
left  behind  by  the  Jews.  With  one  voice  they  answered, 
"  Give  to  our  brothers  the  goods  of  the  Jews  ;  assign  to  them 
even  a  portion  of  ours  :  we  willingly  consent."  Upon  this  the 
Prophet  divided  the  property  among  the  Muhajirin  and  two 
of  the  Ansar  who  were  extremely  poor.^ 

The  expulsion  of  the  Bani  un-Nazir  took  place  in  the  month 
of  Rabi  L  of  the  fourth  year.^  The  remaining  portion  of  this 
year  and  the  early  part  of  the  next  were  passed  in  repressing 
the  spasmodic  hostile  attempts  of  the  nomadic  tribes  against 
the  Moslems,  and  in  inflicting  punishments  for  various 
murderous  forays  on  the  Medinite  territories.^ 

Meanwhile  the  enemies  of  the  Faith  were  by  no  means  idle. 
Far   and    wide    the    idolaters   had   sent    their  ^^  ^    ^j 

emissaries  to  stir  up  the  tribes  against  the  May  626  to  23rd 
Moslems.  The  Jews  were  the  most  active  in  ^"  ^'^  ^'^' 
these  efforts.  Some  of  the  Bani-Nazir  had  remained  behind 
with  their  brethren  settled  near  Khaibar,  and  there,  fired  with 
the  hope  of  vengeance,  had  set  themselves  to  the  work  of 
forming  another  league  for  the  destruction  of  the  Believers.^ 
Their  efforts  were  successful  beyond  their  utmost  hopes.  A 
formidable  coalition  was  soon  formed  ;  and  an  army,  con- 
sisting of  ten   thousand  well-appointed  men,   marched  upon 

'  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  654  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  133  ;  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  54. 
A  principle  was  henceforth  established  that  any  acquisition,  not  made  in 
actual  warfare,  should  belong  to  the  State,  or  the  chief  of  the  State  ;  and 
that  its  application  should  depend  upon  his  discretion  (vide  Droit  Miisiilman 
by  M.  Querry,  p.  337).  Sura  lix.  of  the  Koran  treats  almost  entirely  of  the 
circumstances  connected  with  the  banishment  of  the  Bani  un-Nazir. 

-  According  to  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  653,  and  Abulfeda,  p.  49  ;  Tabari,  vol.  iii. 
p.  55,  says  it  was  the  month  of  Safar. 

'  Of  this  nature  was  the  expedition  against  the  Christian  Arabs  of  Dijmat 
ul-Jandal  (a  place  according  to  Abulfeda,  about  seven  days'  journey  to  the 
south  of  Damascus),  who  had  stopped  the  Medinite  traffic  with  Syria  and 
even  threatened  a  raid  upon  ^Medina  ;  these  marauders,  however,  fled  on  the 
approach  of  the  Moslems,  and  JNlohammed  returned  to  Medina,  after  conclud- 
ing a  treaty  with  a  neighbouring  chief,  to  whom  he  granted  permission  of 
pasturage  on  the  Medinite  territories. — C.  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  129 ;  Tabari, 
vol.  iii.  p.  60. 

*  Ibn-Isham,  p.  963  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  639  ;   Tabari,  vol.  iii.  pp.  Oo,  01. 


78  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

Medina,  under  the  command  of  the  relentless  Abu  Sufian. 
Meeting  no  opposition  on  their  way,  they  soon  encamped 
within  a  few  miles  of  Medina,  on  its  most  vulnerable  side, 
towards  Ohod.  To  oppose  this  host  the  Moslems  could  only 
Shawwai,  5  a. 11.  ^T^i-^ster  a  body  of  three  thousand  men.^  Forced 
=2  February  thus  by  their  inferiority  in  numbers,  as  well  as 
^^"  by  the  factious  opposition  of  the  Mundfikin 

within  the  city,^  to  remain  on  the  defensive,  they  dug  a  deep 
trench  round  the  unprotected  quarters  of  Medina,  and,  leaving 
their  women  and  children  for  safety  in  their  fortified  houses, 
they  encamped  outside  the  city,  with  the  moat  in  front  of  them. 
In  the  meantime  they  relied  for  the  safety  of  the  other  side,  if 
not  upon  the  active  assistance,  at  least  upon  the  neutrality  of 
the  Bani-Kuraizha,  who  possessed  several  fortresses  at  a  short 
distance,  towards  the  south-east,  and  were  bound  by  the 
Compact  to  assist  the  Moslems  against  every  assailant.  These 
Jews,  however,  were  persuaded  by  the  idolaters  to  violate  their 
pledged  faith,  and  to  join  the  Koreish.  As  soon  as  the  news  of 
their  defection  reached  Mohammed,  he  deputed  "  the  two 
Sa'ds,"  Sa'd  ibn-Mu'az  and  Sa'd  ibn-'Ubada,  to  entreat  them 
to  return  to  their  duty.  The  reply  was  defiant  and  sullen  : 
"  Who  is  Mohammed,  and  who  is  the  Apostle  of  God  that  we 
should  obey  him  ?  There  is  no  bond  or  compact  betwixt  us 
and  him."  ^ 

As  these  Jews  were  well  acquainted  with  the  locality,  and 
could  materially  assist  the  besiegers  by  showing  them  the 
weak  points  of  the  city,  the  consternation  among  the  Moslems 
became  great,  whilst  the  disaffected  body  within  the  walls 
increased  the  elements  of  danger.* 

The  idolaters  and  the  Jews,  failing  in  all  their  attempts  to 

'  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  678. 

-  Referred  to  in  the  Koran,  sura  xxxiii.  vers.  12,  13,  14,  etc. 

^  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  675  ;   Muir,  vol.  iii.  p.  259. 

'  The  whole  scene  is  so  beautifully  painted  in  the  Koran,  sura  xxxiii.  (Surat 
ul-Ahzab,  "  The  Confederates  "),  that  I  cannot  resist  quoting  a  few  verses 
here  :  "  When  they  assailed  you  from  above  you  and  from  below  you,  and 
when  your  eyes  became  distracted,  and  your  hearts  came  up  into  your  throats, 
and  ye  thought  divers  thoughts  of  God,  then  were  the  Faithful  tried,  and 
with  strong  quaking  did  they  quake  ;  and  when  the  disaffected  and  diseased 
of  heart  (with  infidelity)  said,  '  God  and  His  Apostle  have  made  us  but  a 
cheating  promise.'  " 


V.  THE  FATE  OF  THE  BANI-KURAIZHA  79 

draw  the  Moslems  into  the  open  field,  or  to  surprise  the  city 
under  the  direction  of  Jewish  guides,  determined  upon  a 
regular  assault.  The  siege  had  alread}^  lasted  twenty  days. 
The  restless  tribes  of  the  desert,  who  had  made  common  cause 
with  the  Koreish  and  their  Jewish  allies,  and  who  had  expected 
an  easy  prey,  were  becoming  weary  of  this  protracted  campaign. 
Great  efforts  were  made  at  this  critical  moment  by  the  leaders 
of  the  beleaguering  host  to  cross  the  trench  and  fall  upon  the 
small  Moslem  force.  Every  attempt  was,  however,  repulsed 
by  untiring  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  Prophet.  The  elements 
now  seemed  to  combine  against  the  besieging  army  ;  their 
horses  were  perishing  fast,  and  provisions  were  becoming 
scanty.  Disunion  was  rife  in  their  midst,  and  the  far-seeing 
chief  of  the  Moslems,  with  matchless  prudence,  fomented  it 
into  actual  division.  Suddenly  this  vast  coalition,  which  had 
seemed  to  menace  the  Moslems  with  inevitable  destruction, 
vanished  into  thin  air.  In  the  darkness  of  night,  amidst  a 
storm  of  wind  and  rain,  their  tents  overthrown,  their  lights 
put  out,  Abu  Sufian  and  the  majority  of  his  formidable  army 
fled,  the  rest  took  refuge  with  the  Bani-Kuraizha.^  Mohammed 
had  in  the  night  foretold  to  his  followers  the  dispersion  of  their 
enemies.  Daybreak  saw  his  prognostications  fulfilled,  and  the 
Moslems  returned  in  joy  to  the  city.^ 

But  the  victory  was  hardly  achieved  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Moslems     as     long     as     the     Bani-Kuraizha 

°  ,       .  ,  ,  5     A.H.  =28th 

remamed  so  near,  and  in  such  dangerous  February  626  to 
proxhnity  to  the  city  of  Islam.  They  had  24^ March  627 
proved  themselves  traitors  in  spite  of  their 
sworn  alliance,  and  had  at  one  time  almost  surprised  Medina 
from  their  side, — an  event  which,  if  successful,  would  have 
involved  the  general  massacre  of  the  faithful.  The  Moslems 
therefore  felt  it  their  duty  to  demand  an  explanation  of 
the  treachery.  This  was  doggedly  refused.  The  consequence 
was  that  the  Jews  were  besieged,  and  compelled  to  surrender 
at  discretion.  They  made  only  one  condition,  that  their 
punishment  should  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  Ausite 
chief,  Sa'd  ibn-Mu'az.     This  man,  a  fierce  soldier  who  had  been 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  683  ;   Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  140. 

'  In  Moslem  annals  this  war  is  called  the  "  War  of  the  Trench." 


8o  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  I. 

wounded  in  the  attack,  and  indeed  died  from  his  wounds  the 
next  day,  infuriated  by  their  treacherous  conduct,  gave 
sentence  that  the  fighting  men  should  be  put  to  death,  and  that 
the  women  and  children  should  become  the  slaves  of  the 
Moslems  ;  and  this  sentence  was  carried  into  execution.^  "  It 
was  a  harsh,  bloody  sentence,"  says  Lane-Poole,  "  worthy  of 
the  episcopal  generals  of  the  army  against  the  Albigenses,  or 
of  the  deeds  of  the  Augustan  age  of  Puritanism  ;  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  crime  of  these  men  was  high  treason 
against  the  State  during  a  time  of  siege  ;  and  those  who  have 
read  how  Wellington's  march  could  be  traced  by  the  bodies 
of  deserters  and  pillagers  hanging  from  the  trees,  need  not  be 
surprised  at  the  summary  execution  of  a  traitorous  clan."  ^        ! 

The  punishment  inflicted  on  the  various  Jewish  tribes  has  j 
furnished  to  the  Christian  biographers  of  the  Prophet,  like  \ 
Muir,  Sprenger,  Weil  and  Osborn,  a  ground  for  attack.  The  \ 
punishment  meted  out  to  the  Bani-Kainuka'  and  Bani  un-dj 
Nazir  was  far  below  their  deserts.  The  Bani-Kuraizha  alone  ■ 
were  treated  with  severity. 

Human  nature  is  so  constituted  that,  however  criminal  the 
acts  of  an  individual  may  be,  the  moment  he  is  treated  with  a 
severity  which  to  our  mind  seems  harsh  or  cruel,  a  natural 
revulsion  of  feeling  occurs,  and  the  sentiment  of  justice  gives 
place  to  pity  within  our  hearts.  No  doubt  the  sentence  on  the 
Bani-Kuraizha,  from  our  point  of  view,  was  severe.  But, 
however  much  we  may  regret  that  the  fate  of  these  poor  people  ; 
should  have  been,  though  at  their  own  special  request,  left  in 
the  hands  of  an  infuriated  soldier— however  much  we  may 
regret  that  the  sentence  of  this  man  should  have  been  so  carried 
into  effect — we  must  not,  in  the  sentiment  of  pity,  overlook 
the  stern  question  of  justice  and  culpabiUty.  We  must  bear 
in  mind  the  crimes  of  which  they  were  guilty — their  treachery, 
their  open  hostility,  their  defection  from  an  alliance  to  which 
they  were  bound  by  every  sacred  tie.  Nor  must  we  altogether 
forget  the  temptations  which  they,  the  worshippers  of  the 
pure  Jehovah,  held  out  to  the  heathen  Arabs  to  continue  in  the 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.   686-690;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  141   et  seq.  ;    Tabari, 
vol.  iii  p.  68  et  seq. 

2  Selections  from  the  Koran,  Introd.  p.  Ixv. 


V.  HOSTILITY  OF  THE  JEWS  8i 

practice  of  idolatry.  Some  Moslems  might  naturally  be 
inclined  to  say,  with  the  Christian  moralist  :  "  It  is  better  that 
the  wicked  should  be  destroyed  a  hundred  times  over  than  that 
they  should  tempt  those  who  are  yet  innocent  to  join  their 
company."  ^ 

These  Moslems  might  say  with  him,  with  only  the  variation 
of  a  word  :  "  Let  us  but  think  what  might  have  been  our  fate, 
and  the  fate  of  every  other  nation  under  heaven  at  this  hour, 
had  the  sword  of  the  Arab  ^  done  its  work  more  sparingly. 
The  Arab's  sword,  in  its  bloodiest  executions,  wrought  a  work 
of  mercy  for  all  the  countries  of  the  earth  to  the  very  end  of 
the  world."  If  the  Christian's  argument  is  correct  and  not 
inhuman,  certainly  the  Moslem's  argument  cannot  be  other- 
wise. Other  Moslems,  however,  might  look  upon  this  fearful 
sentence  on  the  Bani-Kuraizha  in  the  same  light  as  Carlyle 
looks  upon  the  order  of  Cromwell  for  the  promiscuous  massacre 
of  the  Irish  inhabitants  of  Drogheda  :  "An  armed  soldier 
solemnly  conscious  of  himself  that  he  is  the  soldier  of  God  the 
Just,— a  consciousness  which  it  well  beseems  all  soldiers  and 
all  men  to  have  always, — armed  soldier,  terrible  as  death, 
relentless  as  doom  ;  doing  God's  judgment  on  the  enemies  of 
God." 

We,  however,  are  not  disposed  to  look  at  the  punishment  of 
these  Jews  from  either  of  these  points  of  view.  We  simply  look 
upon  it  as  an  act  done  in  complete  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  war  as  then  understood  by  the  nations  of  the  world  :  "a 
strict  application  of  admitted  customs  of  war  in  those  days."  ^ 
These  people  brought  their  fate  upon  themselves.  If  they  had 
been  put  to  death,  even  without  the  judgment  of  Sa'd,  it  would 
have  been  in  consonance  with  the  principles  which  then  pre- 
vailed. But  they  had  themselves  chosen  Sa'd  as  the  sole 
arbiter  and  judge  of  their  fate  ;  they  knew  that  his  judgment 
was  not  at  all  contrary  to  the  received  notions,  and  accordingly 
never  munnured.  They  knew  that  if  they  had  succeeded  they 
would  have  massacred  their  enemies  without  compunction. 
People  judge  of  the  massacres  of  King  David  according  to  the 

>  Arnold's  Sermons,  4th  Sermon,  "  Wars  of  the  Israelites,"  pp.  35.  36. 
^  In  the  original,  of  course,  Israelites. 

'  An  observation  of  Grote,  Hist.  <>/  Greece,  vol.  vi.  p.  499- 
s.i.  F 


82  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i 

"  lights  of  his  time."  ^  Even  the  fearful  slaughters  committe(^ 
by  the  Christians  in  primitive  times  are  judged  according  t<i 
certain  "  lights."  Why  should  not  the  defensive  wars  of  th(i 
early  Moslems  be  looked  at  from  the  same  standpoint  ?  But] 
whatever  the  point  of  view,  an  unprejudiced  mind  ^  wil' 
perceive  that  no  blame  can  possibly  attach  to  the  Prophet  ii 
the  execution  of  the  Bani-Kuraizha. 

The  number  of  men  executed  could  not  have  been  more  thai 
200  or  250. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  surviving  people,  it  is  said,  a  youn/l 
Jewess  of  the  name  of  Raihana  was  allotted  to  the  Prophet 
Some  say  she  was  previously  set  apart.  The  Christiai 
historians,  always  read}'  to  seize  upon  any  point  which  to  thei 
mind  offers  a  plausible  ground  for  attacking  Mohammed,  hav: 
not  failed  to  make  capital  of  this  story.  Leaving  the  examina- 
tion of  the  question  of  slavery  to  a  later  chapter,  we  will  heri 
only  observe  that  the  allotment  of  Raihana,  even  if  true! 
furnishes  no  ground  for  modern  attack,  as  it  was  perfectl]! 
consonant  with  the  customs  of  war  recognised  in  those  days; 
The  story  about  Raihana  becoming  a  wife  of  the  Prophet  is  ;■ 
fabrication,  for,  after  this  event,  she  disappears  from  historj 
and  we  hear  no  more  of  her,  whilst  of  others  we  have  full  an(' 
circumstantial  accounts. 

1  2  Sam.  viii.  2  :  "  The  conquered  Ammonites  he  treated  with  even  greate 
ferocity,  tearing  and  hewing  some  of  them  in  pieces  with  harrows,  axes,  am 
saws  ;  and  roasting  others  in  brick-kilns  "  (xii.  31)  ;  Maitland,  Jewis 
Literature  and  Modern  Education,  p.  21.  Compare  also  Stanley's  Lectures  0 
the  Jewish  Church,  vol.  ii.  p.  99. 

2  I  can  onl}'  remember  3M.  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire,  Mr.  Johnson,  and  Mi. 
Stanley  Lane- Poole  among  Europeans  who  have  not  been  carried  away  b;' 
prejudice. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MOHAMMED'S    CLEMENCY 

THE  formidable  coalition  formed  by  the  Jews  and  the 
idolaters  to  compass  the  destruction  of  the  new 
commonwealth  of  Medina  had  utterly  failed,  well 
might  the  Moslems  say,  miraculously.^  But  the  surrounding 
tribes  of  the  desert,  wild  and  fierce,  were  6a.h.  =23rd 
committincr    depredations,    accompanied   with     Apdieay  to  12th 

1  xu      Ar    J-    -x      <^        •-       •  J   +1  April  628  A. c. 

murders,  on  the  Medmite  territories  :  and  the  ^ 
existence  of  the  State  required  the  employment  of  stern 
measures  for  their  repression.  Several  expeditions  were 
despatched  against  these  marauders,  but  the  slippery  sons 
of  the  desert  generally  evaded  the  approach  of  the  Moslems. 
The  Bani-Lihyan,  who  had  requested  Mohammed  to  send 
a  few  of  his  disciples  among  them  to  teach  the  precepts 
of  Islam,  and  who,  on  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries, 
had  killed  some  and  sold  the  rest  to  the  Meccans,— had,  up  to 
this  period,  remained  unpunished.  But  the  time  had  come 
when  this  crime  should  be  avenged.  In  the  month  of  Jumadi 
I.  of  this  year,  a  body  of  troops,  under  the  personal  command 
of  the  Prophet,  marched  against  the  Bani-Lihyan.  The 
marauders,  however,  receiving  timely  notice  of  the  Prophet's 
approach,  fled  into  the  mountains,  and  the  Moslems  returned 
to  Medina  without  having  accomphshed  their  purpose. - 

*  Comp.   Koran,  sura  xxxiii.  ver.  9. 

-  Ibn-Hisham,    p.    718;     Ibn    ul-Athir,    vol.  ii.   p.    143;     Tabari,   vol.    iii. 
p.  72. 


84  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i, 

A  few  days  had  only  elapsed  when  a  chief  of  the  Bani-| 
Fizara,  a  branch  of  the  nomad  horde  of  Ghatafan  (Khail-j 
Ghatafan),  suddenly  fell  upon  the  open  suburbs  of  the  cityj 
and  drove  off  a  large  herd  of  camels,  murdering  the  man  whcj 
had  charge  of  them,  and  carrying  off  his  wife.  The  Moslemsj 
were  immediately  on  their  track,  and  a  few  of  the  animals  were! 
recovered  ;  but  the  Bedouins  escaped  into  the  desert  with  the 
larger  portion  of  their  booty.  j 

It  was  about  this  time  that  the  Prophet  granted  to  the  monksl 
of  the  monastery  of  St.  Catherine,  near  Mount  Sinai,  and  to  allj 
Christians,  a  Charter  which  has  been  justly  designated  as  one! 
of  the  noblest  monuments  of  enlightened  tolerance  that  thej 
history  of  the  world  can  produce.  This  remarkable  document,! 
which  has  been  faithfully  preserved  by  the  annalists  of  Islamj 
displays  a  marvellous  breadth  of  view  and  liberality  of  con-| 
ception.  By  it  the  Prophet  secured  to  the  Christians  privilegesj 
and  immunities  which  they  did  not  possess  even  under] 
sovereigns  of  their  own  creed  ;  and  declared  that  any  Moslem] 
violating  and  abusing  what  was  therein  ordered,  should  bej 
regarded  as  a  violater  of  God's  testament,  a  transgressor  of| 
His  commandments,  and  a  slighter  of  His  faith.  He  under-j 
took  himself,  and  enjoined  on  his  followers,  to  protect  the' 
Christians,  to  defend  their  churches,  the  residences  of  their 
priests,  and  to  guard  them  from  all  injuries.  They  were  not 
to  be  unfairly  taxed  ;  no  bishop  was  to  be  driven  out  of  his 
bishopric  ;  no  Christian  was  to  be  forced  to  reject  his  religion  ; 
no  monk  was  to  be  expeJled  from  his  monastery  ;  no  pilgrim 
was  to  be  detained  from  his  pilgrimage.  Nor  were  the  Christian! 
churches  to  be  pulled  down  for  the  sake  of  building  mosques; 
or  houses  for  the  Moslems.  Christian  women  married  to 
Moslems  were  to  enjoy  their  own  religion,  and  not  to  bej 
subjected  to  compulsion  or  annoyance  of  any  kind  on  that; 
account.  If  Christians  should  stand  in  need  of  assistance  for 
the  repair  of  their  churches  or  monasteries,  or  any  other  matter 
pertaining  to  their  religion,  the  Moslems  were  to  assist  them. 
This  was  not  to  be  considered  as  taking  part  in  their  religion, 
but  as  merely  rendering  them  assistance  in  their  need,  andij 
complying  with  the  ordinances  of  the  Prophet  which  were  madei] 
in  their  favour  by  the  authority  of  God  and  of  His  Apostle.' 


VI.  MOHAMMED'S  CLEMENCY  85 

Should  the  Moslems  be  engaged  m  hostilities  with  outside 
Christians,  no  Christian  resident  among  the  Moslems  should  be 
treated  with  contempt  on  account  of  his  creed.  Any  Moslem 
so  treating  a  Christian  should  be  accounted  recalcitrant  to  the 
Prophet. 

Man  always  attaches  an  idea  of  greatness  to  the  character  of 
a  person  who,  whilst  possessing  the  power  of  returning  evil  for 
evil,  not  only  preaches  but  practises  the  divine  principle  of 
forgiveness.  Mohammed,  as  the  chief  of  the  State  and  guardian 
of  the  life  and  liberty  of  the  people,  in  the  exercise  of  justice 
sternly  punished  every  individual  guilty  of  crime.  Mohammed 
the  Prophet,  the  Teacher,  was  gentle  and  merciful  even  to  his 
greatest  enemies.  In  him  were  combined  the  highest  attributes 
that  the  human  mind  can  conceive — justice  and  mercy. 

A  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Hanifa,  named  Thumama,  son  of 
Uthal,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Moslems  in  one  of  their 
expeditions  against  the  unruly  Arabs  of  the  desert.  He  was 
brought  to  Medina,  where  he  was  so  affected  by  the  kindness 
of  the  Prophet,  that  from  an  enemy  he  soon  became  the  most 
devoted  follower.  Returning  to  his  people  he  stopped  the 
transport  to  Mecca  of  provisions  from  Yemama,  and  this 
stoppage  by  Thumama  reduced  the  Meccans  to  the  direst 
straits.  Failing  to  move  the  Hanafites,  they  at  last  addressed 
themselves  to  Mohammed,  and  besought  him  to  intercede  for 
them.  The  Prophet's  heart  was  touched  with  pity,  and  he 
requested  Thumama  to  allow  them  to  have  whatever  they 
wanted  ;  and  at  his  word  the  convoys  were  again  permitted  to 
reach  Mecca. 

Endless  instances  might  be  cited  of  Mohammed's  merciful 
nature.  We  will,  however,  only  instance  two.  A  daughter  of 
his — a  beloved  child — was,  after  the  treaty  of  Hudaibiya,  fleeing 
from  Mecca.  She  was  far  advanced  in  pregnancy,  and  as  she 
was  mounting  her  camel,  a  Koreish  named  Habrar,  with 
characteristic  ferocity,  drove  the  butt  end  of  his  lance  against 
her,  throwing  her  to  the  ground,  and  eventually  causing  her 
death.  On  the  conquest  of  Mecca  the  murderer  was  pro- 
scribed. After  hiding  for  some  time  he  presented  himself 
before  the  Prophet,  and  threw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the 
bereaved    father.     The    wrong    was    great  ;     the    crime    was 


86  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

atrocious — but  the  injury  was  personal.  The  man  was  to  all 
appearance  sincere  in  his  penitence  and  the  profession  of  the 
Faith.  Pardon  was  unconditionally  granted.  The  Jewess  who 
attempted  his  life  at  Khaibar,  and  Ikrima,  the  son  of  Abu  Jahl, 
who  was  bitterly  personal  in  his  animosity  towards  the  Prophet, 
were  freely  forgiven. 

A  tribe  of  Christian  Bedouins  (the  Bani-Kalb),  settled  about 
Dumat  ul-Jandal,  had,  in  their  depredations,  appeared  on  the 
Medinite  territories.  An  expedition  was  now  despatched  to 
summon  them  to  embrace  Islam  and  forego  their  lawless 
practices.  Whilst  delivering  his  injunctions  to  the  captain  who 
headed  this  small  force,  Mohammed  used  the  memorable  words, 
"  In  no  case  shalt  thou  use  deceit  or  perfidy,  nor  shalt  thou  kill 
any  child."  ^ 

In  his  instructions  to  the  leaders  of  the  expeditions  against 
marauding  and  hostile  tribes  and  people,  he  invariably  enjoined 
them  in  peremptory  terms  never  to  injure  the  weak.  "  In 
avenging  the  injuries  inflicted  upon  us,"  he  said  to  his  troops, 
whom  he  despatched  against  the  Byzantines,  "  molest  not  the 
harmless  inmates  of  domestic  seclusion  ;  spare  the  weakness 
of  the  female  sex  ;  injure  not  the  infant  at  the  breast,  or  those 
who  are  ill  in  bed.  Abstain  from  demolishing  the  dwellings  of 
the  unresisting  inhabitants  ;  destroy  not  the  means  of  their 
subsistence,  nor  their  fruit  trees  ;  and  touch  not  the  palm." 
Abu  Bakr,  following  his  master,  thus  enjoined  his  captain  : 
"  O  Yezid  !  be  sure  you  do  not  oppress  your  own  people,  nor 
make  them  uneasy,  but  advise  with  them  in  all  your  affairs, 
and  take  care  to  do  that  which  is  right  and  just  ;  for  those  that 
do  otherwise  shall  not  prosper.  When  you  meet  your  enemies 
quit  yourselves  hke  men,  and  do  not  turn  your  backs  ;  and  if 
you  gain  the  victory,  kill  not  little  children,  nor  old  people,  nor 
women.  Destroy  no  palm  trees,  nor  burn  any  fields  of  corn. 
Cut  down  no  fruit  trees,  nor  do  any  mischief  to  cattle,  only  such 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  992.  Compare  these  injunctions  of  the  Arabian  Prophet 
as  also  the  historic  words  of  Abu  Bakr  (the  first  Caliph)  to  Yezid  bin  Abu 
Sufian,  when  despatching  him  against  the  Byzantines,  with  the  commands  of 
the  Israelite  Prophet  :  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts  .  .  .  Now  go  and 
smite  Amalek,  and  utterly  destroy  all  that  they  have,  and  spare  them  not  ; 
but  slay  both  man  and  woman,  infant  and  suckling,  ox  and  sheep,  camel  and 
ass,"  I.  Sam.  xv.  3  ;  "  Slay  utterly  old  and  young,  both  maids,  and  little 
children,  and  women."     Ezek.  ix.  6. 


VI.  MOHAMMED'S  CLEMENCY  87 

as  you  kill  for  the  necessity  of  subsistence.  When  you  make 
any  covenant  or  article,  stand  to  it,  and  be  as  good  as  your 
word.  As  you  go  on,  you  will  find  some  religious  persons  that 
live  retired  in  monasteries,  who  propose  to  themselves  to  serve 
God  that  wa3^  Let  them  alone,  and  neither  kill  them  nor 
destroy  their  monasteries."  ^  These  injunctions  contrast 
strangely  with  the  fearful  denunciations  of  the  Christians, 
Catholic,  Protestant  and  Greek,  from  the  days  of  St.  Lactantius 
to  those  of  the  Covenanters.-  The  followers  of  the  "  Prince  of 
Peace "  burnt  and  ravished,  pillaged  and  murdered  pro- 
miscuously, old  and  young,  male  and  female,  without  com- 
punction, up  to  recent  times.  And  his  vicegerents  on  earth, 
popes  and  patriarchs,  bishops,  priests,  and  presbyters,  approved 
of  their  crimes,  and  frequently  granted  plenary  absolution  for 
the  most  heinous  offences. 

In  the  month  of  Sha'ban  of  this  year  (November-December, 
627)  an  expedition  was  directed  against  the  Bani-MustaUk. 
These  people  had  up  to  this  time  been  on  friendly  terms  with 
the  Moslems.  But,  recently,  instigated  by  their  chief  Harith, 
the  son  of  Abu  Zirar,^  they  had  thrown  off  their  allegiance, 
and  committed  forays  on  the  suburbs  of  Medina.  The 
expedition  was  entirely  successful,  and  several  prisoners  were 
taken,  amongst  whom  was  a  daughter  of  Harith,  called 
Juwairiya. 

Six  years  had  now  passed  since  the  exiles  of  Mecca  had  left 
their  homes  and  their  country  for  the  sake  of  their  faith,  and 
of  him  who  had  infused  into  them  a  new  consciousness  such  as 
they  had  never  felt  before,  awakening  in  them  the  spirit  of 
union,  love,  and  brotherhood.  People  flocked  from  every  part 
of  Arabia  to  hsten  to  the  words  of  the  wondrous  man  who  had 
achieved  all  this  ;  to  ask  his  counsel  in  the  affairs  of  everyday 
hfe,  even  as  the  sons  of  Israel  consulted  of  old  the  prophet 
Samuel.* 

'  Compare  Mill's  History  of  Muhammedanisni,  pp.  45,  46  ;  and  Gagnier, 
Vie  de  Mahomet,  in  loco. 

^  The  massacre  of  5000  Chinese  men,  women  and  children  at  Blagovestchenk 
in  Manchuria  in  the  twentieth  century  by  the  troops  of  a  great  Christian  power 
needs  no  mention. 

-  With  a  zdd  ;    Ibn-Hisham,  p.  725  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  146. 

^  Stanley's  Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Church,  vol.  i.  in  loco. 


88  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

But  the  hearts  of  these  exiles  still  yearned  sadly  for  the 
place  of  their  birth.  Driven  from  their  homes,  they  had  found 
refuge  in  a  rival  city  ;  expelled  from  the  precincts  of  the  sacred 
Kaaba,  which  formed  the  glorious  centre  of  all  their  associa- 
tions,— the  one  spot  round  which  gathered  the  history  of  their 
nation, — for  six  years  had  they  been  denied  the  pilgrimage  of 
the  holy  shrine,  a  custom  round  which  time,  with  its  hoary 
traditions,  had  cast  the  halo  of  sanctity.  The  Teacher  himself 
longed  to  see  the  place  of  his  nativity  with  as  great  a  yearning. 
The  temple  of  the  Kaaba  belonged  to  the  whole  Arab  nation. 
The  Koreish  were  merely  the  custodians  of  this  shrine,  and 
were  not  authorised  by  the  public  law  of  the  country  to  interdict 
the  approach  even  of  an  enemy,  if  he  presented  himself  without 
any  hostile  design,  and  with  the  avowed  object  of  fulfilUng  a 
religious  duty.^ 

The  season  of  the  pilgrimage  had  approached  ;  the  Prophet 
accordingly  announced  his  intention  of  visiting  the  holy  places. 
At  once  a  thousand  voices  responded  to  the  call.  Preparations 
were  rapidly  made,  and,  accompanied  by  seven  hundred 
Moslems,  Ansar  and  Muhajirin,  all  perfectly  unarmed,  he  set 
out  on  the  pilgrimage. ^  The  animosity  of  the  Koreish,  how- 
ever, was  not  yet  extinguished.  They  posted  themselves,  with 
a  large  army,  some  miles  in  advance  of  Mecca,  to  bar  the  way, 
but  soon  after  fell  back  on  the  city,  in  order  to  keep  every 
point  of  access  closed  to  the  Moslems.  They  swore  solemnly 
not  to  allow  the  followers  of  the  Prophet  to  enter  the  shrine, 
and  maltreated  the  envoy  who  was  sent  to  them  to  solicit 
permission  to  visit  the  Kaaba.  A  body  of  the  Meccans  went 
round  the  Prophet's  encampment  with  the  avowed  object  of 
killing  any  unwary  Moslem  who  might  leave  the  camp.  They 
even  attacked  the  Prophet  with  stones  and  arrows. ^     Finding 

^  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  84  ;    Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  hi.  pp.  174,  175  et  seq. 

2  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  740;  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  84  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  152. 
Abulfeda,  p.  60,  mentions  the  number  as  1400. 

3  When  some  of  these  men  were  seized  and  brought  before  the  Prophet,  he 
pardoned  and  released  them,  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  745.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Moslems  took  the  pledge,  called  "  The  Agreeable  Pledge  "  (Bai  atur- 
Rizwdn),  or  "  The  Pledge  of  the  Tree  "  {Bai'at-itsh-Shajara).  Osman  being  sent 
to  the  Koreish  to  repeat  the  request  for  permission,  they  seized  and  detained 
him.  The  Moslems,  fearful  of  his  mui'der,  flocked  round  Mohammed,  and 
solemnly  swore  to  avenge  his  death.  Ibn-Hish^m,  p.  746  ;  Koran,  sura 
xlviii.  ver.  17;    comp.  also  Muir,  vol.  iv.  p.  32. 


VI.  THE  PEACE  OF  HUDAIBIYA  89 

the  idolaters  immovable,  and  wishful  himself  to  end  the  state 
of  warfare  between  the  Moslems  and  the  Koreish,  Mohammed 
expressed  himself  willing  to  agree  to  any  terms  the  Meccans 
might  feel  inclined  to  impose.  After  much  difficulty  a  treaty 
was  concluded,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  all  hostiUties 
should  cease  for  ten  years  ;  that  anyone  coming  from  the 
Koreish  to  the  Prophet  without  the  permission  of  the  guardian 
or  chief,  should  be  re-delivered  to  the  idolaters  ;  that  any 
individual  from  among  the  Moslems  going  over  to  the  Meccans 
should  not  be  surrendered  ;  that  any  tribe  desirous  of  entering 
into  alliance,  either  with  the  Koreish  or  with  the  Moslems, 
should  be  at  hberty  to  do  so  without  hindrance  ;  that  the 
Moslems  should  retrace  their  steps  on  this  occasion,  without 
advancing  farther ;  that  they  should  be  permitted  in  the 
following  year  to  visit  Mecca  and  to  remain  there  for  three 
days  with  their  travelling  arms,  namely,  their  "  scimitars  in 
sheaths."  ^ 

The  moderation  and  magnanimity  displayed  by  Mohammed 
in  concluding  this  treaty  caused  some  discontent  among  the 
more  impulsive  of  his  followers,  in  whose  hearts  the  injuries 
and  cmelties  inflicted  by  the  Koreish  yet  rankled.  In  virtue 
of  the  third  stipulation  of  the  treaty,  by  which  the  Moslems 
bound  themselves  to  surrender  every  idolater  who  came  over 
to  their  cause  without  the  permission  of  their  patron  or  chief, 
the  Koreish  demanded  the  surrender  of  several  of  the  Prophet's 
disciples  ;  and  their  demand  was  immediately  comphed  with 
by  Mohammed,  in  spite  of  the  murmurs  of  some  of  the 
Moslems.2 

On  his  return  to  Medina,  Mohammed,  in  pursuance  of  the 
cathoUc  wish  by  which  he  was  inspired,  that  his  religion  should 

1  I.e.  the  Sildh-ur-rdkib  ;  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  747  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p. 
156  ;  Mishkdt,  bk  xvii.  chap.  10,  part  i.  It  was  on  the  occasion  of  this  peace 
that  a  Koreishite  envoy  who  was  sent  to  the  Moslem  encampment,  struck  with 
the  profound  reverence  and  love  shown  to  the  Prophet  by  his  followers,  on 
his  return  to  the  Ivoreish,  told  them  he  had  seen  sovereigns  like  the  Chosroes 
(Kesra),  the  Ca;-sar  (Kaiser),  and  the  Negus  (Najashi),  surrounded  with  all  the 
pomp  and  circumstance  of  roj'alty  ;  but  he  had  never  witnessed  a  sovereign 
in  the  midst  of  his  subjects  receiving  such  veneration  and  obedience  as  was 
paid  to  Mohammed  by  his  people  ;  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  745  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii. 
p.  154  ;   Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  87  ;   and  Abulfeda,  p.  61. 

-  As  women  were  not  included  in  the  treaty,  the  demand  of  the  idolaters 
for  the  surrender  of  the  female  Mo.slems  was  peremptorily  declined. 


go  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

embrace  all  humanity/  despatched  several  envoys  to  invite 
the  neighbouring  sovereigns  and  their  subjects  to  drink  of  the 
cup  of  life  offered  to  them  by  the  Preacher  of  Islam.  Two  of 
the  most  noted  embassies  were  to  Heraclius,  the  Emperor  of 
the  Greeks,  and  to  Khusru  Parviz,  the  Kesra  of  Persia.  The 
King  of  Kings  was  amazed  at  the  audacity  of  the  fugitive  of 
Mecca  in  addressing  him,  the  great  Chosroes,  on  terms  of 
equality,  and  enraged  at  what  he  considered  the  insolence  of 
the  letter,  tore  it  to  pieces,  and  drove  the  envoy  from  his 
presence  with  contumely.  When  the  news  of  this  treatment 
was  brought  to  the  Prophet,  he  quietly  observed,  "  Thus  will 
the  empire  of  Kesra  be  torn  to  pieces."  ^  The  fulfilment  of 
the  prophecy  is  engraved  on  the  pages  of  history.  Heraclius, 
more  polite  or  more  reverential,  treated  the  messenger  with 
great  respect,  and  returned  a  gracious  and  careful  reply. 
Before,  however,  leaving  Syria  he  tried  to  acquaint  himself 
better  with  the  character  of  the  man  who  had  sent  him  the 
message.  With  this  object  he  is  said  to  have  summoned  to 
his  presence  some  Arab  merchants  who  had  arrived  at  Gaza 
with  a  caravan  from  Arabia.  Among  them  was  the  notorious 
Abu  Sufian,  still  one  of  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  Prophet. 
The  Greek  emperor  appears  to  have  questioned  him  with 
regard  to  Mohammed,  and  his  replies,  as  preserved  in  the 
traditions,  are  almost  identical  with  the  summary  which 
Ja'far  gave  to  the  Negus  of  the  teachings  of  Mohammed. 
"  What  are  the  doctrines  Mohammed  advances  ?  "  asked 
Heraclius  of  Abu  Sufian.  "  He  bids  us  abandon  the  worship 
of  our  ancient  idols  and  to  adore  one  God  ;  to  bestow  alms  ; 
to  observe  truth  and  purity  ;  to  abstain  from  fornication  and 
vice,  and  to  flee  abominations."  Asked  if  his  followers  were 
increasing  in  number,  or  if  they  were  falling  off,  the  reply  was, 
"  his  adherents  are  increasing  incessantly,  and  there  has  not 
been  one  who  has  forsaken  him." 

Another  ambassador  sent  soon  afterwards  to  the  Ghassanide 
prince,  a  feudatory  of  Heraclius,  residing  at  Busra,  near 
Damascus,  instead  of  receiving  the  reverence  and  respect  due 
to  an  envoy,  was  cruelly  murdered  by  another  chief  of  the 

1  Koran,  sura  vii.  vers.  157,  158. 

2  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  163,  164. 


VI.         MESSAGE  TO  HERACLIUS  AND  PARVIZ  91 

same  family,  and  Ameer  of  a  Christian  tribe  subject  to  Byzan- 
tium. This  wanton  outrage  on  international  obligations 
became  eventually  the  cause  of  that  war  which  placed  Islam 
in  conflict  with  the  whole  of  Christendom.  But  of  this  we 
shall  treat  later. 


CHAPTER   VII 
THE  DIFFUSION  OF  THE  FAITH 

^xlil  \    JU  'i\  ^')  ^^  A.i  U  -    .,)!     Jj]     JU ]    J/L;    Ci 

THE   Jewish  tribes,   in   spite  of  the  reverses  they  had 
aheady  suffered  were  still  formidable, — still  busy  with 
their  machinations  to   work   the    destruction   of  the 
Moslems.     They  possessed,    at    the   distance    of  three  or  four 
7 AH  =i2th         days'  journey  to   the  north-east  of  Medina,  a 
April  628  to  1st     strongly  fortified  territory,  studded  with  castles, 
ay  629  A.c.  ^j^g  principal  of   which,  called  al-Kamus,  was 

situated  on  an  almost  inaccessible  hill.  This  group  of  fortresses 
was  called  Khaihar,  a  word  signifying  a  fortified  place.  The 
population  of  Khaibar  included  several  branches  of  the  Bani- 
Nazir  and  the  Kuraizha,  who  had  taken  refuge  there.  The 
Jews  of  Khaibar  had  shown  an  active  and  implacable  hatred 
towards  Mohammed  and  his  followers,  and  since  the  arrival  of 
their  brethren  among  them,  this  feeling  had  acquired  greater 
force.  The  Jews  of  Khaibar  united  by  an  ancient  alliance  with 
the  Bedouin  horde  of  the  Bani-Ghatafan,  and  other  cognate 
tribes,  worked  incessantly  for  the  formation  of  another  coalition 
against  the  Moslems. ^  These  latter  were  alive  to  the  power 
possessed  by  the  desert-races  to  injure  them,  and  prompt 
measures  were  needed  to  avert  the  evils  of  another  league 
against  Medina.  Accordingly,  early  in  the  month  of  Muharram 
of  this  year,  an  expedition,  consisting  of  about  1400  men,  was 
despatched  against  Khaibar.  The  Jews  now  solicited  the 
assistance  of  their  allies.     The  Bani-Fizara  hastened  to  their 

^  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol,  iii,  pp.  iq^,  194. 


VII.  THE  FALL  OF  KHAIBAR  93 

support,  but  afraid  of  the  Moslems  turning  their  flank,  and 
surprising  their  flocks  and  herds  in  their  absence,  speedily 
retreated.  The  Jews  were  thus  left  alone  to  bear  the  brunt  of 
the  war.  Terms  were  offered  to  them  by  the  Moslems,  but 
were  refused.  In  spite  of  the  most  determined  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  Jews,  fortress  after  fortress  opened  its  gate.  At 
last  came  the  turn  of  the  most  formidable  castle,  al-Kamus. 
After  a  spirited  defence,  it  also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Moslems. 
The  fate  of  this,  their  principal  fortress,  brought  the  remaining 
Jewish  townships  to  see  the  utter  futility  of  further  resistance. 
They  sued  for  forgiveness,  which  was  accorded.  Their  lands  and 
immovable  property  were  guaranteed  to  them  (on  condition 
of  good  conduct),  together  with  the  free  practice  of  their 
religion  ;  and,  as  they  were  exempt  from  the  regular  taxes,  the 
Prophet  imposed  upon  them  the  duty  of  paying  to  the  Common- 
wealth, in  return  for  the  protection  they  would  thenceforth 
enjoy,  half  the  produce  of  their  lands.  The  movable  property 
found  in  the  fortress  which  the  Moslems  reduced  by  regular 
sieges  and  battles,  was  forfeited  to  the  army,  and  distributed 
among  the  men  according  to  the  character  of  their  arms  ;  thus, 
for  instance,  three  shares  were  given  to  a  horseman,  whilst  a 
foot-soldier  received  only  one.^ 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  of  the  Hegira,  Moham- 
med and  his  disciples  availed  themselves  of  their  truce  with 
the  Koreish  to  accomplish  the  desire  of  their  hearts  ^ — the 
pilgrimage  to  the  holy  places.  This  journey,  in  Moslem  history, 
is  reverently  stvled  "  the  Pilgrimage,  or  Visit  of  Accomplish- 
ment." 3  It  was  in  March  629  that  the  Prophet,  accompanied 
by  2000  Moslems,  proceeded  to  Mecca  to  perform  the  rites  of  the 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  764  and  773  :  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  169.  The  story 
of  Kinana  being  tortured  for  the  sake  of  disclosing  the  concealed  treasures  is 
false. 

Frequent  attempts  were  made  about  this  time  to  assassinate  the  Prophet. 
On  his  entry  into  Khaibar,  a  Jewess,  animated  with  the  same  vengeful  feeling 
as  the  Judith  of  old,  spread  a  poisoned  repast  for  him  and  some  of  his  followers. 
One  of  them  died  immediately  after  he  had  taken  a  few  mouthfuls.  The  life 
of  the  Prophet  was  saved,  but  the  poison  permeated  his  system,  and  in  after- 
hfc  he  suffered  severely  from  its  effects,  and  eventually  died  thereof.  In 
spite  of  this  crime,  Mohammed  forgave  the  woman,  and  she  was  allowed  to 
remain  among  her  people  unharmed;  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  104  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir, 
vol.  ii.  p.  170. 

"  See  Koran,  sura  xlviii.  ver.  27.  ^  'Umrat-ul-Kazd. 


94  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

Lesser  Pilgrimage — rites  which  every  pilgrim  of  Islam  has  now 
to  observe.  The  Koreish  would,  however,  have  nothing  to  say 
to  the  pilgrims,  and  hold  no  converse  with  them.  For  the  three 
days  during  which  the  ceremonies  lasted,  they  evacuated  the 
city,  and  from  the  summits  of  the  neighbouring  heights  watched 
the  Moslems  performing  the  rites.  "  It  was  surely  a  strange 
sight,"  says  Muir,  with  an  unconscious  thrill,  "  which  at  this 
time  presented  itself  in  the  vale  of  Mekka, — a  sight  unique  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  The  ancient  city  is  for  three  days 
evacuated  by  all  its  inhabitants,  high  and  low,  ever}/  house 
deserted  ;  and,  as  they  retire,  the  exiled  converts,  many  years 
banished  from  their  birthplace,  approach  in  a  great  body, 
accompanied  by  their  allies,  revisit  the  empty  homes  of  their 
childhood,  and  within  the  short  allotted  space,  fulfil  the  rites 
of  pilgrimage.  The  outside  inhabitants,  climbing  the  heights 
around,  take  refuge  under  tents,  or  other  shelter  among  the 
hills  and  glens  ;  and,  clustering  on  the  overhanging  peak  of 
Aboo-Kubeys,  thence  watch  the  movements  of  the  visitors 
beneath,  as  with  the  Prophet  at  their  head  they  make  the 
circuit  of  the  Kaabeh,  and  the  rapid  procession  between 
Es-Safa  and  Marwah  ;  and  anxiously  scan  every  figure  if 
perchance  they  may  recognise  among  the  worshippers  some 
long-lost  friend  or  relative.  It  was  a  scene  rendered  possible 
only  by  the  throes  which  gave  birth  to  Islam."  ^  In  strict 
conformity  with  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  they  left  Mecca  after 
a  sojourn  of  three  days.  This  peaceful  fulfilment  of  the  day- 
dream of  the  Moslems  was  followed  by  important  conversions 
among  the  Koreish.  The  seli-restraint  and  scrupulous 
regard  for  their  pledged  word  displayed  by  the  Believers 
created  a  visible  impression  among  the  enemies  of  Islam. 
Many  of  those  who  were  most  violent  among  the  Koreish 
in  their  opposition  to  the  Prophet,  men  of  position  and 
influence,  who  had  warred  against  him,  and  reviled  him, 
struck  by  Mohammed's  kindness  of  heart  and  nobility  of 
nature,  which  overlooked  all  crimes  against  himself,  adopted 
the  Faith.2 

^  Muir,  Life  of  Mohammed,  vol.  iii.  402. 

^  For  instance,  Khalid  bin-Walid,  who  commanded  the  Koreish  cavalry  at 
Ohod,  and  'Amr(u)  ibn  al-'Asi,  famous  as  Amru. 


VII.  THE  FALL  OF  MECCA  95 

The  murder  of  the  Moslem  envoy  by  a  feudatory  ^  of  the 
Greek  emperor  was  an  outrage  which  could  not  be  passed  over 
m  silence,  and  unpunished.  An  expedition,  consisting  of  three 
thousand  men,  was  despatched  to  exact  reparation  from  the 
Ghassanide  prince.  The  lieutenants  of  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
instead  of  disavowing  the  crime,  adopted  it,  and  thus  made  the 
quarrel  an  imperial  one.  Uniting  their  forces,  they  attacked 
the  Moslems  near  Muta,  a  village  not  far  from  Balka  in  Syria, 
the  scene  of  the  murder.  The  Byzantines  and  their  allies  were 
repulsed,  but  the  disparity  of  numbers  was  too  great,  and  the 
Moslems  retreated  to  Medina.  ^ 

It  was  about  this  time  that  the  Koreish  and  their  alhes  the 
Bani-Bakr,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  peace  concluded  at 
Hudaibiya,  attacked  the  Bani-Khuza'a,  who  were  under  the 
protection  of,  and  in  alliance  with,  the  Moslems.  They 
massacred  a  number  of  the  Khuza'a,  and  dispersed  the  rest. 
The  Banu-Khuza'a  brought  their  complaints  to  Mohammed, 
and  asked  for  justice.  The  reign  of  iniquity  and  oppression 
had  lasted  long  at  Mecca.  The  Meccans  had  themselves 
violated  the  peace,  and  some  of  their  chief  men  had  taken  part 
in  the  massacre  of  the  Khuza'a.  The  Prophet  immediately 
marched  ten  thousand  men  against  the  idolaters.  With  the 
exception  of  a  slight  resistance  by  Ikrima,^  and  Safwan^  at 
the  head  of  their  respective  clans,  in  which  several  Moslems 
were  killed,  Mohammed  entered  Mecca  almost  unopposed. 

Thus,  at  length,  Mohammed  entered  Mecca  as  a  conqueror. 
He,  who  was  once  a  fugitive  and  persecuted,  now  came  to  prove 
his  mission  by  deeds  of  mercy.  The  city  which  had  treated 
him  so  cruelly,  driven  him  and  his  faithful  band  for  refuge 
amongst  strangers,  which  had  sworn  his  life  and  the  lives  of  his 
devoted  disciples,  lay  at  his  feet.  His  old  persecuters,  relentless 
and  ruthless,  who  had  disgraced  humanity  by  inflicting  cruel 

1  According  to  Caussin  de  Perceval,  the  name  of  this  chieftain  was 
Shurahbil,  son  of  'Amr  (and  not,  as  Abulfeda  mentions  it,  'Amr,  son  of 
Shurahbil). — Vol.  ii.  p.  253,  and  vol.  iii.  p.  211. 

*  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  211  et  seq.  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  178- 
180.  In  this  battle,  Zaid,  the  son  of  Harith,  who  commanded  the  Moslem 
troops,  Ja'far,  the  cousin  of  Mohammed,  and  several  other  notables  were  killed. 

*  The  son  of  Abu  Jahl,  who  fell  at  Badr. 
'  The  son  of  Ommeyya. 


96  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

outrages  upon  inoffensive  men  and  women,  and  even  upon  the 
lifeless  dead,  were  now  completely  at  his  mercy.  But  in  the 
hour  of  triumph  every  evil  suffered  was  forgotten,  every 
injury  inflicted  was  forgiven,  and  a  general  amnesty  was 
extended  to  the  population  of  Mecca.  Only  four  criminals, 
"  whom  justice  condemned,"  made  up  Mohammed's  proscrip- 
tion list  when  he  entered  as  a  conqueror  the  city  of  his  bitterest 
enemies.  The  army  followed  his  example,  and  entered  gently 
and  peaceably  ;  no  house  was  robbed,  no  woman  was  insulted. 
Most  truly  has  it  been  said  that  through  all  the  annals  of 
conquest,  there  has  been  no  triumphant  entry  like  unto  this 
one.  But  the  idols  of  the  nation  were  unrelentingly  struck 
down.  Sorrowfully  the  idolaters  stood  round  and  watched  the 
downfall  of  the  images  they  worshipped.  And  then  dawned 
upon  them  the  truth,  when  they  heard  the  old  voice,  at  which 
they  were  wont  to  scoff  and  jeer,  cry,  as  he  struck  down  the 
idols,  "  Truth  has  come,  and  falsehood  vanisheth  ;  verily 
falsehood  is  evanescent,"  ^  how  utterly  powerless  were  their 
gods! 

After  destroying  these  ancient  idols  and  abolishing  every 
pagan  rite,  Mohammed  delivered  a  sermon  to  the  assembled 
people.  He  dwelt  first  upon  the  natural  equality  and  brother- 
hood of  mankind,  in  the  words  of  the  Koran,^  and  then  pro- 
ceeded as  follows  :  "  Descendants  of  Koreish,  how  do  you 
think  I  should  act  towards  you  ?  "  "  With  kindness  and  pity, 
gracious  brother  and  nephew,"  replied  they.^  At  these  words, 
says  Tabari,  tears  came  into  the  eyes  of  the  Prophet,  and  he 
said,  "  I  shall  speak  to  you  as  Joseph  spake  unto  his  brothers, 
'  I  shall  not  reproach  you  to-day  ;  God  will  forgive,'  He  is  the 
most  merciful  and  compassionate."  ^ 

And  now  was  enacted  a  scene  of  which  there  is  no  parallel 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  Hosts  upon  hosts  came  and 
adopted  the  religion  of  Mohammed.  Seated  on  the  hill  of 
Safa,  he  received  the  old  pledge,  exacted  before  froni  the 
Medinites  :    "  They  would  not  adore  anything  ;  they  would  not 

1  Koran,  sura  xvii.  ver.  83  ;    Ibn  ulAthir,  vol.  ii.  p.  192. 

-  Koran,  sura  xlix.  ver.  10. 

'  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  821  ;   Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  134. 

■*  Koran,  sura  xii.  ver.  31. 


VII.  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  THE  FAITH  97 

commit  larceny,  adultery,  or  infanticide  ;  they  would  not  utter 
falsehood,  nor  speak  evil  of  women."  ^ 

Thus  were  the  w^ords  of  the  Koranic  prophecy  fulfilled, 
"  When  arrives  victory  and  assistance  from  God,  and  seest 
thou  men  enter  in  hosts  the  religion  of  God,  then  utter  the 
praise  of  thy  Lord,  and  implore  His  pardon  ;  for  He  loveth  to 
turn  in  mercy  (to  those  who  seek  Him)."  ^  Mohammed  now 
saw  his  Mission  all  but  completed.  His  principal  disciples 
were  despatched  in  every  direction  to  call  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  desert  to  Islam,  and  with  strict  injunctions  to  preach  peace 
and  good-will.  Only  in  case  of  violence  were  they  to  defend 
themselves.  These  injunctions  were  loyally  obeyed  with  one 
exception.  The  men  of  Khalid  bin-Walid,  under  the  orders  of 
this  fierce  and  newly-converted  warrior,  killed  a  few  of  the 
Bani  Jazima  ^  Bedouins,  apparently  mistaking  them  for  hostile 
soldiers  ;  but  the  other  Moslems  interfering,  prevented  further 
massacre.  The  news  of  this  wanton  bloodshed  deeply  grieved 
the  Prophet,  and  he  cried,  raising  his  hands  towards  heaven, 
"  0  Lord  !  I  am  innocent  of  what  Khalid  has  done."  He 
immediately  despatched  Ali  to  make  every  possible  reparation 
to  the  Bani  Jazima  for  the  outrage  committed  on  them.  This 
was  a  mission  congenial  to  All's  nature,  and  he  executed  it 
faithfully.  He  made  careful  inquiries  as  to  the  number  of 
persons  killed  by  Khalid,  their  status,  and  the  losses  incurred 
by  their  famihes,  and  paid  the  Diyat  strictly.  When  every  loss 
was  made  good,  he  distributed  the  remainder  of  the  money  he 
had  brought  among  the  kinsmen  of  the  victims  and  other 
members  of  the  tribe,  gladdening  every  heart,  says  the 
chronicler,  by  his  gentleness  and  benevolence.  Carrying  with 
him  the  blessings  of  the  whole  people,  he  returned  to  the 
Prophet,  who  overwhelmed  him  with  thanks  and  praises.^ 

The  formidable  Bedouin  tribes,  the  Hawazin,  the  Thakif,^ 
and  various  others  who  pastured  their  flocks  on  the  territories 

'  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  292  ;  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  234. 
2  Koran,  sura  ex.;   comp.  Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshdf),  Egypt,  ed.,  pt.  ii. 
pp.  490,  491.     The  verse  is  given  at  the  head  of  Chapter  IX.  post. 

'With  a  ^  (zdl). 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  834,  835  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  195  ;   Tabari,  vol.  iii. 
p.  141. 
5  With  a  o 

S.I.  G 


98  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

bordering  Mecca,  and  some  of  whom  possessed  strongly- 
fortified  towns  like  Tayef,  unwilling  to  render  obedience  to  the 
Moslems  without  resistance,  formed  a  league,  with  the  intention 
of  overwhelming  Mohammed  before  he  could  make  prepara- 
tions to  repulse  their  attack.  His  vigilance,  however,  dis- 
appointed them.  After  a  well-contested  battle  fought  near 
Hunain,  a  deep  and  narrow  defile  about  ten  miles  to  the 
north-east  of  Mecca,  ^  the  idolaters  were  defeated  with  great 
loss. 2  Separating  their  forces,  one  body  of  the  enemy,  con- 
sisting principally  of  the  Thakif,  took  refuge  in  their  cit}'  of 
Tayef,  which  only  eight  or  nine  j-ears  before  had  driven  the 
Prophet  from  within  its  walls  with  insults  ;  the  rest  fled  to  a 
fortified  camp  in  the  valley  of  the  Autas.  This  was  forced, 
and  the  families  of  the  Hawazin,  with  all  their  worldly  effects, — 
their  flocks  and  herds, — fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Moslems. 
Tayef  was  then  besieged,  but  after  a  few  days  Mohammed 
raised  the  siege,  well  knowing  that  the  pressure  of  circum- 
stances would  soon  force  the  Tayefites  to  submit  without 
bloodshed.  Returning  to  the  place  where  the  captured 
Hawazin  were  left  for  safety,  he  found  a  deputation  from  this 
powerful  tribe  awaiting  his  return  to  soHcit  the  restoration  of 
their  families.  Aware  of  the  sensitiveness  of  the  Arab  nature 
regarding  their  rights,  Mohammed  repHed  to  the  Bedouin 
deputies  that  he  could  not  force  his  people  to  abandon  all  the 
fruits  of  their  victory,  and  that  they  must  at  least  forfeit  their 
effects  if  they  would  regain  their  families.  To  this  they 
consented,  and  the  following  day,  when  Mohammed  was 
offering  the  mid-day  prayers,^  with  his  disciples  ranged  behind 
him,  they  came  and  repeated  the  request  :  "  We  supplicate  the 
Prophet  to  intercede  with  the  Moslems,  and  the  Moslems  to 
intercede  with  the  Prophet,  to  restore  us  our  women  and 
children."  Mohammed  replied  to  the  deputies,  "  My  own 
share  in  the  captives,   and  that  of  the  children  of  Abd  uj- 

1  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  248  ;  in  the  Kdimis,  Hunain  is  merely 
said  to  be  on  the  road  from  Mecca  to  Tayef.  In  the  Mit'jam  ul-Buldan  the 
distance  between  Mecca  and  Hunain  (lying  to  the  south  of  Zu'l  Majaz)  is 
given  as  three  nights'  journey;  vol.  ii.  p.  35. 

-  This  battle  is  referred  to  in  the  Koran,  sura  ix.  vers.  25,  26  ;  Ibn-Hisham, 
p.  840  ;   Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  200,  201. 

^  Tabari  says  morning  prayer,  vol.  iii.  p.  155. 


VII.  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  THE  FAITH  99 

Muttalib,  I  give  you  back  at  once."  His  disciples,  catching 
his  spirit,  instantaneously  followed  his  example,  and  six 
thousand  people  were  in  a  moment  set  free.^  This  generosity 
won  the  hearts  of  many  of  the  Thakif,^  who  tendered  their 
allegiance,  and  became  earnest  Moslems.  The  incident  which 
followed  after  the  distribution  of  the  forfeited  flocks  and  herds 
of  the  Hawazin,  shows  not  only  the  hold  the  Prophet  had  over 
the  hearts  of  the  Medinites,  and  the  devotion  he  inspired  them 
with,  but  it  also  proves  that  at  no  period  of  his  career  had  he 
any  material  reward  to  offer  to  his  disciples.  In  the  division 
of  the  spoil  a  larger  proportion  fell  to  the  share  of  the  newly- 
converted  Meccans  than  to  the  people  of  Medina.  Some  of 
the  Ansar  looked  upon  this  as  an  act  of  partialit}^  and  their 
discontent  reaching  the  ear  of  the  Prophet,  he  ordered  them  to 
be  assembled.  He  then  addressed  them  in  these  words  :  "Ye 
Ansar,  I  have  learnt  the  discourse  ye  hold  among  yourselves. 
When  I  came  amongst  you,  you  were  wandering  in  darkness, 
and  the  Lord  gave  you  the  right  direction  ;  you  were  suffering, 
and  He  made  you  happy  ;  at  enmity  amongst  yourselves,  and 
He  has  filled  your  hearts  with  brotherly  love  and  concord. 
Was  it  not  so,  tell  me  ?  "  "  Indeed,  it  is  even  as  thou  sayest," 
was  the  reply  ;  "to  the  Lord  and  His  Prophet  belong  bene- 
volence and  grace."  "  Nay,  by  the  Lord,"  continued  the 
Prophet,  "  but  ye  might  have  answered,  and  answered  truly, 
for  I  would  have  testified  to  its  truth  myself.  '  Thou  earnest  to 
us  rejected  as  an  impostor,  and  we  believed  in  thee  ;  thou  earnest 
as  a  helpless  fugitive,  and  we  assisted  thee  :  poor,  and  an  outcast, 
and  we  gave  thee  an  asylum  ;  comfortless,  and  we  solaced  thee.' 
Ye  Ansar,  v/hy  disturb  your  hearts  because  of  the  things  of  this 
life  ?  Are  ye  not  satisfied  that  others  should  obtain  the  flocks 
and  the  camels,  while  ye  go  back  unto  your  homes  with  me  in 
your  midst  ?  By  Him  who  holds  my  life  in  His  hands,  I  shall 
never  abandon  you.     If  all  mankind  went  one  way  and  the 

^  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  876  ;   Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  206  ;  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  p.  155. 

"-  The  people  of  Tayef  were  so  called.  The  story  told  by  Muir  (vol.  iv. 
p.  149),  as  a  curious  illustration  of  the  Prophet's  mode  of  life,  is  apocryphal. 
It  must  be  remembered,  firstly,  that  the  division  of  the  booty  had  not  taken 
place,  and  consequently  the  Prophet  could  not  have  given  away  as  gift  part 
of  his  own  share  ;  but  this  he  had  pronii.sed  to  the  deputies  before  the 
division  to  restore  to  the  Hawazin.  The  story  is  a  fabrication,  and  utterly 
worthless. 


100  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

Ansar  another,  verily  I  would  join  the  Ansar.  The  Lord  be 
favourable  unto  them,  and  bless  them,  and  their  children, 
and  their  children's  children  !  "  At  these  words,  says  the 
chronicler,  they  all  wept  until  the  tears  ran  down  upon  their 
beards.  And  they  all  cried  with  one  voice,  "  Yea,  Prophet  of 
God,  we  are  well  satisfied  with  our  share."  Thereupon  they 
retired  happy  and  contented.^ 

Mohammed  soon  after  returned  to  Medina. 

1  Ibn-Hishani,  p.  886  ;    Ibn  nl-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  208  ;    Abulfeda,  p.  82. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
THE  YEAR  OF   DEPUTATIONS 


J, 

o-^  h 

v-s»^  »^-i'^i   ri   } 

C  gn  '          </ 

>^>- 

.C5       *o-*         -        c 

Kasidat-ul-Burda. 

AJ    5l_ 

Banat  SuAd. 

THE  ninth  year  of  the  Hegira  was  noted  for  the  embassies 
which  flocked  into  Medina  to  render  homage  to  the 
Prophet  of  Islam.  The  cloud  which  so  long  had  rested 
over  this  land,  with  its  wild  chivalry,  its  blood-feuds,  and  its 
heathenism,  is  now  Hfted  for  ever.  The  age 
of  barbarism  is  past.  A^ri. t,"  J^th 

The  conquest  of  Mecca  decided  the  fate  of  April  631  a.  c. 
idolatry  in  Arabia.  The  people,  who  still 
regarded  with  veneration  those  beautiful  moon-goddesses, 
Manat,  Lat,  and  'Uzza,  and  their  pecuHar  cult,  were  pain- 
fully awakened  by  the  fall  of  its  stronghold.  Among  the 
wild  denizens  of  the  desert  the  moral  effect  of  the  submis- 
sion of  the  Meccans  was  great.     Deputations  began  to  arrive 


ib2  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

from  all  si'des-  16  tender  the  allegiance  and  adherence  of 
tribes  hitherto  most  inimical  to  the  Moslems.^  The  principal 
companions  of  the  Prophet,  and  the  leading  citizens  of  Medina, 
at  his  request,  received  these  envoys  in  their  houses,  and  enter- 
tained them  with  the  time-honoured  hospitality  of  the  Arabs. 
On  departure,  they  always  received  an  ample  sum  for  the 
expenses  of  the  road,  with  some  additional  presents,  corre- 
sponding to  their  rank.  A  written  treaty,  guaranteeing  the 
privileges  of  the  tribe,  was  often  granted,  and  a  teacher  in- 
variably accompanied  the  departing  guests  to  instruct  the 
newly-converted  people  in  the  duties  of  Islam,  and  to  see  that 
every  remnant  of  idolatry  was  obliterated  from  their  midst. 

Whilst  thus  engaged  in  consohdating  the  tribes  of  Arabia 
under  the  new  gospel,  the  great  Seer  was  alive  to  the  dangers 
which  threatened  the  new  confederation  from  outside. 

The  Byzantines  seem  about  this  time  to  have  indulged  in 
those  dreams  of  Arabian  conquests  which  had,  once  before, 
induced  the  founder  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  despatch  expedi- 
tions into  that  country.  ^  HeracUus  had  returned  to  his 
dominions  elated  by  his  victories  over  the  Persians.  His 
pohtical  vision  could  not  have  been  blind  to  the  strange  events 
which  were  taking  place  in  Arabia,  and  he  had  probably  not 
forgotten  the  repulse  of  his  Ueutenants,  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army,  by  a  handful  of  Arabs.  During  his  stay  in  Syria  he  had 
directed  his  feudatories  to  collect  an  overwhelming  force  for 
the  invasion  of  Arabia.  The  news  of  these  preparations  was 
soon  brought  to  Medina,  and  caused  some  consternation  among 
the  Moslems.  If  the  report  was  true  it  meant  a  serious  danger 
to  the  Islamic  commonwealth.  Volunteers  were  summoned 
from  all  quarters  to  repel  the  threatened  attack.  Unfor- 
tunately, a  severe  drought  had  lately  afflicted  Hijaz  and  Najd  ; 
the  date  crops  had  been  ruined,  and  the  beasts  of  burden  had 
died  in  large  numbers  ;  and  the  country  people  at  large  were 
unwilling  to  engage  at  this  juncture  on  an  expedition  far  from 
their  homes.  To  some,  the  time  of  the  year  seemed  unseason- 
able ;  whilst  the  intensity  of  the  heat,  the  hardships  of  the 
journey  and  the  marvellous  stories  regarding  the  power  of  the 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  934  et  seq.  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  219. 
^  I  allude  to  the  expedition  of  ^lius  Gallus  under  Augustus. 


VIII.  THE  YEAR  OF  DEPUTATIONS  103 

Byzantine  empire  added  largely  to  the  fears  of  the  timorous. 
Many  applied  to  be  exempted  from  service  ;  and  the  Prophet 
acceded  to  the  prayers  of  those  who  were  either  too  weak  or 
too  poor  to  take  up  arms  or  leave  their  homes,  and  such  others 
as  had  no  one  besides  themselves  to  look  after  their  famihes.^ 

The  unwilhngness  of  the  lukewarm  was  aggravated  by  the 
machinations  of  the  Mundfikin,  who  spared  no  endeavours  to 
fan  it  into  discontent.^  The  example,  however,  of  the  principal 
disciples  and  other  sincere  followers  of  the  Faith,  infused 
vitality  into  the  hearts  of  the  timorous,  and  shamed  the  back- 
sliders into  enthusiasm  which  soon  spread  among  the  people. 
Contributions  poured  in  from  all  sides.  Abu  Bakr  offered  all  he 
possessed  towards  the  expenses  of  the  expedition  ;  Osman 
equipped  and  supplied  at  his  own  expense  a  large  body  of 
volunteers,  and  the  other  prominent  and  affluent  Moslems  were 
equally  generous.  The  women  brought  their  ornaments  and 
jewelleries  and  besought  the  Prophet  to  accept  the  same  for 
the  needs  of  the  State.  A  sufflcient  force  was  eventually 
collected,^  and  accompanied  by  the  Prophet  the  volunteers 
marched  towards  the  frontier. 

During  his  absence  from  Medina  the  Prophet  left  Ali  in 
charge  of  the  city.  The  Mundfikin,  with  Abdullah  ibn-Ubayy, 
had  proceeded  with  the  army  as  far  as  "the  Mount  of  Farewell,"^ 
but  they  quietly  fell  back  from  there  and  returned  to  the  city. 
Here  they  spread  the  report  that  the  Prophet  had  not  taken 
his  cousin  with  him  as  he  was  apprehensive  of  the  dangers  of 
the  expedition.  Stung  by  the  malicious  rumour,  Ali  seized  his 
arms  and  hastened  after  the  army.  Overtaking  the  troops,  he 
told  the  Prophet  what  he  had  heard.     Mohammed  pronounced 

1  These  were  called  the  al-Bakkdun,  the  Weepers,  as  they  were  distressed 
by  their  inability  to  join  in  the  sacred  enterprise  of  repelling  a  dangerous 
enemy. — Ibn-Hisham,  p.  791  ;  al-Halabi,  Insdn  ul-'UyAn,  vol.  iii.  p.  75. 

-  The  machinations  of  the  Disaffected  are  censured  in  Sura  IX,  v.  82.  These 
secret  conspirators  had  for  their  rendezvous  the  house  of  a  Jew  named 
Suwailim  near  the  suburb  of  Jasilm.  This  house  was  ultimately  rased  to 
the  ground.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  great  Teacher  made  the  prophecy 
that  there  will  always  be  Mundfikin  in  Islam  to  thwart  the  endeavours  of  the 
true  followers  of  the  Faith  to  do  good  to  their  people. 

^  It  was  called  the  Jaish-ul-'usra,  "  the  army  of  distress,"  owing  to  the 
difficulties  with  which  it  was  collected  ;   Ibn-Hisham,  p.  795. 

^  Thiniat-ul-Wada'  with  a  o..  Mu'jam  ul-Bulddn,  vol.  i.  p.  937- 


104  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

it  to  be  a  base  calumny.  "  I  have  appointed  thee  my  Vice- 
gerent {Khaltfa)  and  left  thee  in  my  stead.  Return  then  to 
thy  post,  and  be  my  deputy  over  my  people  and  thine.  O  Ali, 
art  thou  not  content  that  thou  art  to  me  what  Aaron  was  to 
Moses."  1     Ali  accordingly  returned  to  Medina. 

The  sufferings  of  the  troops  from  heat  and  thirst  were 
intense.  After  a  long  and  painful  march  they  reached  Tabuk, 
a  place  situated  midway  between  Medina  and  Damascus,^ 
where  they  halted.  Here  they  learnt  to  their  amazement,  and 
perhaps  to  their  relief,  that  the  apprehended  attack  was  a 
Grecian  dream,  and  that  the  emperor  had  his  hands  full  at 
home.  Finding,  therefore,  nothing  at  the  moment  to  threaten 
the  safety  of  the  Medinite  commonwealth,  the  Prophet  ordered 
the  Moslems  to  retrace  their  steps. ^  After  a  sojourn  of  twenty 
days  at  Tabuk,  where  they  found  abundance  of  water  for  them- 
selves and  forage  for  their  famished  beasts  of  burden,  the 
Moslems  returned  to  Medina  in  the  month  of  Ramazan.'* 

The  Prophet's  return  to  Medina  was  signalised  by  the  arrival 
of  a  deputation  from  the  refractory  and  hard-hearted  idolaters 
of  Tayef,  the  very  people  who  had  driven  the  poor  Preacher 
from  their  midst  with  insults  and  violence.  'Orwa,  the  Tayefite 
chief,  who  had  been  to  Mecca  after  the  Hudaibiya  incident  as 
the  Koreishite  envoy,  was  so  impressed  with  the  words  of  the 
Teacher  and  his  kindness,  that  shortly  after  the  accompHsh- 
ment  of  his  mission  he  had  come  to  the  Prophet  and  embraced 
his  religion.  Though  repeatedly  warned  by  Mohammed  of  the 
dangers  he  ran  among  the  bigoted  of  his  city,  he  hastened  back 
to  Tayef  to  proclaim  his  abjuration  of  idolatry,  and  to  invite 

Ibn-Hisham        *  ^J■^*>'^    cr*  ^^)^^  *^^^    t**"*  ^>^^  ^1  ij^    k  ij^/>  ^*f 

p.  897. 

According  to  the  Shiahs,  the  Prophet  distinctly  indicated  in  these  words 
that  Ah  should  be  his  successor. 

*  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  pp.  285,  286. 

2  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  904  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  215  ;    Abulfeda,  p.  85. 

^  According  to  C.  de  Perceval,  middle  of  December  630  a.c.  Chapter  iv. 
of  the  Koran  treats  vividly  of  these  events.  At  Tabuk  Mohammed  received 
the  submission  of  many  of  the  neighbouring  chiefs  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii. 
p.  215. 


VIII.  THE  YEAR  OF  DEPUTATIONS  105 

his  fellow-citizens  to  share  in  the  blessings  imparted  by  the 
new  Faith.  Arriving  in  the  evening,  he  made  public  his 
conversion  and  called  upon  the  people  to  join  him.  The 
following  morning  he  again  addressed  them  ;  but  his  words 
roused  the  priests  and  worshippers  of  'Uzza  into  frenzy,  and 
they  literally  stoned  him  to  death.  With  his  dying  breath  he 
said  he  had  offered  up  his  blood  unto  his  Master  for  the  good  of 
his  people,  and  he  thanked  God  for  the  honour  of  martyrdom, 
and  as  a  last  wish  prayed  his  friends  to  bury  him  by  the  side 
of  the  Moslems  who  had  fallen  at  Hunain.^  The  dying  words 
of  'Orwa  had  a  greater  effect  upon  his  compatriots  than  all  his 
endeavours  whilst  living.  The  martyr's  blood  blossomed  into 
faith  in  the  hearts  of  his  murderers.  Seized  with  sudden 
compunction,  perhaps  also  wearying  of  their  hostility  with  the 
tribes  of  the  desert,  the  Tayefites  sent  the  deputation  to  which 
we  have  referred  above,  to  pray  for  forgiveness  and  permission 
to  enter  the  circle  of  Islam.  They  begged,  however,  for  a  short 
respite  for  their  idols.  First  they  asked  two  years,  then  one 
year,  and  then  six  months,  but  all  to  no  purpose.  The  grace  of 
one  month  might  surely  be  conceded,  they  argued  as  a  last 
appeal.  Mohammed  was  immovable.  Islam  and  the  idols 
could  not  exist  together.  They  then  begged  for  exemption 
from  the  daily  prayers.  Mohammed  replied  that  without 
devotion  religion  could  be  nothing. ^  Sorrowfully,  at  last,  they 
submitted  to  all  that  was  required  of  them.  They  were 
excused,  however,  from  destroying  the  idols  with  their  own 
hands,  and  the  notorious  Abu  Sufian,  the  son  of  Harb,  the 
father  of  the  well-known  Mu'awiyah,  the  Judas  Iscariot  of 
Islam,  one  of  those  who  have  been  stigmatised  as  the  Muallafat 
ul-Kulub  (the  nominal  believers) — for  they  had  adopted  the 
Faith  from  policy, — and  Mughira,  the  nephew  of  'Orwa,  were 
selected  for  that  work.  They  executed  their  commission 
amidst  uproarious  cries  of  despair  and  grief  from  the  women  of 
Tayef.^ 

'  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  914,  915  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  216. 

*  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  217. 

^  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  917,  918  ;  Tabari,  vol.  iii.  pp.  161-163.  The  great  number 
of  deputations  received  by  Mohammed  in  the  ninth  year  has  led  to  its  being 
called  the  "Year  of  Deputations";  {wufHd,  pi.  of  wafad).  The  principal 
adhesions  which   followed   immediatelv  ui  on   the  conversion   of  the   Thaklf 


io6  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

The  tribe  of  Tay  had  about  this  time  proved  recalcitrant, 
and  their  disaffection  was  fostered  by  the  idolatrous  priesthood. 
A  small  force  was  despatched  under  Ali  to  reduce  them  to 
obedience  and  to  destroy  their  idols.  'Adi,  the  son  of  the 
famous  Hatim,  whose  generosity  and  munificence  have  been 
sung  by  poets  and  minstrels  throughout  the  Eastern  world, 
was  the  chief  of  his  tribe.  On  the  approach  of  Ali  he  fled  to 
Syria  ;  but  his  sister,  with  some  of  his  principal  clansmen,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Moslems.  They  were  conducted,  with 
every  mark  of  respect  and  sympathy,  to  Medina.  Mohammed 
at  once  set  the  daughter  of  Hatim  and  her  people  at  liberty, 
and  bestowed  on  them  many  valuable  gifts.  She  proceeded  to 
Syria,  and  told  her  brother  of  the  nobleness  of  Mohammed. 
Touched  by  gratitude,  'Adi  hastened  to  Medina  to  throw 
himself  at  the  feet  of  the  Prophet,  and  eventually  embraced 
Islam.  Returning  to  his  people,  he  persuaded  them  to  abjure 
idolatry  ;  and  the  Bani-Tay,  once  so  wedded  to  fetishism, 
became  thenceforth  devoted  followers  of  the  religion  of 
Mohammed.^ 

Another  notable  conversion  which  took  place  about  the  same 
time  as  that  of  the  Bani-Tay  is  deserving  of  more  than  passing 
notice.  Ka'b  ibn-Zuhair,  a  distinguished  poet  of  the  tribe  of 
Mozayna,  had  placed  himself  under  the  ban  by  trying  to  incite 
hostilities  against  the  Moslems.     His  brother  was  a  Moslem 

were  of  the  Himyarite  princes  of  Yemen,  of  Mahra,  of  Oman,  of  the  country 
of  the  Bahrain,  and  of  the  tribes  domiciled  in  Yemama. 

1  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  948,  949  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  218  ;  Insan  id-'UyAn, 
vol.  iii.  p.  234.  The  conversion  of  'Adi  occurred  in  Rabi  II.  of  the  ninth  year 
(July- August,  630  A.c),  and  accordingly,  ought  to  have  been  placed  before 
the  expedition  to  Tabuk.  But  I  have  followed  the  order  of  the  Arab  historians. 
When  the  daughter  of  Hatim,  whose  name  was  Sufana,  came  before  the 
Prophet,  she  addressed  him  in  the  following  words  :  "  Apostle  of  God,  my 
father  is  dead  ;  my  brother,  my  only  relation,  fled  into  the  mountains  on  the 
approach  of  the  Moslems.  I  cannot  ransom  myself  ;  it  is  thy  generosity 
which  I  implore  for  my  deliverance.  My  father  was  an  illustrious  man,  the 
prince  of  his  tribe,  a  man  who  ransomed  prisoners,  protected  the  honour  of 
women,  nourished  the  poor,  consoled  the  afflicted,  never  rejected  any  demand. 
I  am  Sufana,  daughter  of  Hatim."  "  Thy  father,"  answered  Mohammed, 
'had  the  virtues  of  a  Musulman  ;  if  it  were  permitted  to  me  to  invoke  the 
mercy  of  God  on  any  one  whose  life  was  passed  in  idolatry,  I  would  pray  to 
God  for  mercy  for  the  soul  of  Hatim."  Then  addressing  the  Moslems  around 
him,  he  said  :  "  The  daughter  of  Hatim  is  free,  her  father  was  a  generous  and 
humane  man  ;  God  loves  and  rewards  the  merciful."  And  with  Sufana,  all 
her  people  were  set  at  liberty.  The  Persian  poet  Sa'di  has  some  beautiful 
lines  in  the  Bostdn  concerning  this  touching  episode. 


VIII.  THE  YEAR  OF  DEPUTATIONS  107 

and  had  counselled  him  strongly  to  renounce  idolatry  and 
embrace  Islam.  Ka'b,  following  the  advice  of  his  brother, 
came  secretly  to  Medina,  and  proceeded  to  the  mosque  where 
Mohammed  was  wont  to  preach.  There  he  saw  a  man  sur- 
rounded by  Arabs  listening  to  his  words  with  the  greatest 
veneration.  He  at  once  recognised  the  Prophet,  and  penetrat- 
ing into  the  circle,  said  aloud,  "  Apostle  of  God,  if  I  should 
bring  before  thee  Ka'b  as  a  Musulman,  would  you  pardon 
him  ?  "  "  Yes,"  answered  Mohammed.  "It  is  I  who  am 
Ka'b,  the  son  of  Zuhair."  Several  people  around  the  Prophet 
wanted  leave  to  put  him  to  death.  "  No,"  said  the  Prophet, 
"  I  have  given  him  grace."  Ka'b  then  begged  permission  to 
recite  a  Kasida  ^  (poem)  which  has  always  been  considered  a 
masterpiece  of  Arabic  poetry.  When  he  came  to  the  hues  ^ 
quoted  at  the  head  of  this  chapter,  the  Prophet  bestowed  on 
the  poet  his  own  mantle,  which  was  afterwards  sold  by  his 
family  to  Mu'awiyah  for  40,000  dirhems,  and,  after  passing  into 
the  hands  of  the  Ommeyades  and  Abbasides,  is  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  Ottoman  Caliphs.^ 

Hitherto  no  prohibition  had  issued  against  the  heathens 
entering  the  Kaaba,  or  perforaiing  their  old  idolatrous  rites 
within  its  sacred  precincts.  It  was  now  decided  to  put  an  end 
to  this  anomalous  state,  and  remove  once  for  all  any  possibihty 

1  Called  the  Kasida  of  Bdnat  Sii'dd  from  the  opening  words  of  the  poem, 
which  begins  %vith  the  prologue  usual  in  Arabic  Kasidas.  The  poet  tells 
his  grief  at  the  departure  of  Su'ad  (his  beloved)  ;  she  has  left  him,  his  heart 
is  drooping,  distracted  and  unhappy,  following  her  train  like  a  captive  in 
chains.  He  praises  her  beauty,  her  sweet  soft  voice,  her  bright  laughter,  her 
winsome  smile.  The  theme  suddenly  changes,  and  the  poet  reaches  the 
climax  when  he  bursts  forth  into  a  song  of  praise  of  his  great  subject.  The 
language  throughout  is  sonorous  and  virile — a  quality  often  wanting  in  the 
poems  of  later  times,  and  the  rhythmical  swing  and  cadence  are  maintained, 
with  extraordinary  evenness,  up  to  the  last. 

-  "  The  Prophet  is  the  torch  which  has  lighted  up  the  world  ;  he  is  the 
sword  of  God  for  destroying  ungodliness." 

3  Called  the  Khirkai-sharif  (the  Holy  Mantle)  which  is  taken  out  as  the 
national  standard  in  times  of  great  emergency.  The  Kasida  of  Bdnat  Su'ad, 
which  is  sometimes  also  called  the  Kasidat-ul-Burda  (the  Kasida  of  the 
Mantle),  is  different  from  the  Kasfdat-nl-Burda  of  Abu  Abdullah  Mohammed 
ibn-Sa'id,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Malik  Zahir,  which  opens  with  the 
following  lines  : — 

^a.  iXi.  ^^  ^,^  (^,j  ^^^;  .  ^:  ^^^.  ^1^^^  j^:  ^- , 

For  translation  see  Appendix. 


io8  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

of  a  relapse  into  idolatry  on  the  part  of  those  upon  whom  the 
new  and  pure  creed  hung  somewhat  lightly.  Accordingly, 
towards  the  end  of  this  year,  during  the  month  of  pilgrimage, 
Ali  was  commissioned  to  read  a  proclamation  to  the  assembled 
multitudes,  on  the  day  of  the  great  Sacrifice  [Y euni-un-N ahr) , 
which  should  strike  straight  at  the  heart  of  idolatry  and  the 
immoralities  attendant  upon  it  :  "  No  idolater  shall,  after  this 
year,  perform  the  pilgrimage  ;  no  one  shall  make  the  circuit 
(of  the  temple)  naked  ;  ^  whoever  hath  a  treaty  with  the 
Prophet,  it  shall  continue  binding  till  its  termination  ;  for  the 
rest,  four  months  are  allowed  to  every  man  to  return  to  his 
territories  ;  after  that  there  will  exist  no  obligation  on  the 
Prophet,  except  towards  those  with  whom  treaties  have  been 
concluded."  ^ 

This  "  Declaration  of  Discharge,"  as  it  is  styled  by  Moslem 
writers,  was  a  manifestation  of  far-sighted  wisdom  on  the  part 
of  the  Prophet.  It  was  impossible  for  the  state  of  society  and 
morals  which  then  existed  to  continue  ;  the  idolaters  mixing 
year  after  year  with  the  Moslem  pilgrims,  if  allowed  to  perform 
the  lascivious  and  degrading  ceremonies  of  their  cult,  would 
soon  have  undone  what  Mohammed  had  so  laboriously 
accomplished.  History  had  already  seen  another  gifted,  yet 
uncultured,  branch  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Arabs,  settling 
amongst  idolaters  ;  their  leaders  had  tried  to  preserve  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  by  wholesale  butcheries  of  the  worshippers 
of  Baal.  They  had  failed  miserably.  The  Israelites  had  not 
only  succumbed  under  the  evil  influences  which  surrounded 
them,  but  had  even  surpassed  those  whom  they  at  first  despised 
in  the  practice  of  nameless  abominations.  Mohammed  felt 
that  any  compromise  with  heathenism  would  nullify  all  his 
work.  He  accordingly  adopted  means  seemingly  harsh,  but 
yet  benignant  in  their  ultimate  tendency.  The  vast  concourse 
who  had  listened  to  Ali  returned  to  their  homes,  and  before  the 
following  year  was  over  the  majority  of  them  were  Moslems. 

1  Alluding  to  a  disgraceful  custom  of  the  idolatrous  Arabs. 

2  Ibn-Hisham,  pp.  921,  922  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  222  ;    Abulfeda,  p.  87. 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE   FULFILMENT  OF   MOHAMMED'S   MISSION 


c/i*^  o*     viJ^^'^d  v^^-*'^'  ^-^il";    *    f^'^^^  ;   ^''  v^j 


/i   A 


o  c  o 


DURING  this  year/  as  in  the  preceding,  numerous 
embassies  poured  into  Medina  from  every  part  of 
Arabia  to  testify  to  the  adhesion  of  their  chiefs  and 
their  tribes.  To  the  teachers,  whom  Mohammed  sent  into 
the  different  provinces,  he  invariably  gave 
the  following  injunctions  :  "  Deal  gently  with  ^?  J''^-  ^th 
the  people,  and  be  not  harsh  ;  cheer  them,  March  632  a.  c 
and  contemn  them  not.  And  ye  will  meet 
with  many  people  of  the  books  ^  who  will  question  thee, 
what  is  the  key  to  heaven  ?  Reply  to  them  (the  key  to 
heaven  is)  to  testify  to  the  truth  of  God,  and  to  do  good 
work."  ^ 

The  mission  of  Mohammed  was  now  achieved.  In  the  midst 
of  a  nation  steeped  in  barbarism  a  Prophet  had  arisen  "  to 
rehearse  unto  them  the  signs  of  God  to  sanctify  them,  to  teach 
them  the  scriptures  and  knowledge, — them  who  before  had 
been  in  utter  darkness."  *  He  found  them  sunk  in  a  degrading 
and  sanguinary  superstition  ;  he  inspired  them  with  the  belief 
in  one  sole  God  of  truth  and  love.      He  saw  them  disunited, 

^  In  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hegira  took  place  the  conversions  of  the  remain- 
ing tribes  of  Yemen  and  of  Hijaz.  Then  followed  the  conversions  of  the  tribes 
of  Hazramut  and  Kinda 

^  Christians,  Jews,  and  Zoroastrians.  '  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  907. 

■*  Koran,  sura  Ixii.  vers.  2-5. 


no  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

and  engaged  in  perpetual  war  with  each  other  ;  he  united  them 
by  the  ties  of  brotherhood  and  charity.     From  time  immemorial 
the  Peninsula  had  been  wrapped  in  absolute  moral  darkness. 
Spiritual   life   was   utterly   unknown.     Neither   Judaism   nor 
Christianity  had  made  any  lasting  impression  on  the  Arab 
mind.     The  people  were  sunk  in   superstition,   cruelty,   and 
vice.     Incest  and  the  diabolical  custom  of  female  infanticide 
were  common.     The  eldest  son  inherited  his  father's  widows, 
as  property,   with  the  rest   of  the  estate.     The  worse  than 
inhuman  fathers  buried  alive  their  infant  daughters  ;   and  this 
crime,  which  was  most  rife  among  the  tribes  of  Koreish  and  ■. 
Kinda,  was  regarded,  as  among  the  Hindu  Rajpoots,  a  mark  | 
of  pride.     The  idea  of  a  future  existence,  and  of  retribution  of  I 
good  and  evil,  were,  as  motives  of  human  action,  practically  j 
unknown.     Only  a  few  years  before,  such  was  the  condition  j 
of  Arabia.     What  a  change  had  these  few  years  witnessed  !  ' 
The  angel  of  heaven  had  veritably  passed  over  the  land,  and 
breathed  harmony  and  love  into  the  hearts  of  those  who  had 
hitherto  been  engrossed  in  the  most  revolting  practices  of  semi-  | 
barbarism.     What  had  once  been  a  moral  desert,  where  all  ' 
laws,  human  and  divine,  were  contemned  and  infringed  with- 
out remorse,  was  now  transformed  into  a  garden.     Idolatry, 
with  its  nameless  abominations,  was  utterly  destroyed.    Islam 
furnishes  the  only  solitary  example  of  a  great  religion  which 
though  preached  among  a  nation  and  reigning  for  the  most  part 
among  a  people  not  yet  emerged  from  the  dawn  of  an  early 
civihsation,  had  succeeded  in  effectually  restraining  its  votaries 
from  idolatry.     This  phenomenon  has  been  justly   acknow- 
ledged as  the  pre-eminent  glory  of  Islam,  and  the  most  remark- 
able   evidence    of    the    genius    of    its    Founder.     Long    had 
Christianity  and  Judaism  tried  to  wean  the  Arab  tribes  from 
their  gross  superstition,  their  inhuman  practices,   and  their 
licentious  immorahty.     But  it  was  not  tiU  they  heard  "  the 
spirit-stirring  strains  "  of  the  "  Appointed  of  God  "  that  they 
became  conscious  of  the  God  of  Truth,  overshadowing  the 
universe  with  His  power  and  love.     Henceforth  their  aims  are 
not  of  this  earth  alone  ;  there  is  something  beyond  the  grave — 
higher,  purer,  and  diviner — calling  them  to  the  practice  of 
charity,  goodness,  justice,   and  universal  love.     God  is  not 


IX.        FULFILMENT  OF  MOHAMMED'S  MISSION        iii 

merely  the  God  of  to-day  or  of  to-morrow,  carved  out  of  wood 
or  stone,  but  the  mighty,  loving,  merciful  Creator  of  the  world. 
Mohammed  was  the  source,  under  Providence,  of  this  new 
awakening, — the  bright  fountain  from  which  flowed  the  stream 
of  their  hopes  of  eternity  ;  and  to  him  they  paid  a  fitting 
obedience  and  reverence.  They  were  all  animated  with  one 
desire,  namely,  to  serve  God  in  truth  and  purity  ;  to  obey  His 
laws  reverently  in  all  the  affairs  of  life.  The  truths  and 
maxims,  the  precepts  which,  from  time  to  time  during  the  past 
twenty  years,  Mohammed  had  dehvered  to  his  followers,  were 
embalmed  in  their  hearts,  and  had  become  the  ruling  principles 
of  every  action.  Law  and  morality  were  united.  "  Never, 
since  the  days  when  primitive  Christianity  startled  the  world 
from  its  sleep,  and  waged  a  mortal  conflict  with  heathenism, 
had  men  seen  the  like  arousing  of  spiritual  hfe, — the  like  faith 
that  suffered  sacrifices,  and  took  joyfully  the  spoihng  of  goods 
for  conscience'  sake."  ^ 

The  Mission  of  Mohammed  was  now  accomphshed.  And  in 
this  fact — the  fact  of  the  whole  work  being  achieved  in  his 
lifetime — lies  his  distinctive  superiority  over  the  prophets, 
sages,  and  philosophers  of  other  times  and  other  countries. 
Jesus,  Moses,  Zoroaster,  Sakya-Muni,  Plato,  all  had  their 
notions  of  realms  of  God,  their  republics,  their  ideas,  through 
which  degraded  humanity  was  to  be  elevated  into  a  new  moral 
life  ;  all  had  departed  from  this  world  with  their  aspirations 
unfulfilled,  their  bright  visions  unrealised  ;  or  had  bequeathed 
the  task  of  elevating  their  fe]low-men  to  sanguinary  disciples 
or  monarch  pupils. ^  It  was  reserved  for  Mohammed  to  fulfil 
his  mission,  and  that  of  his  predecessors.  It  was  reserved  for 
him  alone  to  see  accomplished  the  work  of  amelioration — no 
royal  disciple  came  to  his  assistance  with  edicts  to  enforce  the 
new  teachings.  May  not  the  Moslems  justly  say,  the  entire 
work  was  the  work  of  God  ? 

The  humble  preacher,  who  had  only  the  other  day  been 
hunted  out  of  the  city  of  his  birth,  and  been  stoned  out  of  the 

'  ]^Iuir,  vol.  ii.  p.  269.  Coming  from  an  avowed  enemy  of  Islam,  this 
observation  is  of  the  utmost  value. 

'  A  Joshua  among  the  Israelites  ;  an  Asoka  among  the  Buddhists  ;  a 
Darius  among  the  Zoroastrians  ;    a  Constantine  among  the  Christians. 


112  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

place  where  he  had  betaken  himself  to  preach  God's  words, 
had,  within  the  short  space  of  nine  years,  lifted  up  his  people] 
from  the  abysmal  depths  of  moral  and  spiritual  degradation  to ' 
a  conception  of  purity  and  justice. 

His  life  is  the  noblest  record  of  a  work  nobly  and  faithfully 
performed.  He  infused  vitality  into  a  dormant  people  ;  he 
consohdated  a  congeries  of  warring  tribes  into  a  nation  inspired 
into  action  with  the  hope  of  everlasting  life  ;  he  concentrated 
into  a  focus  all  the  fragmentary  and  broken  lights  which  had 
ever  fallen  on  the  heart  of  man.  Such  was  his  work,  and  he 
performed  it  with  an  enthusiasm  and  fervour  which  admitted 
no  compromise,  conceived  no  halting  ;  with  indomitable 
courage  which  brooked  no  resistance,  and  allowed  no  fear  of 
consequences  ;  with  a  singleness  of  purpose  which  thought  of 
no  self.  The  religion  of  divine  unity  preached  on  the  shores 
of  Gahlee  had  given  place  to  the  worship  of  an  incarnate  God  ; 
the  old  worship  of  a  female  deity  had  revived  among  those  who 
professed  the  creed  of  the  Master  of  Nazareth.  The  Recluse 
of  Hira,  the  unlettered  philosopher — born  among  a  nation  of 
unyielding  idolaters — impressed  ineffaceably  the  unity  of  God 
and  the  equality  of  men  upon  the  minds  of  the  nations  who 
once  heard  his  voice.  His  "  democratic  thunder  "  was  the 
signal  for  the  uprise  of  the  human  intellect  against  the  tyranny 
of  priests  and  rulers.  In  "  that  world  of  wrangling  creeds  and 
oppressive  institutions,"  when  the  human  soul  was  crushed 
under  the  weight  of  unintelligible  dogmas,  and  the  human  body 
trampled  under  the  tyranny  of  vested  interests,  he  broke  down 
the  barriers  of  caste  and  exclusive  privileges.  He  swept  away 
with  his  breath  the  cobwebs  which  self-interest  had  woven  in 
the  path  of  man  to  God.  He  abolished  all  exclusiveness  in 
man's  relations  to  his  Creator.  This  unlettered  Prophet,  whose 
message  was  for  the  masses,  proclaimed  the  value  of  knowledge 
and  learning.  By  the  Pen,  man's  works  are  recorded.  By 
the  Pen,  man  is  to  be  judged.  The  Pen  is  the  ultimate  arbiter 
of  human  actions  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord.  His  persistent  and 
unvarying  appeal  to  reason  and  to  the  ethical  faculty  of  man- 
kind, his  rejection  of  miracles,  "  his  thoroughly  democratic 
conception  of  divine  government,  the  universality  of  his 
religious  ideal,  his  simple  humanity," — all  serve  to  differentiate 


IX.        FULFILMENT  OF  MOHAMMED'S  MISSION        113 

him  from  his  predecessors,  "  all  affiliate  him,"  says  the  author 
of  Oriental  Religions,  "  with  the  modem  world."  His  Hfe  and 
work  are  not  wrapt  in  mystery.  No  fairy  tale  has  been  woven 
round  his  personaUty. 

When  the  hosts  of  Arabia  came  flocking  to  join  his  faith, 
the  Prophet  felt  that  his  work  was  accomplished,^  and  under 
the  impression  of  his  approaching  end,  he  determined  to  make 
a  farewell  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  On  the  25th  of  Zu'1-Ka'da 
(23rd  February  632) ,  the  Prophet  left  Medina  with  an  immense 
concourse  of  Moslems.-  On  his  arrival  at  Mecca,  and  before 
completing  all  the  rites  of  the  pilgrimage,  he  addressed  the 
assembled  multitude  from  the  top  of  the  Jahal  ul-' Arafat  (8th 
Zu'1-Hijja,  7th  March),  in  words  which  should  ever  live  in  the 
hearts  of  all  Moslems. 

"  Ye  people  !  listen  to  my  words,  for  I  know  not  whether 
another  year  will  be  vouchsafed  to  me  after  this  year  to  find 
myself  amongst  you  at  this  place." 

"  Your  lives  and  property  are  sacred  and  inviolable  amongst 
one  another  until  ye  appear  before  the  Lord,  as  this  day  and 
this  month  is  sacred  for  all ;  and  (remember)  ye  shall  have  to 
appear  before  your  Lord,  who  shall  demand  from  you  an 
account  of  all  your  actions.  ...  Ye  people,  ye  have  rights  over 
your  wives,  and  your  wives  have  rights  over  you.  .  .  .  Treat 
your  wives  with  kindness  and  love.  Verily  ye  have  taken 
them  on  the  security  of  God,  and  have  made  their  persons 
lawful  unto  you  by  the  words  of  God."  "  Keep  always  faithful 
to  the  trust  reposed  in  you,  and  avoid  sins."  "  Usury  is  for- 
bidden.^ The  debtor  shall  return  only  the  principal ;  and  the 
beginning  will  be  made  with  (the  loans  of)  my  uncle  Abbas, 

'  Koran,  sura  ex. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  966  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  230.  It  is  said  that  from 
90,000  to  140,000  people  accompanied  the  Prophet.  This  pilgrimage  is  called 
the  Hajiat-al-Balagh,  the  Great  Hajj,  or  Hajjat-ul-Isldm,  the  Hajj  of  Islam, 
and  sometimes  Hajjat-iil-Wada'a,  Pilgrimage  of  Farewell. 

'  Ribci  or  interest  in  kind  was  prohibited  but  not  legitimate  profit  on 
advances  or  loans  for  purposes  of  business  or  trade.  No  one  who  realises  the 
economic  condition  of  Arabia  can  fail  to  appreciate  the  wisdom  of  this  rule. 
In  fact  the  same  reasons  which  impelled  the  great  Prophet  to  forbid  usury  in 
his  country,  induced  the  Christian  divines,  up  to  nearly  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  of  the  Christian  era,  to  anathematise  against  usury.  The 
elder  Disraeli's  chapter  on  this  subject  in  his  Curiosities  of  Literature  is  most 
interesting. 

S.I.  H 


114  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

son  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib.^ ,  .  .  Henceforth  the  vengeance  of 
blood  practised  in  the  days  of  paganism  {Jdhilyat)  is  prohibited  ; 
and  all  blood-feud  abolished,  commencing  with  the  murder  of 
Ibn  Rabi'a  ^  son  of  Harith  son  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib  .  .  . 

"  And  your  slaves!  See  that  ye  feed  them  with  such  food 
as  ye  eat  yourselves,  and  clothe  them  with  the  stuff  ye  wear ; 
and  if  they  commit  a  fault  which  ye  are  not  inclined  to  forgive, 
then  part  from  them,  for  they  are  the  servants  of  the  Lord,  and 
are  not  to  be  harshly  treated." 

"  Ye  people  !  listen  to  my  words  and  understand  the  same. 
Know  that  all  Moslems  are  brothers  unto  one  another.  Ye  are 
one  brotherhood.  Nothing  which  belongs  to  another  is  lawful 
unto  his  brother,  unless  freely  given  out  of  good-will.  Guard 
yourselves  from  committing  injustice." 

"  Let  him  that  is  present  tell  it  unto  him  that  is  absent. 
Haply  he  that  shall  be  told  may  remember  better  than  he  who 
hath  heard  it."  ^ 

This  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  less  poetically  beautiful,  certainly 
less  mystical,  than  the  other,  appeals  by  its  practicality  and 
strong  common-sense  to  higher  minds,  and  is  also  adapted  to 
the  capacity  and  demands  of  inferior  natures  which  require 
positive  and  comprehensible  directions  for  moral  guidance. 

Towards  the  conclusion  of  the  sermon,  the  Prophet,  over- 
come by  the  sight  of  the  intense  enthusiasm  of  the  people 
as  they  drank  in  his  words,  exclaimed,  "  O  Lord  !  I  have 
delivered  my  message  and  accomplished  my  work."  The 
assembled  host  below  with  one  voice  cried,  "  Yea,  verily 
thou  hast."  "O  Lord,  I  beseech  Thee,  bear  Thou  witness 
unto  it." 

With  these  words  the  Prophet  finished  his  address,  which, 
according  to  the  traditions,  was  remarkable  for  its  length,  its 
eloquence,  and  enthusiasm.     Soon  after,  the  necessary  rites  of 

1  This  shows  that  Abbas  must  have  been  a  rich  man.     In  the  appHcation 
of  the  rule  against  Riba  and  blood-feud,  the  Prophet  set  to  his  fiery  people  the  , 
example  of  self-denial  in  his  own  family. 

-  Ibn  Rabi'a,  a  cousin  of  the  Prophet.  He  was  confided,  in  his  infancy,  to 
the  care  of  a  family  of  the  Bani  Laith.  This  child  was  cruelly  murdered  by 
members  of  the  tribe  of  Huzail,  but  the  murder  was  not  yet  avenged. 

^  After  each  sentence  the  Prophet  stopped  and  his  words  were  repeated  in 
a  stentorian  voice  by  Rabi'a,  the  son  of  Ommeyya,  son  of  Khalaf,  who  stood 
below,  so  that  whatever  was  said  was  heard  by  the  entire  assembled  host. 


IX.        FULFILMENT  OF  MOHAMMED'S  MISSION       115 

the  pilgrimage  being  finished,  the  Prophet  returned  with  his 
followers  to  Medina.^ 

The  last  year  of  Mohammed's  life  was  spent  in  that  city.  He 
settled  the  organisation  of  the  provinces  and 
tribal  communities  which  had  adopted  Islam  "  a-  "•  29th 
and  become  the  component  parts  of  the  Moslem  March  6^3  a.c. 
federation.  In  fact,  though  the  Faith  had  not 
penetrated  among  the  Arab  races  settled  in  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia, most  of  whom  were  Christians,  the  whole  of  Arabia 
now  followed  the  Islamic  Faith.  Officers  were  sent  to  the 
provinces  and  to  the  various  tribes  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
the  people  the  duties  of  Islam,  administering  justice,  and  collect- 
ing the  tithes  or  zakdt.  Mu'az  ibn-Jabal  was  sent  to  Yemen, 
and  Mohammed's  parting  injunction  to  him  was  to  rely  on  his 
own  judgment  in  the  administration  of  affairs  in  the  event  of 
not  finding  any  authority  in  the  Koran.  To  Ali,  whom  he 
deputed  to  Yemama,  he  said,  "  When  two  parties  come  before 
you  for  justice,  do  not  decide  before  hearing  both." 

Preparations  were  also  commenced  for  sending  an  expedition 
under  Osama,  the  son  of  Zaid,  who  was  killed  at  Muta,  against 
the  Byzantines  to  exact  the  long-delayed  reparation  for  the 
murder  of  the  envoy  in  Syria.  In  fact,  the  troops  were  already 
encamped  outside  the  city  ready  for  the  start.  But  the  poison 
which  had  been  given  to  the  Prophet  by  the  Jewess  at  Khaibar, 
and  which  had  slowly  penetrated  into  his  system,  began  now  to 
show  its  effects,  and  it  became  evident  that  he  had  not  long  to 
live.  The  news  of  his  approaching  end  led  to  the  stoppage  of 
the  expedition  under  Osama.  It  had  also  the  effect  of  pro- 
ducing disorder  in  some  of  the  outlying  provinces.  Three 
pretenders  started  up  claiming  divine  commission  for  their 
reign  of  licentiousness  and  plunder.  They  gave  themselves 
out  as  prophets,  and  tried  by  all  kinds  of  imposture  to  win  over 
their  tribes.  One  of  these,  the  most  dangerous  of  all,  was 
Ayhala  ibn-Ka'b,  better  known  as  al-Aswad  (the  black).     He 

^  Abdullah  the  son  of  Ubayy,  the  head  of  the  Mnndjikin,  died  in  the  month 
of  Zu'l  Ka'da  (Februaiy,  631  a.c).  In  his  last  moments  he  solicited  the 
Prophet  to  say  the  funeral  prayers  over  him.  Mohammed,  who  never  rejected 
the  wishes  of  a  dying  man,  against  the  remonstrances  of  Omar,  who  reminded 
him  of  the  persistent  opposition  and  calumny  of  Abdullah,  offered  the  prayers 
and  with  his  own  hands  lowered  the  body  into  the  grave. 


ii6  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

was  a  chief  of  Yemen,  a  man  of  great  wealth  and  equal  sagacity, 
and  a  clever  conjuror.  Among  his  simple  tribesmen,  the 
conjuring  tricks  he  performed  invested  him  with  a  divine 
character.  He  soon  succeeded  in  gaining  them  over,  and,  with 
their  help,  reduced  to  subjection  many  of  the  neighbouring 
towns.  He  killed  Shahr,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Moham- 
med to  the  governorship  of  Sana'  in  the  place  of  Bazan,  his 
father,  who  had  just  died.  Bazan  had  been  the  viceroy  of 
Yemen  under  the  Chosroes  of  Persia,  and  after  his  adoption 
of  Islam  was  continued  in  his  viceroy alty  by  the  Prophet.  He 
had  during  his  lifetime  exercised  great  influence,  not  only  over 
his  Persian  compatriots  settled  in  Yemen,  who  were  called  by 
the  name  of  Abnd,  but  also  over  the  Arabs  of  the  province. 
His  example  had  led  to  the  conversion  of  all  the  Persian  settlers 
of  Yemen.  Al-Aswad,  the  impostor,  had  massacred  Shahr, 
and  forcibly  married  his  wife  Marzbana.  He  was  killed  by  the 
Abnd,  assisted  by  Marzbana,  when  he  was  lying  drunk,  after  one 
of  his  orgies.  The  other  two  pretenders,  Tulaiha,  son  of  Khu- 
wailid,  and  Abu  Thumama  Haran,  son  of  Habib,  commonly 
called  Mosailima,  were  not  suppressed  until  the  accession  of 
Abu  Bakr  to  the  Caliphate.  Mosailima  had  the  audacity  to 
address  the  Prophet  in  the  following  terms  :  "  From  Mosailima, 
prophet  of  God,  to  Mohammed,  prophet  of  God,  salutations  ! 
I  am  your  partner  :  the  power  must  be  divided  between  us  : 
half  the  earth  for  me,  the  other  half  for  your  Koreishites.  But 
the  Koreishites  are  a  grasping  people,  not  given  to  justice." 
Mohammed's  reply  reveals  his  sterling  nature.  "  In  the  name 
of  God  the  merciful  and  compassionate,  from  Mohammed,  the 
Prophet  of  God,  to  Mosailima  the  Liar.^  Peace  is  on  those 
who  follow  the  right  path.  The  earth  belongs  to  God  ;  He 
bestows  it  on  such  of  His  servants  as  He  pleaseth.  The  future 
is  to  the  pious  [i.e.  only  those  prosper  who  fear  the  Lord]  !  " 

The  last  days  of  the  Prophet  were  remarkable  for  the  calm- 
ness and  serenity  of  his  mind,  which  enabled  him,  though  weak 
and  feeble,  to  preside  at  the  public  pra^^ers  until  within  three 
days  of  his  death.  One  night,  at  midnight,  he  went  to  the 
place  where  his  old  companions  were  lying  in  the  slumber  of 
death,  and  prayed  and  wept  by  their  tombs,  invoking  God's 

^  Kazzdb,  superlative  of  Kdzih. 


IX.  THE  LAST  ILLNESS  OF  THE  PROPHET         117 

blessings  for  his  "  companions  resting  in  peace."  He  chose 
'Ayesha's  house,  close  to  the  mosque,  for  his  stay  during  his 
illness,  and,  as  long  as  his  strength  lasted,  took  part  in  the 
public  prayers.  The  last  time  he  appeared  in  the  mosque  he 
was  supported  by  his  two  cousins,  Ali  and  Fazl,  the  son  of 
Abbas.  A  smile  of  inexpressible  sweetness  played  over  his 
countenance,  and  was  remarked  by  all  who  surrounded  him. 
After  the  usual  praises  and  hymns  to  God,  he  addressed  the 
multitude  thus  :  "  Moslems,  if  I  have  wronged  any  one  of  you, 
here  I  am  to  answer  for  it  ;  if  I  owe  aught  to  any  one,  all  I  may 
happen  to  possess  belongs  to  you."  Upon  hearing  this,  a  man 
in  the  crowd  rose  and  claimed  three  dirhems  which  he  had 
given  to  a  poor  man  at  the  Prophet's  request.  They  were 
immediately  paid  back,  with  the  words,  "  Better  to  blush  in 
this  world  than  in  the  next."  The  Prophet  then  prayed  and 
implored  heaven's  mercy  for  those  present,  and  for  those  who 
had  fallen  in  the  persecutions  of  their  enemies  ;  and  recom- , 
mended  to  all  his  people  the  observance  of  religious  duties 
and  the  practice  of  a  life  of  peace  and  good-will,  and  concluded 
with  the  following  words  of  the  Koran  :  "  The  dwelling  of  the 
other  life  we  will  give  unto  them  who  do  not  seek  to  exalt 
themselves  on  earth  or  to  do  wrong  ;  for  the  happy  issue  shall 
attend  the  pious."  ^ 

After  this,  Mohammed  never  again  appeared  at  public 
prayers.  His  strength  rapidly  failed.  At  noon  on  Monday 
(i2th  of  Rabi  L,  11  a.h. — 8th  June  632  a.c),  whilst  praying 
earnestly  in  whisper,  the  spirit  of  the  great  Prophet  took  flight 
to  the  "  blessed  companionship  on  high."  ^ 

So  ended  a  life  consecrated,  from  first  to  last,  to  the  service 
of  God  and  humanity.  Is  there  another  to  be  compared  to 
his,  with  all  its  trials  and  temptations  ?  Is  there  another  which 
has  stood  the  fire  of  the  world,  and  come  out  so  unscathed  ? 
The  humble  preacher  had  risen  to  be  the  ruler  of  Arabia,  the 
equal  of  Chosroes  and  of  Caesar,  the  arbiter  of  the  destinies  of 
a  nation.     But  the  same  humility  of  spirit,  the  same  nobility 

^  Koran,  sura  xxviii.  ver.  83  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  p.  241  ;  Tabari,  vol.  iii. 
p.  207  et  seq. 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  1009  ;  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  ii.  pp.  244,  245  ;  Abulf  eda,  p.  91. 
Comp.  Caussin  de  Perceval,  vol.  iii.  p.  322  and  note ;  al-Halabi ,  in  loco. 


ii8  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

of  soul  and  purity  of  heart,  austerity  of  conduct,  refinement 
and  delicacy  of  feeling,  and  stern  devotion  to  duty  which  had 
won  him  the  title  of  al-Amin,  combined  with  a  severe  sense  of 
self-examination,  are  ever  the  distinguishing  traits  of  his 
character.  Once  in  his  life,  whilst  engaged  in  a  religious  con- 
versation with  an  influential  citizen  of  Mecca,  he  had  turned 
away  from  a  humble  blind  seeker  of  the  truth.  He  is  always 
recurring  to  this  incident  with  remorse,  and  proclaiming  God's 
disapprobation.  1  A  nature  so  pure,  so  tender,  and  yet  so 
heroic,  inspires  not  only  reverence,  but  love.  And  naturally 
the  Arabian  writers  dwell  with  the  proudest  satisfaction  on  the 
graces  and  intellectual  gifts  of  the  son  of  Abdullah.  His 
courteousness  to  the  great,  his  affability  to  the  humble,  and 
his  dignified  bearing  to  the  presumptuous,  procured  him 
universal  respect  and  admiration.  His  countenance  reflected 
the  benevolence  of  his  heart.  Profoundly  read  in  the  volume 
of  nature,  though  ignorant  of  letters,  with  an  expansive  mind, 
elevated  by  deep  communion  with  the  Soul  of  the  Universe,  he 
was  gifted  with  the  power  of  influencing  equally  the  learned 
and  the  unlearned.  Withal,  there  was  a  majesty  in  his  face, 
an  air  of  genius,  which  inspired  all  who  came  in  contact  with 
him  with  a  feeling  of  veneration  and  love.^ 

His  singular  elevation  of  mind,  his  extreme  delicacy  and 
refinement  of  feeling,  his  purity  and  truth,  form  the  constant 
theme  of  the  traditions.     He  was  most  indulgent  to  his  inferiors, 

1  The  Sura  in  connection  with  this  incident  is  known  by  the  title  of  "  He 
frowned,"  and  runs  thus  : — 

"The  Prophet  frowned,  and  turned  aside, 
Because  the  bhnd  man  came  to  him. 
And  how  knowest  thou  whether  he  might  not  have  been  cleansed  from 

his  sins. 
Or  whether  he  might  have  been  admonished,  and  profited  thereby  ? 
As  for  the  man  that  is  rich, 
Him  thou  receivest  graciously  ; 
And  thou  carest  not  that  he  is  not  cleansed. 

But  as  for  him  that  cometh  unto  thee  earnestly  seeking  his  salvation, 
And  trembling  anxiously,  him  dost  thou  neglect. 
By  no  means  shouldst  thou  act  thus." 
After  this,  whenever  the  Prophet  saw  the  poor  blind  man,  he  used  to  go 
out  of  his  way  to  do  him  honour,  saying,  "  The  man  is  thrice  welcome  on 
whose  account  my  Lord  hath  reprimanded  me  "  ;    and  he  made  him  twice 
governor  of  Medina.     See  the  remark  of  Bosworth  Smith  on  Muir  about  this 
incident. 

-  Mishkat,  Bk.  xxiv.  chap.  3,  pt.  2. 


IX.     THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PROPHET    119 

and  would  never  allow  his  awkward  little  page  to  be  scolded 
whatever  he  did.  "  Ten  years,"  said  Anas,  his  servant,  "  was 
I  about  the  Prophet,  and  he  never  said  so  much  as  '  Uff '  to 
me."  ^  He  was  very  affectionate  towards  his  family.  One  of 
his  boys  died  on  his  breast  in  the  smoky  house  of  the  nurse,  a 
blacksmith's  wife.  He  was  very  fond  of  children.  He  would 
stop  them  in  the  streets,  and  pat  their  little  cheeks.  He  never 
struck  any  one  in  his  life.  The  worst  expression  he  ever  made 
use  of  in  conversation  was,  "  What  has  come  to  him  ?  May 
his  forehead  be  darkened  with  mud  !  "  ^  When  asked  to  curse 
some  one,  he  replied,  "  I  have  not  been  sent  to  curse,  but  to 
be  a  mercy  to  mankind." 

He  visited  the  sick,  followed  every  bier  he  met,  accepted  the 
invitation  of  a  slave  to  dinner,  mended  his  own  clothes,  milked 
his  goats,  and  waited  upon  himself,  relates  summarily  another 
tradition.^  He  never  first  withdrew  his  hand  from  another's 
palm,  and  turned  not  before  the  other  had  turned.  His  hand 
was  the  most  generous,  his  breast  the  most  courageous,  his 
tongue  the  most  truthful ;  he  was  the  most  faithful  protector 
of  those  he  protected  ;    the  sweetest  and  most  agreeable  in 

.    *  Ibid.  Bk.  xxiv.  chap.  4,  pt.  i. 

*  Ibid.  Bk.  xxiv.  chap.  4,  pt.  i. 

Mr.  Poole's  estimate  of  Mohammed  is  so  beautiful  and  yet  so  truthful  that 
I  cannot  resist  the  temptation  to  quote  it  here  :  "  There  is  something  so 
tender  and  womanly,  and  withal  so  heroic,  about  the  man,  that  one  is  in  peril 
of  finding  the  judgment  unconsciously  blinded  by  the  feeling  of  reverence  and 
well-nigh  love  that  such  a  nature  inspires.  He  who,  standing  alone  braved 
for  years  the  hatred  of  his  people,  is  the  same  who  was  never  the  first  to  with- 
draw his  hand  from  another's  clasp  ;  the  beloved  of  children,  who  never  passed 
a  group  of  little  ones  without  a  smile  from  his  wonderful  eyes  and  a  kind  word 
for  them,  sounding  all  the  kinder  in  that  sweet-toned  voice.  The  frank  friend- 
ship, the  noble  generosity,  the  dauntless  courage  and  hope  of  the  man,  all 
tend  to  melt  criticism  into  admiration." 

"  He  was  an  enthusiast  in  that  noblest  sense  when  enthusiasm  becomes  the 
salt  of  the  earth,  the  one  thing  that  keeps  men  from  rotting  whilst  they  live. 
Enthusiasm  is  often  used  despitefuUy,  because  it  is  joined  to  an  unworthy 
cause,  or  falls  upon  barren  ground  and  bears  no  fruit.  So  was  it  not  with 
Mohammed.  He  was  an  enthusiast  when  enthusiasm  was  the  one  thing 
needed  to  set  the  world  aflame,  and  his  enthusiasm  was  noble  for  a  noble  cause. 
He  was  one  of  those  happy  few  who  have  attained  the  supreme  joy  of  making 
one  great  truth  their  very  life-spring.  He  was  the  messenger  of  the  one  God  ; 
and  never  to  his  life's  end  did  he  forget  who  he  was,  or  the  message  which  was 
the  marrow  of  his  being.  He  brought  his  tidings  to  his  people  with  a  grand 
dignity  sprung  from  the  consciousness  of  his  high  office,  together  with  a  most 
sweet  humility,  whose  roots  lay  in  the  knowledge  of  his  own  weakness." 

3  Mishkat,  Bk.  xxiv.  chap.  4,  pt.  2. 


120  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

conversation  ;  those  who  saw  him  were  suddenly  filled  with 
reverence  ;  those  who  came  near  him  loved  him  ;  they  who 
described  him  would  say,  "  I  have  never  seen  his  like,  either 
before  or  after."  He  was  of  great  taciturnity  ;  and  when  he 
spoke,  he  spoke  with  emphasis  and  deliberation,  and  no  one 
could  ever  forget  what  he  said.  "  Modesty  and  kindness, 
patience,  self-denial,  and  generosity  pervaded  his  conduct,  and 
riveted  the  affections  of  all  around  him.  With  the  bereaved 
and  afflicted  he  sympathised  tenderly  ...  He  shared  his  food 
even  in  times  of  scarcity  with  others,  and  was  sedulously 
solicitous  for  the  personal  comfort  of  every  one  about  him." 
He  would  stop  in  the  streets  listening  to  the  sorrows  of  the 
humblest.  He  would  go  to  the  houses  of  the  lowliest  to 
console  the  afflicted  and  to  comfort  the  heart-broken.  The 
meanest  slaves  would  take  hold  of  his  hand  and  drag  him  to 
their  masters  to  obtain  redress  for  ill-treatment  or  release  from 
bondage.^  He  never  sat  down  to  a  meal  without  first  invoking 
a  blessing,  and  never  rose  without  uttering  a  thanks-giving. 
His  time  was  regularly  apportioned.  During  the  day,  when 
not  engaged  in  prayers,  he  received  visitors  and  transacted 
public  affairs.  At  night  he  slept  little,  spending  most  of  the 
hours  in  devotion.  He  loved  the  poor  and  respected  them, 
and  many  who  had  no  home  or  shelter  of  their  own  slept  at 
night  in  the  mosque  contiguous  to  his  house.  Each  evening  it 
was  his  custom  to  invite  some  of  them  to  partake  of  his  humble 
fare.  The  others  became  the  guests  of  his  principal  disciples. ^ 
His  conduct  towards  the  bitterest  of  his  enemies  was  marked 
by  a  noble  clemency  and  forbearance.  Stern,  almost  to 
severity,  to  the  enemies  of  the  State,  mockings,  affronts, 
outrages,  and  persecutions  towards  himself  were,  in  the  hour 
of  triumph — synonymous  with  the  hour  of  trial  to  the  human 
heart — all  buried  in  oblivion,  and  forgiveness  was  extended  to 
the  worst  criminal. 

Mohammed  was  extremely  simple  in  his  habits.  His  mode 
of  Hfe,  his  dress  and  his  belongings,  retained  to  the  very  last  a 
character  of  patriarchal  simplicity.  Many  a  time,  Abu  Huraira 
reports,  had  the  Prophet  to  go  without  a  meal.     Dates  and 

^  Hayat-ul-Kidub  (Shiah)  and  the  Rouzat-ul-Ahbab  (Sunni). 
"  Abulfeda,  p.  99;  al-Halabi,  Insan  ul-'Uyiln,  vol.  iii.  p.  362. 


IX.  THE  CHARACTER  OF  MOHAMMED  121 

water  frequently  formed  his  only  nourishment.  Often,  for 
months  together,  no  fire  could  be  lighted  in  his  house  from 
scantiness  of  means.  God,  say  the  Moslem  historians,  had 
indeed  put  before  him  the  key  to  the  treasures  of  this  world, 
but  he  refused  it  ! 

The  mind  of  this  remarkable  Teacher  was,  in  its  in- 
tellectuahsm  and  progressive  ideals,  essentially  modern. 
Eternal  "  striving  "  was  in  his  teachings  a  necessity  of  human 
existence  :  "  Man  cannot  exist  without  constant  effort  "  ;  ^ 
"  The  effort  is  from  me,  its  fulfilment  comes  from  God."  ^ 
The  world,  he  taught,  was  a  well-ordered  Creation,  regulated 
and  guided  by  a  Supreme  Intelhgence  overshadowing  the 
Universe — "  Everything  is  pledged  to  its  own  time,"  ^  he 
declared.  And  yet  human  will  was  free  to  work  for  its  own 
salvation.  His  sympathy  was  universal ;  it  was  he  who 
invoked  the  mercy  of  the  Creator  on  all  living  beings.*  It 
was  he  who  pronounced  the  saving  of  one  human  life  as 
tantamount  to  the  saving  of  humanity. 

His  social  conception  was  constructive  not  disintegrating. 
In  his  most  exalted  mood  he  never  overlooked  the  sanctity  of 
family  life.  To  him  the  service  of  humanity  was  the  highest 
act  of  devotion.  His  call  to  his  faithful  was  not  to  forsake 
those  to  whom  they  owed  a  duty  ;  but  in  the  performance  of 
that  duty  to  earn  "  merit  "  and  reward.  Children  were  a 
trust  from  God,  to  be  brought  up  in  tenderness  and  affection  ; 
parents  were  to  be  respected  and  loved.  The  circle  of  duty 
embraced  in  its  fold  kindred,  neighbour,  and  the  humble  being 
"  whose  mouth  was  in  the  dust." 

Fourteen  centuries  have  passed  since  he  delivered  his 
message,  but  time  has  made  no  difference  in  the  devotion 
he  inspired,  and  to-day  as  then  the  Faithful  have  in  their 
hearts  and  on  their  hps  those  memorable  words  : — 

"  May  my  life  be  thy  sacrifice,  O  Prophet  of  God." 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION 

THE  spiritual  life  the  Prophet  had  infused  into  his 
people  did  not  end  with  his  life.  From  the  first  it  was 
an  article  of  faith  that  he  was  present  in  spirit  with  the 
worshippers  at  their  prayers,  and  that  his  successors  in 
the  ministry  were  his  representatives.  The  immanence  of  the 
Master's  spirit  during  the  devotions  establishes  the  harmony 
between  the  soul  of  man  and  the  Divine  Essence.  Amongst 
all  the  dynastic  rivalries  and  schismatic  strife  this  mystical 
conception  of  his  spiritual  presence  at  the  prayers  has  imparted 
a  force  to  the  Faith  which  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

The  two  great  sects  into  which  Islam  became  divided  at  an 
early  stage  are  agreed  that  the  rehgious  efficacy  of  the  rites 
and  duties  prescribed  by  the  Law  {the  Shari'at)  depends  on 
the  existence  of  the  vice-gerent  and  representative  of  the 
Prophet,  who,  as  such,  is  the  rehgious  Head  [Imam)  of  the 
Faith  and  the  Faithful. 

The  adherents  of  the  Apostolical  Imams  have  a  development 
and  philosophy  of  their  own  quite  distinct  from  "  the  followers 
of  the  traditions."  According  to  them  the  spiritual  heritage 
bequeathed  by  the  Prophet  devolved  on  Ah  and  his  descend- 
ants by  Fatima,  the  Prophet's  daughter.  They  hold  that  the 
Imamate  descends  by  Divine  appointment  in  the  apostolic 
hne.  They  do  not  regard  the  Pontificate  of  Abu  Bakr,  Omar 
and  Osman  as  rightful ;  they  consider  that  AH,  who,  was 
indicated  by  the  Prophet  as  his  successor,  was  the  first  rightful 


r 


THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION  123 


Caliph  and  Imam  of  the  Faithful,  and  that  after  his  assassina- 
tion the  spiritual  headship  descended  in  succession  to  his 
and  Fatima's  posterity  in  "  the  direct  male  line  "  \mtil  it  came 
to  Imam  Hasan  al-'Askari,  eleventh  in  descent  from  Ali, 
who  died  in  the  year  874  A.c.  or  260  of  the  Hegira  in  the  reign 
of  the  Abbaside  Caliph  Mu'tamid.  Upon  his  death  the 
Imamate  devolved  upon  his  son  Mohammed,  surnamed  al- 
Mahdi  (the  "  Guide  "),  the  last  Imam.  The  story  of  these 
Imams  of  the  House  of  Mohammed  is  intensely  pathetic. 
The  father  of  Hasan  was  deported  from  Medina  to  Samarra 
I  by  the  tyrant  Mutawakkil,  and  detained  there  until  his  death. 
Similarly,  Hasan  was  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  jealousy  of 
Mutawakkil's  successors.  His  infant  son,  barely  five  years 
of  age,  pining  for  his  father,  entered  in  search  of  him  a  cavern 
not  far  from  their  house.  From  that  cavern  the  child  never 
returned.  The  pathos  of  this  calamity  culminated  in  the 
hope,  the  expectation,  which  fills  the  hearts  of  all  Shiahs, 
that  the  child  may  return  to  relieve  a  sorrowing  and  sinful 
world  of  its  burden  of  sin  and  oppression.  So  late  as  the 
fourteenth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  when  Ibni  Khaldun  ^ 
was  writing  his  great  work,  the  Shiahs  were  wont  to  assemble 
at  eventide  at  the  entrance  of  the  cavern  and  supplicate  the 
missing  child  to  return  to  them.  After  a  long  and  wistful 
waiting,  they  dispersed  to  their  homes,  disappointed  and  sorrow- 
ful. This,  says  Ibn  Khaldun,  was  a  daily  occurrence.  "  When 
they  were  told  it  was  hardly  possible  the  child  could  be  alive," 
they  answered  that,  "as  the  Prophet  Khizr^  was  ahve  why 
should  not  their  Imam  be  alive  also?"  This  Imam  bears 
among  the  Shiahs  the  titles,  the  Muntazar,  the  Expected — 
the  Hujja  or  the  Proof  (of  the  Truth),  and  the  Kami,  the 
Living. 

The  philosophical  student  of  religions  will  not  fail  to  observe 
the  strange  similarity  of  the  Shiah  and  the  Sunni  beHefs 
to  older  ideas.  Among  the  Zoroastrians  the  persecution 
of  the  Seleucidae  engendered  the  belief  that  a  divinely  appointed 
Saviour,  whose  name  was  Sosiosch,  would  issue  from  Khorasan 
to  release  them  from  the  hated  bondage  of  the  foreigner. 
The   same   causes   gave   birth    to   that    burning   anticipation 

>  See  post,  p.  126.  -  See  Appendix  III. 


124  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

among  the  Jews  in  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  The  Jew 
beHeves  that  the  Messiah  is  yet  to  come  ;  the  Sunni,  hke  him, 
beheves  that  the  Saviour  of  Islam  is  still  unborn.  The 
Christian  beHeves  that  the  Messiah  has  come  and  gone,  and 
wiU  come  again  ;  the  Asna-'asharia,^  like  the  Christian,  awaits 
the  reappearance  of  the  Mahdi,  the  Guide,  who  is  to  save  the 
world  from  evil  and  oppression.  The  origin  of  these  conceptions 
and  the  reasons  of  their  diversity  are  traceable  to  like  causes. 
The  phenomena  of  the  age  in  which  the  idea  of  the  Mahdi 
took  shape  in  its  two  distinct  forms  were  similar  to  those 
visible  in  the  history  of  the  older  faiths.  Every  eventide 
the  prayer  goes  up  to  heaven  in  Islam,  as  in  Judaism  and 
Christianity,  for  the  advent  of  the  divinely-appointed  Guide, 
to  redeem  the  world  from  sorrow  and  sin. 

The  Shiah  beHeves  that  the  Imam  though  ghdib  (absent), 
is  always  present  in  spirit  at  the  devotions  of  his  fold.  The 
expounders  of  the  law  and  the  ministers  of  religion  are  his 
representatives  on  earth  ;  and  even  the  secular  chiefs  represent 
him  in  the  temporal  affairs  of  the  world.  Another  point  of 
difference  between  them  and  the  Sunnis  consists  in  the  qualities 
required  for  the  Imamate.  According  to  the  Shiahs  the 
Imam  must  be  sinless  or  immaculate  {m'asum),  a  quality  which 
their  Imams  alone  possess,  and  that  he  must  be  the  most  ex- 
cellent {afzal)  of  mankind. 

The  Sunni  doctrines  which  govern  the  lives,  thoughts,  and 
conduct  of  the  bulk  of  the  Moslem  world  are  diametrically 
opposed  to  the  Shiah  conception.  The  Sunni  religious  law 
insists  that  the  Imam  must  be  actually  present  in  person  to 
impart  religious  efficacy  to  the  devotions  of  the  Faithful ; 
and  that,  where  it  is  not  possible  for  him  to  lead  the  prayers, 
he  should  be  represented  by  persons  possessing  the  necessary 
qualifications. 

These  doctrines  are  enunciated  in  detail  in  most  works  on 
jurisprudence  and  scholastic  theology.  The  Khildfat,  it  is 
explained,  is  the  Vice-gerency  of  the  Prophet ;  it  is  ordained 
by  Divine  Law  for  the  perpetuation  of  Islam  and  the  continued 
observance  of  its  laws  and  rules.  For  the  existence  of  Islam, 
therefore,  there  must  always  be  a  Caliph,  an  actual  and  direct 

1  See  post,  p.  344. 


X.  THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION  125 

representative  of  the  Master.  The  Imamate  is  the  spiritual 
leadership  ;  but  the  two  dignities  are  inseparable  ;  the  Vice- 
gerent of  the  Prophet  is  the  only  person  entitled  to  lead  the 
prayers  when  he  can  himself  be  present.  No  one  else  can 
assume  his  functions  unless  directly  or  indirectly  "  deputed  " 
by  him.  Between  the  Imam  and  the  mdmum  ^  or  congregation, 
there  is  a  spiritual  tie  which  binds  the  one  to  the  other  in  the 
fealty  to  the  Faith.  There  is  no  inconsistency  between  this 
dogma  and  the  rule  that  there  is  no  priesthood  in  Islam. 
Each  man  pleads  for  himself  before  his  Lord,  and  each  soul 
holds  communion  with  God  without  the  intermediation  of  any 
other  human  being.  The  Imam  is  the  link  between  the 
individual  worshipper  and  the  evangel  of  Islam.  This  mystical 
element  in  the  religion  of  Islam  forms  the  foundation  of  its 
remarkable  solidarity. 

The  above  remarks  serve  to  emphasise  the  statement  in  the 
Durr-ul-Mukhtdr  that  Imamate  is  of  two  kinds,  the  Imdmat- 
al-Kuhrd  and  the  Imdmat-as-Stighrd,  the  supreme  spiritual 
Headship  and  the  minor  derivative  right  to  officiate  at  the 
devotions  of  the  Faithful.  The  Imdm  al-Kahir,  the  supreme 
Pontiff,  is  the  Caliph  of  the  Sunni  world.  He  combines  in  his 
person  the  spiritual  and  temporal  authority  which  devolves 
on  him  as  the  vicegerent  of  the  Master.  Secular  affairs  are 
conducted  by  him  in  consultation  with  councillors  as  under 
the  first  four  Caliphs,  or,  as  in  later  times,  by  delegates,  collect- 
ively or  individually.  Similarly  with  religious  and  spiritual 
matters.  But  in  the  matter  of  public  prayers,  unless  physically 
prostrate,  he  is  bound  to  conduct  the  congregational  service 
in  person. 

Among  the  Shiahs,  even  Friday  prayers  and  prayers  offered 
at  the  well-known  festivals,  may  validly  be  performed  indi- 
vidually and  in  private.  According  to  the  Sunni  doctrines 
congregational  prayers,  where  mosques  or  other  places  of 
pubhc  worship  are  accessible,  are  obligatory  ;  abstention  from 
attendance  without  valid  reason  is  a  sin,  and  the  defaulters 
incur  even  temporal  penalties.  In  Najd,  under  the  rule  of 
the  Wahabis,  who  have  been  called  the  Covenanters  of  Islam, 

^  This  is  the  term  used  in  the  Fatdwai-Alamgiri.  The  individual  follower 
is  usually  called  the  Muktadi. 


126  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

laggards  were  whipped  into  the  mosque.  And  to-day  under 
Ibni  S'aud,  his  followers  who  designate  themselves  Ikhwdn,  or 
"  Brothers  in  faith,"  pursue  the  same  method  for  enforcing 
the  observance  of  religious  rites.  Prayers  hi'l  jama  at  being 
obligatory  (farz'ain)  naturally  made  the  presence  of  the  Imam 
absolutely  obligatory.  ^ 

The  Sunnis  affirm  that  when  stricken  by  his  last  illness  the 
Prophet  deputed  Abu  Bakr  to  lead  the  prayers.  On  his 
death,  but  before  he  was  consigned  to  his  grave,  the  Master's 
nomination  was  accepted  by  the  "  congregation  "  and  Abu 
Bakr  was  installed  as  his  vicegerent  by  the  unanimous  suffrage 
of  the  Moslems.  And  this  has  ever  since  been  the  universal 
practice  in  all  regular  lines. 

Amongst  the  qualifications  necessary  for  occupying  the 
pontifical  seat,  the  first  and  most  essential  is  that  he  must 
be  a  Moslem  belonging  to  the  Sunni  communion,  capable  of 
exercising  supreme  temporal  authority,  free  of  all  outside 
control.  The  Sunnis  do  not  require  that  the  Imam  should 
be  ma' sum,  or  that  he  should  be  "  the  most  excellent 
of  mankind,"  nor  do  they  insist  on  his  descent  from  the 
Prophet.  According  to  them  he  should  be  an  independent 
ruler,  without  any  personal  defects,  a  man  of  good  character, 
possessed  of  the  capacity  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  State,  and  to 
lead  at  prayers.  The  early  doctors,  on  the  authority  of  a  saying 
of  the  Prophet,  have  included  a  condition  which  comes  at  the 
end  of  the  passage  relating  to  the  qualities  necessary  for  the 
Imamate — viz.,  that  the  CaHph-Imam  should  be  a  Koreish  by 
birth.  The  avowed  object  of  inserting  this  condition,  as  is  stated 
both  in  the  Durr-ul-Mukhtdr  and  the  Radd-ul-Muhtdr ,  was  to 
nullify  the  Shiah  contention  that  the  Imamate  was  restricted 
to  the  House  of  Mohammed,  the  descendants  of  Ali  and  Fatima, 
and  to  bring  in  the  first  three  Caliphs,  and  the  Ommeyyade 
and  the  Abbaside  Caliphs,  into  the  circle  of  legitimate  Imams. 
The  great  jurist  and  historian,  Ibn  Khaldun,^  a  contemporary 
of  Tamerlane,  who  died  in  the  year  1406  A.c,  long  before  the 

^  There  is  absolute  consensus  on  these  points  among  the  different  Sunni 
schools.  The  Jurist  Khalil  ibn  Ishak,  the  author  of  the  monumental  work 
on  Maliki  Law,  enunciates  the  rules  in  the  same  terms  as  the  Hanafis  and 
the  Shafeis. 

-  For  many  years  Malikite  Chief  Kazi  of  Cairo. 


X.  THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION  127 

House  of  Othman  attained  the  Caliphate,  has  dealt  at  great 
length  with  this  condition  in  his  Mukaddamdt  (Prolegomena). 
He  does  not  dispute  the  genuineness  of  the  saying  on  which 
it  is  based,  but  explains  that  it  was  a  mere  recommendation 
which  was  due  to  the  circumstances  of  the  times.  He  points 
out  that  when  the  Islamic  Dispensation  was  given  to  the  world 
the  tribe  of  Koreish  were  the  most  advanced  and  most  powerful 
in  Arabia  ;  and  in  recommending  or  desiring  that  the  temporal 
and  spiritual  guardianship  of  the  Moslems  should  be  confined 
to  a  member  of  his  own  tribe,  the  Prophet  was  thinking  of  the 
immediate  future  rather  than  of  laying  down  a  hard  and  fast 
rule  of  succession.  At  that  time  a  qualified  and  capable  ruler 
of  Islam  could  only  be  found  among  the  Koreish  ;  hence  the 
recommendation  that  the  Caliph  and  Imam  should  be  chosen 
from  among  them.  This  view  eloquently  expressed  by  one  of 
the  most  learned  of  Sunni  Jurisconsults  is  universally  accepted 
by  the  modern  doctors  (the  Mutdkhenn),  that  subject  to  the 
fulfilment  of  all  other  conditions  the  law  imposes  no  tribal  or 
racial  restriction  in  the  choice  of  an  Imam.  Abu  Bakr  before 
his  death  had  nominated  Omar  his  successor  in  the  Vice- 
gerency,  and  the  appointment  was  accepted  by  the  "  univer- 
sality "  of  the  people,  including  the  House  of  Mohammed. 
Omar  died  from  the  effects  of  a  mortal  wound  inflicted  on 
him  by  a  Christian  or  Magian  fanatic  who  considered  himself 
aggrieved  by  the  acts  of  this  great  Caliph.  To  avoid  all 
imputation  of  favouritism  Omar  had,  before  his  death, 
appointed  an  electoral  committee  consisting  of  six  eminent 
members  of  the  Moslem  congregation  to  choose  his  successor. 
Their  choice  fell  on  Osman,  a  descendant  of  Ommeyya,  who 
was  installed  as  Caliph  with  the  suffrage  of  the  people.  On 
Osman's  unhappy  death,  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  the  Prophet, 
who,  according  to  the  Shiahs,  was  entitled  by  right  to  the 
Imamate  in  direct  succession  to  the  Prophet,  was  proclaimed 
Caliph  and  Imam.  The  husband  of  Fatima  united  in  his 
person  the  hereditary  right  with  that  of  election.  But  his 
endeavour  to  remedy  the  evils  which  had  crept  into  the 
administration  under  his  aged  predecessor  raised  against  him 
a  host  of  enemies.  Mu'awiyah,  an  Ommeyyade  by  descent, 
who  held  the  governorship  of  Syria  under  Osman,  raised  the 


128  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  I. 

standard  of  revolt.  Ali  proceeded  to  crush  the  rebelUon 
but,  after  an  indecisive  battle,  was  struck  down  by  the  hand 
of  an  assassin  whilst  at  his  devotions  in  the  pubHc  Mosque  of 
Kufa  in  'Irak.  With  'AH  ended  what  is  called  by  the  early 
Sunni  doctors  of  law  and  theologians,  the  Khildfat-al-Kdmila, 
"  the  Perfect  Caliphate,"  for  in  each  case  their  title  to  the 
rulership  of  Islam  was  perfected  by  the  universal  suffrage  of 
the  Moslem  nation. 

On  Ah's  death  Mu'awiyah  obtained  an  assignment  of  the 
Caliphate  from  Hasan,  the  eldest  son  of  Ali,  who  had  been 
elected  to  the  office  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  people  of 
Kufa  and  its  dependencies  ;  and  received  the  suffrage  of  the 
people  of  Syria  to  his  assumption  of  the  high  office.  This 
happened  in  66i  A.c.  i 

It    should    be    noted    here    that    the    Ommeyyades    and   , 
Hashimides  were  two  offshoots  from  one  common  stock,  that    I 
of    Koreish.     Bitter   rivalry   existed   between   these   famihes   j 
which  it  was  the  great  aim  of  the  Prophet  throughout  his 
ministry  to  remove  or  reconcile.     The  Hashimides  owe  their 
designation  to  Hashim,  the  great  grandfather  of  the  Prophet.    ; 
His   son   Abdul   Muttalib   had   several   sons  ;    one   of  them,   I 
Abbas,   was   the   progenitor   of   the   Abbaside   CaHphs.     Abu 
Talib,  another  son,  was  the  father  of  Ah  the  Caliph,  whilst 
the  youngest,  Abdullah,  was  the  Prophet's  father. 

Mu'awiyah  was  the  first  Cahph  of  the  House  of  Ommeyya. 
On  the  death  of  Mu'awiyah's  grandson,  another  member  of 
the  same  family  belonging  to  the  Hakamite  branch,  named 
Merwan,  assumed  the  Caliphate.  Under  his  son  'Abdul  Mahk 
and  grandson  Walid,  the  Sunni  Cahphate  attained  its  widest 
expansion  ;  it  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian  Ocean  i 
and  from  the  Tagus  to  the  sands  of  the  Sahara  and  the  confines 
of  Abyssinia.  In  749  A.c.  Abu'l  Abbas,  surnamed  Saffah,  a 
descendant  of  Abbas,  the  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  overthrew  the 
Ommeyyade  dynasty  and  was  installed  as  Caliph,  in  place  of  ^ 
Merwan  II.,  the  last  Pontiff  of  that  House,  in  the  Cathedral 
Mosque  of  Kufa,  where  he  received  the  Bai'at  ^  of  the  people. 
He  then  ascended  the  pulpit,  recited  the  pubfic  sermon  which 
the  Imam  or  his  representative  dehvers  at  the  public  pra3^ers. 
1  The  sacramental  oath  of  fealty. 


I 


X.  THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION  129 

This  notable  address,  religiously  preserved  by  his  successors, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  pages  of  the  Arab  historian  Ibn-ul-Athir. 
It  is  in  effect  a  long  vindication  of  the  rights  of  the  children 
of  Abbas  to  the  Caliphate.  Abu'l  Abbas  was  henceforth 
the  legitimate  ruler  of  the  Sunni  world  and  the  rightful 
spiritual  Head  of  the  Sunni  Church.  His  first  six  successors 
were  men  of  remarkable  ability  ;  those  who  followed  were  of 
varying  capacity,  but  a  few  possessed  uncommon  talent  and 
learning.  Mansur,  the  brother  of  Saffah,  who  succeeded  him 
in  the  Caliphate,  founded  Bagdad,  which  became  their  capital 
and  seat  of  Government,  and  was  usually  called  the  Ddr-ul- 
Khildfat  and  the  Ddr-ns-saldm,  "  The  Abode  of  the  Caliphate  " 
and  "  The  Abode  of  Peace."  Here  the  house  of  Abbas  exercised 
undisputed  spiritual  and  temporal  authority  for  centuries. 
Their  great  rivals  of  Cairo  became  extinct  in  Saladin's  time  ; 
the  brilliant  Ommeyyade  dynasty  of  Cordova  disappeared 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Almohades, 
the  Almoravides,  and  the  many  Berber  and  Arab  dynasties 
which,  on  the  decline  of  the  Almoravides,  followed  each  other 
in  succession  in  Morocco,  had  no  valid  title  to  the  headship 
of  the  Sunni  Church.  The  right  of  the  Abbasides  to  the 
Sunni  Imamate  stood  unchallenged  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Ganges,  from  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Jaxartes  to  the  Indian 
Ocean.  In  493  of  the  Hegira  (1099  a.c.)  Yusuf  bin  Tashfin, 
the  Almohade  conqueror  after  the  epoch-making  battle  of 
az-Zallaka,  where  the  Christian  hordes  were  decisively  beaten, 
obtained  from  the  Abbaside  CaUph  al-Muktadi,  a  formal 
investiture  with  the  title  of  Ameer-al-Muslimtn ;  and  this  was 
confirmed  to  him  by  the  Caliph  al-Mustazhir.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  neither  the  "  Cahphs  "  of  Cordova  nor  any 
of  the  Moslem  sovereigns  in  after  ages  assumed  the  dignity  of  the 
representative  of  the  Prophet  {Khalifat-ar-Rasid)  or  arrogated 
the  title  of  Ameer-ul-Mominin. 

For  full  five  centuries  Bagdad  was  the  centre  of  all  intel- 
lectual activity  in  Islam  ;  and  here  the  rules  and  regulations 
appertaining  to  the  Cahphate,  as  also  to  other  matters,  secular 
and  religious,  were  systematised.  And  the  conception  that  the 
CaHph-Imam  was  the  divinely-appointed  Vice-gerent  of  the 
Prophet  became,  as  it  is  to-day,  welded  into  the  religious  life  of 

S.I,  I 


130  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

the  people.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  according  to  the  Sunni 
doctrines  the  Caliph  is  not  merely  a  secular  sovereign  ;  he  is 
the  religious  head  of  a  Church  and  a  commonwealth,  the 
actual  representative  of  Divine  government.^ 

The  Abbaside  Caliphate  lasted  for  five  centuries  from  its 
first  estabHshment  until  the  destruction  of  Bagdad  by  the 
Mongols  in  1258  of  the  Christian  era.  At  that  time  Musta'sim 
bTllah  was  the  Caliph,  and  he,  together  with  his  sons  and  the 
principal  members  of  his  family,  perished  in  the  general 
massacre  ;  only  those  scions  of  the  House  of  Abbas  escaped 
the  slaughter  who  were  absent  from  the  capital,  or  succeeded 
in  avoiding  detection. 

For  two  years  after  the  murder  of  Musta'sim  bTllah  the 
Sunni  world  felt  acutely  the  need  of  an  Imam  and  Caliph  ; 
both  the  poignancy  of  the  grief  at  the  absence  of  a  spiritual 
Head  of  the  Faith,  and  the  keenness  of  the  necessity  for  a 
representative  of  the  Prophet  to  bring  solace  and  religious 
merit  to  the  Faithful,  are  pathetically  voiced  by  the  Arab 
historian  of  the  Caliphs. ^  The  devotions  of  the  living  were 
devoid  of  that  religious  efficacy  which  is  imparted  to  them  by 
the  presence  in  the  world  of  an  acknowledged  Imam  ;  the 
prayers  for  the  dead  were  equally  without  merit.  Sultan 
Baibars  felt  with  the  whole  Sunni  world  the  need  of  a  Caliph 
and  Imam.  The  right  to  the  Caliphate  had  become  vested 
by  five  centuries  of  undisputed  acknowledgment  in  the 
House  of  Abbas  ;  and  a  member  of  this  family,  Abu'l  Kasim 
Ahmed,  who  had  succeeded  in  making  his  escape  from  the 
massacre  by  the  Mongols,  was  invited  to  Cairo  for  installation 
in  the  pontifical  seat.  On  his  arrival  in  the  environs  of 
Cairo,  the  Sultan,  accompanied  by  the  judges  and  great  officers 
of  State,  went  forth  to  greet  him.  The  ceremony  of  installa- 
tion is  described  as  imposing  and  sacred.  His  descent  had  to 
be  proved  first  before  the  Chief  Kazi  or  Judge.  After  this  was 
done,  he  was  installed  in  the  chair  and  acknowledged  as  Caliph, 
under  the  title  of  al-Mustansir  bTllah,  "  Seeking  the  help  of 
the  Lord."  The  first  to  take  the  oath  of  Bai'at  was  the  Sultan 
Baibars  himself  ;  next  came  the  Chief  Kazi  Taj-ud-din,  the 
principal  sheikhs  and  the  ministers  of  State,  and  lastly  the 

»  Suyuti.  *  Ihid, 


r 


X.  THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION  131 

nobles,  according  to  their  rank.  This  occurred  on  May  12th, 
1261,  and  the  new  CaHph's  name  was  impressed  on  the  coinage 
and  recited  in  the  Khutba.  On  the  following  Friday  he  rode 
to  the  mosque  in  procession,  wearing  the  black  mantle  of  the 
Abbasides,^  and  delivered  the  pontifical  sermon.  As  his 
installation  as  the  Caliph  of  the  Faithful  was  now  complete, 
he  proceeded  to  invest  the  Sultan  with  the  robe  and  diploma 
so  essential  in  the  eyes  of  the  orthodox  for  legitimate 
authority. 

The  Abbaside  Caliphate  thus  established  in  Cairo  lasted  for 
over  two  centuries  and  a-half.  During  this  period  Egypt  was 
ruled  by  sovereigns  who  are  designated  in  history  as  the 
Mameluke  Sultans.  Each  Sultan  on  his  accession  to  power 
received  his  investiture  from  the  Caliph  and  "  Imam  of  his 
time "  {Imdm-iil-Wakt)  and  he  professed  to  exercise  his 
authority  as  the  lieutenant  and  delegate  of  the  Pontiff.  The 
appointment  of  ministers  of  religion  and  administrators  of 
justice  was  subject  to  the  formal  sanction  of  the  Caliph. 
Though  shorn  of  all  its  temporal  powers,  the  religious  prestige 
of  the  Caliphate  was  so  great,  and  the  conviction  of  its  necessity 
as  a  factor  in  the  life  of  the  people  so  deep-rooted  in  the 
religious  sentiments  of  the  Sunni  world,  that  twice  after  the 
fall  of  Bagdad  the  Musulman  sovereigns  of  India  received 
their  investiture  from  the  Abbaside  Caliphs.  The  account 
of  the  reception  in  1343  a.c.  of  the  Caliph's  envoy  by  Sultan 
Mohammed  Juna  Khan  Tughlak,  the  founder  of  the  gigantic 
unfinished  city  of  Tughlakabad,  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  venera- 
tion in  which  the  Pontiffs  were  held  even  in  Hindustan,  in 
those  days  said  to  be  full  six  months'  journey  from  Egypt. 
On  the  approach  of  the  envoy  the  King,  accompanied  by  the 
Syeds  and  the  nobles,  went  out  of  the  capital  to  greet  him  ; 
and  when  the  Pontiff's  missive  was  handed  to  the  Sultan  he 
received  it  with  the  greatest  reverence.  The  formal  diploma 
of  investiture  legitimised  the  authority  of  the  King.  The 
whole  of  this  incident  is  celebrated  in  a  poem  still  extant 
in  India  by  the  poet  laureate,  the  famous  Badr-ud-din 
Chach. 

f        1  Black  was  the  colour  of  the  Abbusidcs,  white  of  the  Ommeyyades  and 
green  of  the  Fatimides,  the  descendants  of  Mohammed. 


132  THE  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED  i. 

About  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  star  of  Sehm  I., 
also  surnamed  Saffah,  of  the  House  of  Othman,  rose  in  the 
horizon.  His  victories  over  the  enemies  of  Islam  had  won  for 
him  the  title  of  "  Champion  of  the  Faith  "  ;  and  no  other 
Moslem  sovereign — not  even  his  great  rival  Shah  Isma'il, 
the  founder  of  the  Sufi  dynasty  in  Persia  and  the  creator  of 
the  first  orthodox  Shiah  State, — equalled  the  Osmanli  monarch 
in  greatness  and  power. 

The  closing  decades  of  that  century  had  witnessed  a  vast 
change  in  the  condition  of  Egypt,  and  the  anarchy  that  had  set 
in  under  the  later  Mameluke  Sultans  reached  its  climax  some 
years  later.  Invited  by  a  section  of  the  Egyptian  people  to 
restore  order  and  peace  in  the  distracted  country,  Selim  easily 
overthrew  the  incompetent  Mamelukes,  and  incorporated 
Egypt  with  his  already  vast  dominions.  At  this  period  the 
Cahph  who  held  the  Vice-gerency  of  the  Prophet  bore  the 
pontifical  name  of  Al-Mutawakkil  *ala- Allah  ("  Contented 
in  the  grace  of  the  Lord  ").  According  to  the  Sunni  records, 
he  perceived  that  the  only  Moslem  sovereign  who  could  com- 
bine in  his  own  person  the  double  functions  of  Caliph  and 
Imam,  and  restore  the  Caliphate  of  Islam  in  theory  and  in 
fact,  and  discharge  effectively  the  duties  attached  to  that 
office,  was  Selim.  He  accordingly,  in  1517,  by  a  formal  deed 
of  assignment,  transferred  the  Caliphate  to  the  Ottoman 
conqueror,  and,  with  his  officials  and  dignitaries,  "made  the 
Bai'at  on  the  hand  of  the  Sultan."  In  the  same  year  Selim 
received  the  homage  of  the  Sharif  of  Mecca,  Mohammed 
Abu'l  Barakat,  a  descendant  of  Ali,  who  presented  by  his  son 
Abu  Noumy  on  a  silver  salver  the  keys  of  the  Kaaba  and  took 
the  oath  by  the  same  proxy.  The  combination  in  Selim  of  the 
Abbaside  right  by  assignment  and  by  Bai'at,  and  the  adhesion 
of  the  representative  of  the  Prophet's  House  who  held  at  the 
time  the  guardianship  of  the  Holy  Cities,  perfected  the  Ottoman 
Sultan's  title  to  the  Caliphate,  "just  as  the  adhesion  of  (the 
Caliph)  Ali  had  completed  the  title  of  the  first  three  Caliphs." 
The  solemn  prayers  with  the  usual  Khutbas  offered  in  Mecca 
and  Medina  for  the  Sultan  gave  the  necessary  finality  to  the 
right  of  Sehm.  Henceforth  Constantinople,  his  seat  of  govern- 
ment, became  the  Ddr-ul-Khildfat,  and   began  to  be  called 


X.  THE  APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION  133 

"  Islambol,"  "  The  City  of  Islam."  Before  long  envoys  arrived 
in  Selim's  Court  and  that  of  his  son,  Solyman  the  Magnificent, 
from  the  rulers  of  the  Sunni  States  to  offer  their  homage  ; 
and  thus,  according  to  the  Sunnis,  the  Caliphate  became  the 
heritage  of  the  House  of  Othman,  which  they  have  enjoyed 
for  four  centuries  without  challenge  or  dispute. 


PART  IL 
THE    SPIRIT   OF    ISLAM 


CHAPTER   I 
THE  IDEAL   OF   ISLAM 

^^JJsrvJ     ^^^AAlt'i     ^^t xj]    [)\ 

^l\3^;       ^__^Aj.lloli        V^A**«1        |.U 
o      o       '         o      o'o    .  O'  -f  o  " 


THE  religion  of  Jesus  bears  the  name  of  Christianity, 
derived  from  his  designation  of  Christ ;  that  of  Moses 
and  of  Buddha  are  known  by  the  respective  names 
of  their  teachers.  The  religion  of  Mohammed  alone  has  a 
distinctive  appellation.     It  is  Islam. 

In  order  to  form  a  just  appreciation  of  the  rehgion  of 
Mohammed  it  is  necessary  to  understand  aright  the  true 
significance  of  the  word  Islam.  Salam  {salama),  in  its  primary 
sense,  means,  to  be  tranquil,  at  rest,  to  have  done  one's  duty, 
to  have  paid  up,  to  be  at  perfect  peace  ;   in  its  secondary  sense, 

^  For  translation,  see  Appendix. 


138  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

to  surrender  oneself  to  Him  with  whom  peace  is  made.  The 
noun  derived  from  it  means  peace,  greeting,  safety,  salvation. 
The  word  does  not  imply,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  absolute 
submission  to  God's  wiU,  but  means,  on  the  contrary,  striving 
after  righteousness. 

The  essence  of  the  ethical  principles  involved  and  embodied 
in  Islam  is  thus  summarised  in  the  second  chapter  of  the 
Koran  :  "  There  is  no  doubt  in  this  book — a  guidance  to  the 
pious,  who  believe  in  the  Unseen,  who  observe  the  prayers, 
and  distribute  (charity)  out  of  what  We  have  bestowed  on 
them  ;  and  who  beheve  in  that  which  We  have  commissioned 
thee  with,  and  in  that  We  commissioned  others  with  before  thee, 
and  who  have  assurance  in  the  life  to  come  ; — these  have 
received  the  direction  of  their  Lord."  ^ 

The  principal  bases  on  which  the  Islamic  system  is  founded 
are  (i)  a  behef  in  the  unity,  immateriality,  power,  mercy,  and 
supreme  love  of  the  Creator ;  (2)  charity  and  brotherhood 
among  mankind  ;  (3)  subjugation  of  the  passions  ;  (4)  the 
outpouring  of  a  grateful  heart  to  the  Giver  of  all  good ;  and 
(5)  accountability  for  human  actions  in  another  existence. 
The  grand  and  noble  conceptions  expressed  in  the  Koran  of 
the  power  and  love  of  the  Deity  surpass  everything  of  their 
kind  in  any  other  language.  The  unity  of  God,  His  immateri- 
ality, His  majesty.  His  mercy,  form  the  constant  and  never- 
ending  theme  of  the  most  eloquent  and  soul-stirring  passages. 
The  flow  of  life,  light,  and  spirituality  never  ceases.  But 
throughout  there  is  no  trace  of  dogmatism.  Appeal  is  made  to 
the  inner  consciousness  of  man,  to  his  intuitive  reason  alone. 

Let  us  now  take  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  religious  conceptions 
of  the  peoples  of  the  world  when  the  Prophet  of  Islam  com- 
menced his  preachings.  Among  the  heathen  Arabs  the  idea 
of  Godhead  varied  according  to  the  culture  of  the  individual 
or  of  the  clan.  With  some  it  rose,  comparatively  speaking, 
to  the  "  divinisation  "  or  deification  of  nature  ;  among  others 
it  feU  to  simple  fetishism,  the  adoration  of  a  piece  of  dough, 
a  stick,  or  a  stone.  Some  believed  in  a  future  hfe  ;  others 
had  no  idea  of  it  whatever.  The  pre-Islamite  Arabs  had  their 
groves,    their   oracle-trees,    their   priestesses,    like   the    Syro- 

1  Koran,  sura  ii.  i-6. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  139 

Phoenicians.  Phallic  worship  was  not  unknown  to  them ; 
and  the  generative  powers  received  adoration,  like  the  hosts 
of  heaven,  under  monuments  of  stone  and  wood.  The  wild 
denizens  of  the  desert,  then  as  now,  could  not  be  impervious 
to  the  idea  of  some  unseen  hand  driving  the  blasts  which  swept 
over  whole  tracts,  or  forming  the  beautiful  visions  which  rose 
before  the  traveller  to  lure  him  to  destruction.  And  thus  there 
floated  in  the  Arab  world  an  intangible,  unrealised  conception 
of  a  superior  deity,  the  Lord  of  all.^ 

The  Jews,  those  great  conservators  of  the  monotheistic 
idea,  as  they  have  been  generally  regarded  in  history,  probably 
might  have  assisted  in  the  formation  of  this  conception.  But 
they  themselves  showed  what  strange  metamorphoses  can  take 
place  in  the  thoughts  of  a  nation  when  not  aided  by  a  historical 
and  rationalistic  element  in  their  religious  code. 

The  Jews  had  entered  Arabia  at  various  times,  and  under 
the  pressure  of  various  circumstances.  Naturally,  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  different  bodies  of  emigrants,  refugees,  or 
colonists  would  vary  much.  The  ideas  of  the  men  driven  out 
by  the  Assyrians  or  Babylonians  would  be  more  anthropo- 
morphic, more  anthropopathic,  than  of  those  who  fled  before 
Vespasian,  Trajan,  or  Hadrian.  The  characteristics  which 
had  led  the  Israelites  repeatedly  to  lapse  into  idolatry  in  their 
original  homes,  when  seers  were  in  their  midst  to  denounce 
their  backslidings,  would  hardly  preserve  them  from  the 
heathenism  of  their  Arab  brothers.  With  an  idea  of  "  the 
God  of  Abraham  "  they  would  naturally  combine  a  material- 
istic conception  of  the  deity,  and  hence  we  find  them  rearing 
"  a  statue  representing  Abraham,  with  the  ram  beside  him 
ready  for  sacrifice,"  in  the  interior  of  the  Kaaba. 

Amongst  the  later  comers  the  Shammaites  and  the  Zealots 
formed  by  far  the  largest  proportion.  Among  them  the 
worship  of  the  law  verged  upon  idolatry,  and  the  Scribes  and 
Rabbins  claimed  a  respect  almost  approaching  adoration. 
They  believed  themselves  to  be  the  guardians  of  the  people, 
the  preservers  of  law  and  tradition,  "  living  exemplars  and 
mirrors,  in  which  the  true  mode  of  life,  according  to  the  law, 

1  Shahristani ;  Tide  calls  the  religion  of  the  pre-Islamite  Arabs  "  animistic 
polydsemonism." 


140  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii, 

was  preserved."  ^  They  looked  upon  themselves  as  the 
"  flower  of  the  nation,"  and  they  were  considered,  through 
their  intercourse  with  God,  to  possess  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
In  fact,  by  their  people  as  well  as  by  themselves  they  were 
regarded  as  the  prime  favourites  of  God.^  The  veneration  of 
the  Jews  for  Moses  went  so  far,  says  Josephus,  that  they 
reverenced  his  name  next  to  that  of  God  ;  and  this  veneration 
they  transferred  to  Ezra,  the  restorer  of  national  life  and  law 
under  the  Kyanian  dynasty. ^ 

Besides,  the  mass  of  the  Jews  had  never,  probably,  thoroughly 
abandoned  the  worship  of  the  Teraphim,  a  sort  of  household 
gods  made  in  the  shape  of  human  beings,  and  consulted  on  all 
occasions  as  domestic  oracles,  or  regarded  perhaps  more  as 
guardian  penates.^  This  worship  must  have  been  strengthened 
by  contact  with  the  heathen  Arabs. 

When  Jesus  made  his  appearance  in  Judaea,  the  doctrine  of 
divine  unity  and  of  a  supreme  Personal  Will,  overshadowing  the 
universe  with  its  might  and  grace,  received  acceptance  only 
among  one  race — the  worshippers  of  Jehovah.  And  even 
among  them,  despite  all  efforts  to  the  contrary,  the  conception 
of  the  divinity  had  either  deteriorated  by  contact  with  heathen 
nations,  or  become  modified  by  the  influence  of  pagan  phil- 
osophies. On  the  one  hand,  Chaldaeo-Magian  philosophy 
had  left  its  finger-mark  indelibly  impressed  on  the  Jewish 
traditions  ;  on  the  other,  their  best  minds,  whilst  introducing 
among  the  Greek  and  Roman  philosophers  the  conception  of  a 
great  Primal  Cause,  had  imbibed,  in  the  schools  of  Alexandria, 
notions  hardly  reconcilable  with  their  monotheistic  creed. 

The  Hindus,  with  their  multitudinous  hordes  of  gods  and 
goddesses  ;  the  Mago-Zoroastrians,  with  their  two  divinities 
struggling  for  mastery  ;  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Egyptians, 
with  their  pantheons  full  of  deities  whose  morality  was  below 
that  of  the  worshippers, — such  was  the  condition  of  the  civilised 
world  when  Jesus  commenced  his  preachings.  With  aU  his 
dreams  and  aspirations,  his  mind  was  absolutely  exempt  from 

1  Dollinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  vol.  ii.  p.  308. 

*  Josephus,  Antiquities,  xvii.  24.  They  were,  so  to  speak,  the  Brahmans  of 
Judaism. 

3  Ezra  vii.  10  et  seq.  *  Judges  xviii.  14. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  141 

those  pretensions  which  have  been  fixed  on  him  by  his  over- 
zealous  followers.  He  never  claimed  to  be  a  "  complement 
of  God,"  or  to  be  a  "  hypostasis  of  the  Divinity." 

Even  modem  ideaUstic  Christianity  has  not  been  able  yet  to 
shake  itself  free  from  the  old  legacy  bequeathed  by  the  anthro- 
pomorphism of  bygone  ages.  Age  after  age  everything  human 
has  been  eliminated  from  the  history  of  the  great  Teacher, 
until  his  personality  is  lost  in  a  mass  of  legends.  The  New 
Testament  itself,  with  "  its  incubation  of  a  century,"  leaves 
the  revered  figure  clothed  in  a  mist.  And  each  day  the  old 
idea  of  "  an  /Eon  born  in  the  bosom  of  eternity,"  gathers  force 
until  the  Council  of  Nice  gives  it  a  shape  and  consistency,  and 
formulates  it  into  a  dogma. 

Many  minds,  bewildered  by  the  far-offness  of  the  universal 
Father,  seek  a  resting-place  midway  in  a  human  personality 
which  they  call  divine.  It  is  this  need  of  a  nearer  object  of 
adoration  which  leads  modern  Christianity  to  give  a  name  to 
an  ideal,  clothe  it  with  flesh  and  blood,  and  worship  it  as  a 
man-God. 

The  gifted  author  of  the  Defects  of  Modern  Christianity  con- 
siders the  frequency  with  which  the  Nazarene  Prophet  asserted 
that  he  was  "  the  Son  of  God,"  and  demanded  the  same  worship 
as  God  Himself,  a  proof  of  his  Divinity.  That  Jesus  ever 
maintained  he  was  the  Son  of  God,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  has 
been  construed  by  Christian  divines  and  apologists,  we  totally 
deny.  Matthew  Arnold  has  shown  conclusively  that  the  New 
Testament  records  are  in  many  respects  wholly  unreliable. 
So  far  as  the  divinity  of  Christ  is  concerned,  one  can  almost 
see  the  legend  growing.  But  assuming  that  he  made  use  of 
the  expressions  attributed  to  him,  do  they  prove  that  he  claimed 
to  be  "  the  only-begotten  of  the  Father  "  ?  Has  the  apologist 
not  heard  of  the  Eastern  dervish,  famous  now  as  al-Hallaj, 
who  claimed  to  be  God  Himself  ?  "  An-al-Hakk,"  "  I  am 
God — I  am  the  Truth,"  said  he  ;  and  the  Musulman  divines, 
like  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  pronounced  him  guilty  of  blas- 
phemy, and  condemned  him  to  death  ?  A  poor  simple  heart, 
kindling  with  an  exalted  mysticism,  was  thus  removed  from 
earth.  The  Babi  still  believes  that  his  master,  "  the  Gate  " 
to  eternal  Hfe,  was  not  killed,  but  miraculously  removed  to 


142  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

heaven.  Can  it  be  said  that  when  Abu  Mughis  al-Hallaj  ^ 
and  the  Bab  called  themselves  "  Truth  "  and  the  "  Gate  to 
heaven,"  they  meant  to  imply  that  they  were  part  of  the 
Divinity,  or,  if  they  did,  that  their  "  claim  "  is  tantamount  to 
proof  ?  But,  as  we  said  before,  we  deny  that  Jesus,  whose 
conceptions,  when  divested  of  the  Aberglaube  of  his  followers, 
were  singularly  free  from  exaggeration  as  to  his  own  character 
or  personality,  ever  used  any  expression  to  justify  the  demand 
attempted  to  be  fixed  upon  him.  His  conception  of  the 
"  Fatherhood  "  of  God  embraced  all  humanity.  All  mankind 
were  the  children  of  God,  and  he  was  their  Teacher  sent  by  the 
Eternal  Father.  ^  The  Christian  had  thus  a  nobler  exemplar 
before  him.  The  teachings  of  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth  should 
have  elevated  him  to  a  purer  conception  of  the  Deity.  But  six 
centuries  had  surrounded  the  figure  of  Jesus  with  those  myths 
which,  in  opposition  to  his  own  words,  resolved  him  into  a 
manifestation  of  the  Godhead.  The  "  Servant  "  took  the 
place  of  the  Master  in  the  adoration  of  the  world.  The  vulgar 
masses,  unable  to  comprehend  or  realise  this  wonderful 
mixture  of  Neo-Pythagoreanism,  Platonism,  Judaeo-Hellen- 
istic  philosophy,  and  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  adored  him  as 
God  incarnate,  or  reverted  to  the  primitive  worship  of  relics 
and  of  a  tinselled  goddess  who  represented  the  pure  mother 
of  Jesus. ^  The  Collyridians,  who  were  by  no  means  an  un- 
important sect,  went  so  far  as  to  introduce  in  the  Christian 
pantheon  the  Virgin  Mary  for  God,  and  worship  her  as  such, 
offering  her  a  sort  of  twisted  cake  called  coUyris,  whence  the 
sect  had  its  name.  At  the  Covmcil  of  Nice  which  definitely 
settled  the  nature  of  Jesus,  there  were  men  who  held  that 
besides    "  God    the    Father,"    there    were    two    other    gods — 

1  Abu  Mughis  ibn  Mansur,  al-Halldj,  died  in  the  prime  of  hfe.  He  was  a 
man  of  pure  morals,  great  simpUcity,  a  friend  of  the  poor,  but  a  dreamer  and 
an  enthusiast.  For  an  account  of  the  Bab  and  Babism,  see  Gobineau,  Les 
Religions  et  les  Philosophies  dans  I'Asie  Centrale  and  the  History  of  the  Bab 
by  Professor  E.  G.  Browne. 

2  The  use  of  the  word  "  Father  "  in  relation  to  God  was  cut  out  from  Islam 
owing  to  the  perversion  of  the  idea  among  the  then  Christians. 

*  The  Isaurian  sovereigns,  indirectly  inspired  by  Islam,  for  over  a  century 
battled  against  the  growing  degradation  of  Christianity,  strived  with  all  their 
might  to  make  it  run  back  in  the  channel  pointed  out  by  the  great  Teacher, 
but  to  no  purpose. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  143 

Christ  and  the  Virgin  Mary.^  And  the  Romanists  even  now, 
it  is  said,  call  the  mother  of  Jesus  the  complement  of  the  Trinity. 

In  the  long  night  of  superstition  the  Christians  had  wandered 
far  away  from  the  simplicity  of  the  Nazarene  teachings.  The 
worship  of  images,  saints,  and  relics  had  become  inseparably 
blended  with  the  religion  of  Jesus.  The  practices  which  he 
had  denounced,  the  evils  which  he  had  reprehended,  were, 
one  by  one,  incorporated  with  his  faith.  The  holy  ground 
where  the  revered  Teacher  had  lived  and  walked  was  involved 
in  a  cloud  of  miracles  and  visions,  and  "  the  nerves  of  the  mind 
were  benumbed  by  the  habits  of  obedience  and  belief."  ^ 

Against  all  the  absurdities  we  have  described  above,  the 
life-aim  of  Mohammed  was  directed.  Addressing,  with  the 
voice  of  truth,  inspired  by  deep  communion  with  the  God  of 
the  Universe,  the  fetish-worshippers  of  the  Arabian  tribes  on 
one  side  and  the  followers  of  degraded  Christianity  and  Judaism 
on  the  other,  Mohammed,  that  "  master  of  speech,"  as  he  has 
been  truly  called,  never  travelled  out  of  the  province  of  reason, 
and  made  them  all  blush  at  the  monstrousness  of  their  beliefs. 
Mohammed,  the  grand  apostle  of  the  unity  of  God,  thus  stands 
forth  in  history  in  noble  conflict  with  the  retrogressive  tendency 
of  man  to  associate  other  beings  with  the  Creator  of  the 
universe.  Ever  and  anon  in  the  Koran  occur  passages,  fervid 
and  burning,  like  the  following  :  "  Your  God  is  one  God  ; 
there  is  no  God  but  He,  the  Most  Merciful.  In  the  creation  of 
the  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  alternation  of  night  and  day, 
and  in  the  ship  which  saileth  on  the  sea,  laden  with  what  is 
profitable  to  mankind  ;  and  in  the  rain-water  which  God 
sendeth  from  heaven,  quickening  again  the  dead  earth,  and  the 
animals  of  all  sorts  which  cover  its  surface  ;  and  in  the  change 
of  winds,  and  the  clouds  balanced  between  heaven  and  earth, — 

*  Mosheim,  vol.  i.  p.  432. 

-  Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  432  ;  comp.  also  Hallam,  Const. 
Hist,  of  England,  chap.  ii.  p.  75.  From  the  text  it  will  be  seen  how  much 
truth  there  is  in  the  assertion  that  Islam  derived  "  everything  good  it  contains  " 
from  Judaism  or  Christianity.  "  It  has  been  the  fashion,"  says  Deutsch, 
"  to  ascribe  whatever  is  good  in  Mohammedanism  to  Christianity.  We  fear 
this  theory  is  not  compatible  with  the  results  of  honest  investigation.  For 
of  Arabian  Christianity  at  the  time  of  Mohammed,  the  less  said,  perhaps,  the 
better  .  .  .  By  the  side  of  it  .  .  .  even  modern  Amharic  Christianity,  of  which 
we  possess  such  astounding  accounts,  appears  pure  and  exalted." — Quarterly 
Feview,  No.  954,  p.  31-,. 


144  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

are  signs  to  people  of  understanding  ;  yet  some  men  take  idols 
beside  God,  and  love  them  as  with  the  love  due  to  God."  ^ 
What  a  depth  of  sympathy  towards  those  benighted  people 
do  these  words  convey  !  Again  :  "  It  is  He  who  causeth  the 
lightning  to  appear  unto  you  (to  strike)  fear  and  (to  raise) 
hope ;  and  formeth  the  pregnant  clouds.  The  thunder 
celebrateth  His  praise,  and  the  angels  also.  ...  He  launcheth 
His  thunderbolts,  and  striketh  therewith  whom  He  pleaseth 
while  they  dispute  concerning  Him.  ...  It  is  He  who  of  right 
ought  to  be  invoked,  and  those  (the  idols)  whom  they  invoke 
besides  Him  shall  not  respond  to  them  at  all ;  otherwise  than 
as  he  who  stretched  forth  his  hands  to  the  water  that  it  may 
ascend  to  his  mouth  when  it  cannot  ascend  (thither). ^  He 
hath  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  to  (manifest  His) 
justice  ;  far  be  that  from  Him  which  they  associate  with  Him. 
He  hath  created  man  .  .  .  and  behold  he  is  a  professed  disputer. 
He  hath  likewise  created  the  cattle  for  you,  and  they  are  a 
credit  unto  you  when  they  come  trooping  home  at  evening- 
time,  or  are  led  forth  to  pasture  in  the  morn.  .  .  .  And  He 
hath  subjected  the  night  and  day  to  your  service  ;  and  the  sun 
and  the  moon  and  the  stars  are  all  bound  by  His  laws.  ...  It 
is  He  who  hath  subjected  the  sea  unto  you,  and  thou  seest  the 
ships  ploughing  the  deep  .  .  .  and  that  ye  might  render  thanks 
.  .  .  Shall  He  therefore  who  createth  be  as  he  who  createthi 
not  ?  Do  ye  not  therefore  take  heed  ?  If  ye  were  to  reckon" 
up  the  blessings  of  God,  ye  shall  not  be  able  to  compute  their 
number  ;  God  is  surely  gracious  and  merciful.  He  knoweth 
that  which  ye  conceal  and  that  which  ye  publish.  But  those 
[the  idols]  whom  ye  invoke,  besides  the  Lord,  create  nothing, 
but  are  themselves  created.  They  are  dead  and  not 
living."  3 

"God!  there  is  no  God  but  He — the  Living,  the  Eternal. 
No  slumber  seizeth  Him.  Whatsoever  is  in  heaven  or  in  earth 
is  His.  Who  can  intercede  with  Him  but  by  His  own  permis-, 
sion  ?  He  knows  what  has  been  before,  and  what  shall  be. 
after  them  ;  yet  nought  of  His  knowledge  shall  they  grasptj 
but  He  willeth.     His  Throne  reacheth  over  the  heavens  andj 

1  Sura  ii.  158-160.  *  Sura  xiii.  13-15. 

'  Sura  xvi.  3-21. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  145 

the  earth,  and  the  upholding  of  them  both  burdeneth  Him 
not,  .  .  .^  He  throweth  the  veil  of  night  over  the  day,  pursuing 
it  quickly.  He  created  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  subjected  to 
laws  by  His  behest.  Is  not  all  creation  and  all  empire  His  ? 
Blessed  be  the  Lord  of  the  worlds. ^  Say,  He  alone  is  God  : 
God  the  Eternal.  He  begetteth  not,  and  He  is  not  begotten  ; 
there  is  none  like  unto  Him.  Praise  be  to  God,  the  Lord  of  the 
worlds,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful,  King  on  the  day  of 
reckoning  ;  Thee  only  do  we  worship,  and  to  Thee  do  we  cry 
for  help.  Guide  us  on  the  straight  path, — the  path  of  those 
to  whom  Thou  art  gracious,  with  whom  Thou  art  not  angry  ; 
such  as  go  not  astray.^  .  .  .  Against  the  evil  in  His  creation 
I  betake  me  to  the  Lord  of  the  daybreak."  "  Thou  needest 
not  raise  thy  voice,  for  He  knoweth  the  secret  whisper,  and  what 
is  yet  more  hidden.  Say,  Whose  is  what  is  in  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  ?  Say,  God's  who  has  imposed  mercy  on  Himself.* 
.  .  .  With  Him  are  the  keys  of  the  unseen.  None  knows  them 
save  He  ;  He  knows  what  is  in  the  land  and  in  the  sea  ;  no 
leaf  falleth  but  He  knoweth  it  ;  nor  is  there  a  grain  in  the 
darkness  under  the  earth,  nor  a  thing,  green  or  sere,  but  it  is 
recorded  by  itself.  He  taketh  your  souls  in  the  night,  and 
knoweth  what  the  work  of  your  day  deserveth  ;  then  He 
awaketh  you,  that  the  set  life-term  may  be  fulfilled  ;  then 
unto  Him  shall  ye  return,  and  then  shall  He  declare  unto  you 
what  you  have  wrought.^  Verily,  God  it  is  who  cleaves  out 
the  grain  and  the  date-stone  ;  He  brings  forth  the  living  from 
the  dead,  and  it  is  He  who  brings  the  dead  from  the  living. 
There  is  God  !     How  then  can  ye  be  beguiled  ?  " 

"  It  is  He  who  cleaves  out  the  morning,  and  makes  night  a 
repose,  and  the  sun  and  the  moon  two  reckonings  ;  that  is  the 
decree  of  the  Mighty,  the  Wise.^ 

"  There  is  God  for  you,  your  Lord  !  There  is  no  God  but 
He,  the  Creator  of  everything  ;  then  worship  Him,  for  He  over 
everything  keeps  guard  !  " 

'  Sura  ii.  255.  *  Sura  vii.  54. 

■^  This  is  the  Surat-ul-Fatiha,  the  opening  chapter  of  the  Koran. 
■*  Sura  vi.  12.  *  Sura  vi.  59,  60. 

*  Sura  vi.  97. 
S.I.  K 


146  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

"  Sight  perceives  Him  not,  but  he  perceives  men's  sights  ; 
for  He  is  the  knower  of  secrets  the  Aware."  ^ 


"  Say,  Verily  my  prayers  and  my  devotion,  and  my  hfe  and 
my  death,  belong  to  God,  the  Lord  of  the  worlds."  ^ 

"  Dost  thou  not  perceive  that  all  creatures  both  in  heaven 
and  earth  praise  God  ;    and  the  birds  also  ? 

"  Every  one  knoweth  His  prayer  and  His  praise. 

"  Unto  God  belongeth  the  kingdom  of  heaven  and  earth  ; 
and  unto  God  shall  be  the  return. 

"  Whose  is  the  kingdom  of  the  heavens  and  of  the  earth  ? 
There  is  no  God  but  He  !  He  maketh  alive  and  killeth.^  .  .  . 
He  is  the  Living  One.  No  God  is  there  but  He.  Call  then 
upon  Him,  and  offer  Him  a  pure  worship.  Praise  be  to  God, 
the  Lord  of  the  worlds  !  .  .  .  My  prayers  and  my  worship 
and  my  life  and  my  death  are  unto  God,  Lord  of  the  worlds. 
He  hath  no  associate.*  It  is  He  who  hath  brought  you  forth, 
and  gifted  you  with  hearing  and  sight  and  heart  ;  yet  how  few 
are  grateful !  .  .  .  It  is  He  who  hath  sown  you  in  the  earth, 
and  to  Him  shall  ye  be  gathered.^  ...  O  my  Lord,  place  me 
not  among  the  ungodly  people.^  ...  He  it  is  who  ordaineth 
the  night  as  a  garment  and  sleep  for  rest,  and  ordaineth  the 
day  for  waking  up  to  life."  ' 

"  Is  not  He  the  more  worthy  who  answereth  the  oppressed 
when  they  cry  to  Him,  and  taketh  off  their  ills,  and  maketh 
you  to  succeed  your  sires  on  the  earth  ?  ^  God  the  Almighty, 
the  All-knowing,  Forgiver  of  Sin,  and  Receiver  of  Penitence."^ 

"  Shall  I  seek  any  other  Lord  than  God,  when  He  is  Lord  of 
all  things  ?  No  soul  shall  labour  but  for  itself,  and  no  burdened 
one  shall  bear  another's  burden."  i" 

"  At  last  ye  shall  return  to  your  Lord,  and  He  will  declare 
that  to  you  about  which  you  differ.^"  Knower  of  the  hidden 
and  the  manifest  !  the  Great,  the  Most  High  !  .  .  .  Alike  to 
Him  is  that  person  among  you  who  concealeth  his  words,  and 

1  Sura  vi.  104.  *  Sura  vi.  163. 

3  Sura  vii.  158.  *  Sura  vii.  v.  158. 

^  Sura  Ixvii.  23,  24.  «  Sura  xxiii.  94. 

'  Sura  XXV.  47.  «  Sura  xxvii.  62. 

•  Sura  xl.  1-2.  "Sura  ii,  286. 


I  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  147 

he  that  telleth  them  abroad  ;  he  who  hideth  him  in  the  night, 
and  he  who  cometh  forth  in  the  day."  ^ 

"  God  is  the  Hght  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth  ;  His  Hght 
is  as  a  niche  in  which  is  a  lamp,  and  the  lamp  is  in  a  glass  ; 
the  glass  is  as  though  it  were  a  glittering  star  ;  it  is  lit  from  a 
blessed  tree,  an  olive  neither  of  the  east  nor  of  the  west,  the 
oil  of  which  would  well-nigh  give  light  though  no  fire  touched 
it — light  upon  light  !  God  guides  to  His  light  whom  He 
pleases  ;  and  God  strikes  out  parables  for  men,  and  God  all 
things  doth  know." 

"  In  the  houses  God  has  permitted  to  be  reared  and  His  name 
to  be  mentioned  therein,  His  praises  are  celebrated  therein 
mornings  and  evenings." 

"  Men  whom  neither  merchandise  nor  selling  divert  from 
the  remembrance  of  God,  and  steadfastness  in  prayer  and 
giving  alms,  who  fear  a  day  when  hearts  and  eyes  shall  be 
upset,  that  God  may  recompense  them  for  the  best  they  have 
done,  and  give  them  increase  of  His  grace  ;  for  God  provides 
whom  He  pleases  without  count." 

"  But  those  who  misbeheve,  their  works  are  like  the  mirage 
in  a  plain, — the  thirsty  counts  it  water  till  when  he  comes  to 
it  he  find§  nothing,  but  he  finds  that  God  is  with  him,  and  He 
will  pay  him  his  account,  for  God  is  quick  to  take  account." 

"  Or  like  darkness  on  a  deep  sea  ;  there  covers  it  a  wave, 
above  which  is  a  wave,  above  which  is  a  cloud, — darknesses  one 
above  the  other, — when  one  puts  out  his  hand  he  can  scarcely 
see  it,  for  he  to  whom  God  has  given  no  light  he  has  no  light." 

"  Hast  thou  seen  that  God  ?  All  who  are  in  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  celebrate  His  praises,  and  the  birds,  too,  spreading 
out  their  wings  ;  each  one  knows  its  prayer  and  its  praise,  and 
God  knows  what  they  do." 

"  Hast  thou  not  seen  that  God  drives  the  clouds,  and  then 
reunites  them,  and  then  accumulates  them,  and  thou  mayest 
see  the  rain  coming  forth  from  their  midst  ;  and  He  sends  down 
from  the  sky  mountains  with  hail  therein,  and  He  makes  it 
fall  on  whom  He  pleases,  and  He  turns  it  from  whom  He 
pleases  ;  the  flashing  of  His  Hghtning  well-nigh  goes  off  with 
their  sight." 

1  Sura  xiii.  9,  10,  11. 


148  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

"  God  interchanges  the  night  and  the  day  ;  verily  in  that  is 
a  lesson  to  those  endowed  with  sight." 

The  chapter  entitled  "  The  Merciful,"  which  has  been  well 
called  the  Benedicite  of  Islam,  furnishes  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
amples of  the  Prophet's  appeal  to  the  testimony  of  nature. 

"  The  sun  and  the  moon  in  their  appointed  time. 

The  herbs  and  the  trees  adore. 

And  the  heavens  He  raised  them,  and  set  the  Balance  that 
ye  should  not  be  outrageous  in  the  balance  ; 

But  weigh  ye  aright  and  stint  not  the  measure. 

And  the  earth.  He  has  set  it  for  living  creatures  ; 

Therein  are  fruits,  and  palms  with  sheaths,  and  grain  with 
chaff  and  frequent  shoots. 

He  created  man  of  crackhng  clay  hke  the  potter's,  and  He 
created  the  firmament  from  the  smokeless  fire. 


The  Lord  of  the  two  easts  and  the  Lord  of  the  two  wests. 
He  has  let  loose  the  two  seas  that  meet  together  ;   between 

them  is  a  barrier  they  cannot  pass. 
He  brings  forth  from  each  pearls  both  great  and  small  ! 

His  are  the  ships  which  rear  aloft  in  the  sea  like  mountains. 
Every  one  upon  it  is  transient,  but  the  face  of  thy  Lord 
endowed  with  majesty  and  honour  shall  endure. 

Of  Him  whosoever  is  in  the  heaven  and  in  the  earth  does 
beg  ;    every  day  is  He  in  [some  fresh]  work. 

Blessed  be  the  name  of  thy  Lord,  possessed  of  majesty  and 
glory." 

"  Every  man's  actions  have  we  hung  round  his  neck,  and  on 
the  last  day  shall  be  laid  before  him  a  wide-opened  Book."  ^ .  .  . 
"  By  a  soul,  and  Him  who  balanced  it,  and  intimated  to  it 
its  wickedness  and  its  piety,  blest  now  is  he  who  hath  kept  it 
pure,  and  undone  is  he  who  hath  corrupted  it."  ^  .  .  .  "No 
defect  canst  thou  see  in  the  creation  of  the  God  of  mercy  ; 

1  Sura  xvii.  13.  '^  Sura  xci.  7-9. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  149 

repeat  the  gaze,  seest  thou  a  single  flaw,  then  twice  more 
repeat  the  gaze,  thy  gaze  shall  return  to  thee  dulled  and 
wear}^"  ^  .  .  .  "He  quickeneth  the  earth  when  it  is  dead  ; 
so  too  sliall  you  be  brought  to  life." 

"  The  heavens  and  the  earth  stand  firm  at  His  bidding  ; 
hereafter  when  at  once  He  shall  summon  you  from  the  earth, 
forth  shah  ye  come."  ^  .  .  .  "  When  the  sun  shall  be  folded 
up,  and  the  stars  shall  fall,  and  when  the  mountains  shall  be 
set  in  motion  ;  when  the  she-camels  shall  be  left,  and  the  wild 
beasts  shall  be  gathered  together  ;  when  the  seas  shall  boil, 
and  souls  be  re-paired  [with  their  bodies]  ;  when  the  female 
child  that  was  buried  alive  shall  be  asked  for  what  crime  she 
was  put  to  death  ;  when  the  leaves  of  the  Book  shall  be  un- 
rolled, and  the  heavens  shall  be  stripped  away,  and  the  fire 
of  hell  blaze  forth,  and  paradise  draw  nigh,  then  shall  every 
soul  know  what  it  hath  done."  ^  .  .  .  "  What  knowledge  hast 
thou  [Mohammed]  of  the  hour  ?  Only  God  knoweth  its  period. 
It  is  for  thee  only  to  warn  those  who  fear  it."  .  .  .  "  What 
shall  teach  thee  the  inevitable  ?  Thamud  and  Ad  treated 
the  Day  of  Decision  as  a  lie.  They  were  destroyed  with 
thunderbolts  and  roaring  blasts." 

And  yet  with  all  His  might,  His  tender  care  and  pity  are 
all-embracing  : 

"  By  the  noonday  brightness,  and  by  the  night  when  it 
darkeneth,  thy  Lord  hath  not  forsaken  thee,  neither  hath  He 
been  displeased.  Surely  the  future  shall  be  better  for  thee 
than  the  past  ;  and  in  the  end  He  shall  be  bounteous  to  thee, 
and  thou  shalt  be  satisfied.  Did  He  not  find  thee  an  orphan, 
and  give  thee  a  home  ;  erring,  and  guided  thee  ;  needy,  and 
enriched  thee  ?  As  to  the  orphan,  then,  wrong  him  not  ; 
and  chide  not  away  him  that  asketh  of  thee,  and  tell  abroad 
the  favours  of  thy  Lord."  ^  "  Did  ye  think  We  had  made  you 
for  sport,  and  that  ye  should  not  be  brought  back  again  to  us  ?  " 
"  O  our  God,  punish  us  not  if  we  forget  and  fall  into  sin  ; 
blot  out  our  sins  and  forgive  us."  "  Have  mercy,  O  Lord, 
for  of  the  merciful.  Thou  art  the  best."  ^     "  The  heavy  laden 

1  Sura  Ixvii.  4.  »  Sura  xxx.  25. 

'  Sura  Ixxxi.  ^  Sura  xciii. 

5  Sura  xxiii.  118. 


150  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

shall  not  bear  another's  load.  We  never  punished  till  we  had 
sent  an  apostle."  "  This  clear  Book,  behold,  on  a  blessed 
night  have  we  sent  it  down  for  a  warning  to  mankind."  "  Not 
to  sadden  thee  have  we  sent  it  thee." 

And  so  on  goes  this  wonderful  book,  appeahng  to  the  nobler 
feelings  of  man, — his  inner  consciousness  and  his  moral  sense, 
proving  and  manifesting  the  enormity  of  idolatrous  beliefs. 
Scarcely  a  chapter  but  contains  some  fervid  passages  on  the 
power,  mercy,  and  unity  of  God.  The  Islamic  conception  of 
the  Almighty  has  been  misunderstood  by  Christian  writers. 
The  God  of  Islam  is  commonly  represented  as  "a  pitiless 
tyrant,  who  plays  with  humanity  as  on  a  chess-board,  and  works 
out  His  game  without  regard  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  pieces." 
Let  us  see  if  this  estimate  is  correct.  The  God  of  Islam  is  the 
All-mighty,  the  All-knowing,  the  All-just,  the  Lord  of  the 
worlds,  the  Author  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  the  Creator 
of  life  and  death,  in  whose  hand  is  dominion  and  irresistible 
power  ;  the  great,  all-powerful  Lord  of  the  glorious  Throne. 
God  is  the  Mighty,  the  Strong,  the  Most  High,  the  Producer, 
the  Maker,  the  Fashioner,  the  Wise,  the  Just,  the  True,  the 
Swift  in  reckoning,  who  knoweth  every  ant's  weight  of  good 
and  of  ill  that  each  man  hath  done,  and  who  suffereth  not  the 
reward  of  the  faithful  to  perish.  But  the  Almighty,  the  All- 
wise,  is  also  the  King,  the  Holy,  the  Peaceful,  the  Faithful, 
the  Guardian  over  His  servants,  the  Shelterer  of  the  orphan, 
the  Guide  of  the  erring,  the  Deliverer  from  every  affliction, 
the  Friend  of  the  bereaved,  the  Consoler  of  the  afflicted  ; 
in  His  hand  is  good,  and  He  is  the  generous  Lord,  the  Gracious, 
the  Hearer,  the  Near-at-Hand,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful, 
the  Very-forgiving,  whose  love  for  man  is  more  tender  than 
that  of  the  mother-bird  for  her  young. 

The  mercy  of  the  Almighty  is  one  of  the  grandest  themes  of 
the  Koran.  The  very  name  [Ar-Rahman]  with  which  each 
chapter  opens,  and  with  which  He  is  invoked,  expresses  a  deep, 
aU-penetrating  conviction  of  that  love,  that  divine  mercy 
which  enfolds  creation. ^ 

The  moral  debasement  of  the  followers  of  the  two  previous 
Dispensations  wrings  the  Teacher's  heart,  and  then  burst  forth 

1  Sura  iii.  124,  xxv.  50,  xxviii  74,  xlii.  3,  etc.  etc. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAm  151 

denunciations  on  the  Christians  and  the  Jews  for  the  super- 
stitious rites  they  practised  in  defiance  of  the  warnings  of  their 
prophets.  The  fire  of  rehgious  zeal,  that  had  burned  in  the 
bosoms  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  was  rekindled  in  the  breast 
of  another  and  far  greater  man.  He  denounces  ;  but  above 
the  wail,  the  cry  of  agony  at  the  degradation  of  humanity,  is 
heard  the  voice  of  hope. 

The  Koran  severely  censures  the  Jews  for  their  "  worship 
of  false  gods  and  idols,"  the  terapkim  before  referred  to,  and 
for  their  exaggerated  reverence  for  the  memory  of  Ezra ; 
the  Christians,  for  their  adoration  of  Jesus  and  his  mother. 
"  Hast  thou  not  seen  those  to  whom  a  portion  of  the  Scriptures 
have  been  given  ?  They  believe  in  false  gods  and  idols.  They 
say  to  the  unbelievers  they  are  better  directed  in  the  right 
way  than  those  that  believe  [the  Moslems]."  ^  "  The  Jews 
say,  Ezra  is  the  son  of  God  ;  the  Christians  say,  al-Masih 
(Jesus)  is  the  son  of  God.  How  infatuated  they  are  !  They 
take  their  priests  and  their  monks  for  their  lords  besides 
God.  .  .  .  They  seek  to  extinguish  the  light  of  God  with 
their  mouths."  -  .  .  .  "  The  Jews  and  the  Christians  say. 
We  are  the  children  of  God,  and  His  beloved."  ^  "  Many 
of  those  unto  whom  the  Scriptures  have  been  given  ^  desire 
to  render  you  again  unbelievers,  after  ye  have  believed.  .  .  . 
Be  constant  in  prayer,  and  give  alms  ;  and  what  good  ye  have 
sent  before  you  for  your  souls,  ye  shall  find  it  with  God."  .  .  . 
"  They  say,  Verily,  none  shall  enter  paradise  except  those  who 
are  Jews  or  Christians.  .  .  .  Say,  Produce  your  proof  if  ye 
speak  the  truth.  Nay,  but  he  who  directeth  towards  God, 
and  doth  that  which  is  right,  he  shall  have  his  reward  with 
his  Lord."  ^ 

"  O  ye  who  have  received  the  Scriptures,  exceed  not  the  just 
bounds  in  your  religion,  neither  say  of  God  otherwise  than  the 
truth.  Verily,  al-Masih,  the  son  of  Mary,  is  the  apostle  of 
God  and  His  word.  Believe  therefore  in  God  and  His  apostles, 
and  say  not.  There  are  three  Gods  ;  forbear  this  .  .  .  al-Masili 
doth  not  proudly  disdain  to  be  a  servant  unto  God."  ^     "It 

1  Sura  iv.  45.  »  Sura  ix.  30-32.  '  Sura  v.  18. 

*  The  Jews,  the  Christians,  and  the  Zoroastrians.  ^  Sura  v.  105,  106. 

•Sura  iv.  171, 


152  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

beseemeth  not  a  man,  that  God  should  give  him  the  Scriptures, 
and  the  wisdom,  and  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  that  then  he 
should  say  to  his  followers,  '  Be  ye  worshippers  of  me,  as  well 
as  of  God,'  but  rather,  '  Be  ye  perfect  in  things  pertaining 
to  God,  since  ye  know  the  Scriptures,  and  have  studied 
deep.'  " 

The  following  passage  shows  the  feehng  with  which  such 
religious  conceptions  were  regarded  :  "  They  say  the  God  of 
mercy  hath  gotten  to  himself  a  son.^  Now  have  ye  uttered  a 
grievous  thing  ;  and  it  wanted  but  Uttle  that  the  heaven  should 
be  torn  open,  and  that  the  earth  cleave  asunder,  and  the 
mountains  fall  down,  for  that  they  attribute  children  unto  the 
Merciful ;  whereas  it  is  not  meet  for  God  to  have  children. 
Verily  there  is  none  in  heaven  or  on  earth  but  shall  approach 
the  Merciful  as  His  servant.     He  encompasseth  them."  ^  .  .  . 

But  the  inspired  Preacher  whose  mission  it  is  to  proclaim 
the  Truth  does  not  confound  the  good  with  the  bad  :  "  Yet 
they  are  not  all  alike  ;  there  are  of  those  who  have  received 
the  Scriptures,  upright  people  ;  they  meditate  on  the  signs 
of  God  in  the  night  season,  and  worship  ;  they  believe  in  God 
and  the  last  day  ;  and  command  that  which  is  just  ;  and 
forbid  that  which  is  unjust,  and  zealously  strive  to  excel  in 
good  works  ;    these  are  of  the  righteous."  ^ 

The  mutual  and  burning  hatred  of  Jew  and  Christian,  the 
savage  wars  of  Nestorian  and  Monophysite,  the  meaningless 
wrangle  of  the  sects,  the  heartless  and  heart-rending  logomachy 
of  the  Byzantine  clergy,  ever  and  anon  bring  down  denuncia- 
tions like  the  following  : 

"  To  Jesus  and  other  apostles  we  gave  manifest  signs  ;  and 
if  God  had  pleased,  their  followers  would  not  have  fallen  into 
these  disputes.  But  God  doeth  what  He  will !  "  "  Mankind 
was  but  one  people,  and  God  sent  them  prophets  of  warning 
and  glad  tidings,  and  the  Book  of  Truth  to  settle  all  disputes. 
Yet  none  disputed  like  those  to  whom  the  Book  had  been  sent  ; 
for  they  were  filled  with  jealousy  of  each  other."  "  O  people 
of  the  Book,  why  wrangle  about  Abraham  ?  Why  contend 
about  that  whereof  ye  know  nothing  ?  " 

The  primary  aim  of  the  new  Dispensation  was  to  infuse  or 

*  Sura  iii.  78.  *  Sura  xix.  gi-94.  '  Sura  iii.  112,  113. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  153 

revive  in  the  heart  of  humanity  a  Uving  perception  of  truth 
in  the  common  relations  of  hfe.  "  The  moral  ideal  of  the  new 
gospel,"  to  use  the  phraseology  of  an  eminent  writer,  "  was 
set  in  the  common  sense  of  duty  and  the  familiar  instances  of 
love." 

"  Verily,  those  people  ^  have  now  passed  away  ;  they  have 
the  reward  of  their  deeds  ;  and  ye  shall  have  the  meed  of 
yours  ;  of  their  doings  ye  shall  not  be  questioned."  ^  "  Every 
soul  shall  bear  the  good  and  the  evil  for  which  it  has  laboured  ; 
and  God  will  burden  none  beyond  its  power."  "  Blessed  is 
he  who  giveth  away  his  substance  that  he  may  become  pure, 
and  who  offereth  not  favours  to  any  one  for  the  sake  of  recom- 
pense .  .  .  but  only  as  seeking  the  approval  of  his  Lord  the 
Most  High."  3 

"  They  are  the  blest  who,  though  longing  for  it  themselves, 
bestowed  their  food  on  the  poor  and  the  orphan  and  the 
captive  [saying],  '  We  feed  you  for  the  sake  of  God  :  we  seek 
from  you  neither  recompense  nor  thanks.'  "  * 

"  Worship  God  alone  ;  be  kind  to  kindred  and  servants, 
orphans  and  the  poor  ;  speak  righteously  to  men,  pray,  and 
pay  alms."  "  Defer  humbly  to  your  parents  ;  with  humihty 
and  tenderness  say,  O  Lord,  be  merciful  to  them,  even  as  they 
brought  me  up  when  I  was  helpless."  "  Abandon  the  old 
barbarities,  blood-vengeance,  and  child-murder,  and  be  united 
as  one  flesh."  "  Do  thy  alms  openly  or  in  secret,  for  both 
are  well."  Give  of  that  which  hath  been  given  you  before 
the  day  cometh  when  there  shall  be  no  trafficking,  nor  friend- 
ship, nor  intercession."  "  Wouldst  thou  be  taught  the  steep 
[path]  ?  It  is  to  ransom  the  captive,  to  feed  the  hungry,  the 
kindred,  the  orphan,  and  him  whose  mouth  is  in  the  dust." 
"Be  of  those  who  enjoin  steadfastness  and  compassion  on 
others."  ^  "  Woe  to  them  that  make  show  of  piety,  and 
refuse  help  to  the  needy."  "  Make  not  your  alms  void  by 
reproaches  or  injury."  "  Forgiveness  and  kind  speech  are 
better  than  favours  with  annoyance."  "  Abandon  usury." 
"  He  who  spendeth  his  substance  to  be  seen  of  men,  is  like  a 

^  I.e.  Abraham,  Ishmael,  and  Isaac,  and  the  tribes. 
-  Sura  ii.  128.  '  Sura  xcii.  i8,  20. 

*  Sura  Ixxvi.  8,  9.  *  Sura  xc.  12-17. 


154  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

rock  with  thin  soil  over  it,  whereon  the  rain  falleth  and  leaveth 
it  hard.  But  they  who  expend  their  substance  to  please  God 
and  establish  their  souls,  are  like  a  garden  on  a  hill,  on  which 
the  rain  falleth  and  it  yieldeth  its  fruits  twofold  ;  and  even 
if  the  rain  doth  not  fall,  yet  is  there  a  dew." 

"  Judge  between  men  with  truth,  and  follow  not  thy  passions, 
lest  they  cause  thee  to  err  from  the  way  of  God."  ^  "  Covet 
not  another's  gifts  from  God."  "  There  is  no  piety  in  turning 
the  face  east  or  west,  but  in  believing  in  God  only  and  doing 
good."  "  Make  the  best  of  all  things  ;  enjoin  justice  and  avoid 
the  foolish  ;  and  if  Satan  stir  thee  to  evil,  take  refuge  in  God." 
"  Touch  not  the  goods  of  the  orphan. ^  Perform  your  covenant, 
and  walk  not  proudly  on  the  earth."  "  The  birth  of  a 
daughter  brings  dark  shadows  on  a  man's  face."  ...  "  Kill 
not  your  children  for  fear  of  want  :  for  them  and  for  you  will 
We  provide.  Verily  the  kilHng  them  is  a  great  wickedness."  ^ 
"  God  hath  given  you  wives  that  ye  may  put  love  and  tender- 
ness between  you." 

"  Reverence  the  wombs  that  bear  you."  "  Commit  not 
adultery  ;  for  it  is  a  foul  thing  and  an  evil  way."  *  "  Let  the 
believer  restrain  his  eyes  from  lust  ;  let  women  make  no 
display  of  ornaments,  save  to  their  own  kindred." 

"  Know  ye  that  this  world's  life  is  a  cheat,  the  multiplying 
of  riches  and  children  is  hke  the  plants  that  spring  up  after 
rain,  rejoicing  the  husbandman,  then  turn  yellow  and  wither 
away.  In  the  next  life  is  severe  chastisement,  or  else  pardon 
from  God  and  His  peace."  "  Abandon  the  semblance  of 
wickedness  and  wickedness  itself.  They,  verily,  whose  only 
acquirement  is  iniquity,  shall  be  rewarded  for  what  they 
shall  have  gained."  ^  "  Those  who  abstain  from  vanities  and 
the  indulgence  of  their  passions,  give  alms,  offer  prayers,  and 
tend  well  their  trusts  and  their  covenants,  these  shall  be  the 
heirs  of  eternal  happiness."  ^  "  Show  kindness  to  your  parents, 
whether  one  or  both  of  them  attain  to  old  age  with  thee  :  and 
say  not  to  them  '  Fie  !  '  neither  reproach  them  ;  but  speak  to 
them   both   with   respectful   speech    and   tender   affection."  ^ 

1  Sura  xxxviii.  25.  ^  Sura  xvii.  37.  '  Sura  xvii.  33. 

■*  Sura  xvii.  32.  *  Sura  vi.  121.  *  Sura  xxiii.  8. 

^  Sura  xvii.  23. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  155 

"  And  to  him  who  is  of  kin  render  his  due,  and  also  to  the  poor 
and  to  the  wayfarer  ;    yet  waste  not  wastefully."  ^ 

"  And  let  not  thy  hand  be  tied  up  to  thy  neck  ;  nor  yet 
open  it  with  all  openness,  lest  thou  sit  thee  down  in  rebuke  in 
beggary."  -  "  Enjoin  my  servants  to  speak  in  kindly  sort."  ^ 
"  Turn  aside  evil  with  that  which  is  better."  *  "  Just  balances 
will  We  set  up  for  the  day  of  the  Resurrection,  neither  shall  any 
soul  be  wronged  in  aught  ;  though  were  a  work  but  the  weight 
of  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  We  would  bring  it  forth  to  he  weighed  : 
and  Our  reckoning  will  suftice."  ^  "  Seek  pardon  of  your  Lord 
and  be  turned  unto  Him  :  verily,  my  Lord  is  merciful,  loving."  ^ 
"  And  your  Lord  saith,  '  Call  upon  me,  I  will  hearken  unto 
you."  "^  "  Say  :  O  my  servants  who  have  transgressed  to 
your  own  injury,  despair  not  of  God's  mercy,  for  all  sins  doth 
God  forgive.  Gracious,  merciful  is  He  !  "  ^  "  The  good 
word  riseth  up  to  Him,  and  the  righteous  deed  will  He 
exalt."  ^ 

"  Truly  my  Lord  hath  forbidden  filthy  actions,  whether 
open  or  secret,  and  iniquity,  and  unjust  violence."  ^^ 

"  Call  upon  your  Lord  with  lowliness  and  in  secret,  for  He 
loveth  not  transgressors.  And  commit  not  disorders  on  the 
well-ordered  earth  after  it  hath  been  well  ordered  ;  and  call 
on  Him  with  fear  and  longing  desire  :  Verily  the  mercy  of  God 
is  nigh  unto  the  righteous."  ^^  "  Moreover,  We  have  enjoined 
on  man  to  show  kindness  to  his  parents.  With  pain  his 
mother  beareth  him  ;  with  pain  she  bringeth  him  forth  ;  and 
he  saith,  '  O  my  Lord  !  stir  me  up  to  be  grateful  for  Thy 
favours  wherewith  Thou  hast  favoured  me  and  my  parents, 
and  to  good  works  which  shall  please  Thee  ;  and  prosper  me 
in  my  offspring  :  for  to  Thee  am  I  turned,  and  am  resigned  to 
Thy  will.'  "  1'^  "  For  them  is  a  dwelling  of  peace  with  their 
Lord  ;  and  in  recompense  for  their  works  shall  He  be  their 
protector."  ^^  "  Lost  are  they  who,  in  their  ignorance,  have 
foolishly  slain  their  children,  and  have  forbidden  that  which 

1  Sura  xvii.  26.  ^  Sura  xvii.  29.  '  Sura  xvii.  53. 

*  Sura  xxiii.  96.  *  Sura  xxi.  47.  *  Sura  xi.  90. 

'  Sura  xl.  60.  8  Sura  xxxix.  53.  *  Sura  xxxv.  10. 

"  Sura  vii.  33.  11  Sura  vii.  55-58.  ^*  Sura  xlvi.  15. 
"  Sura  vi.  28. 


156  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

God  hath  given  them  for  food,  devising  an  untruth  against 
God  !  Now  have  they  erred  ;  and  they  were  not  rightly 
guided."  ^ 

"  The  likeness  of  those  who  expend  their  wealth  for  the 
cause  of  God,  is  that  of  a  grain  of  corn  which  produceth  seven 
ears,  and  in  each  ear  a  hundred  grains  ;  they  who  expend  their 
wealth  for  the  cause  of  God,  and  never  follow  what  they  have 
laid  out  with  reproaches  or  harm,  shall  have  their  reward  with 
their  Lord  ;  no  fear  shall  come  upon  them,  neither  shall  they 
be  put  to  grief.  A  kind  speech  and  forgiveness  is  better  than 
alms  followed  by  injury."  ^ 

"  God  will  not  burden  any  soul  beyond  its  power.  It  shall 
enjoy  the  good  which  it  hath  acquired,  and  shall  bear  the  evil 
for  the  acquirement  of  which  it  laboured."  ...  "  O  Lord  ! 
punish  us  not  if  we  forget,  or  fall  into  sin,  O  our  Lord  !  and 
lay  not  on  us  a  load  like  that  which  Thou  hast  laid  on  those  who 
have  been  before  us,  O  our  Lord  !  And  lay  not  on  us  that  for 
which  we  have  not  strength  :  but  blot  out  our  sins  and  forgive 
us  and  have  pity  on  us."  ^  "  The  patient  and  the  truthful, 
the  lowly  and  the  charitable,  they  who  seek  pardon  at  each 
daybreak  ":*...  "  Who  give  alms,  alike  in  prosperity  and 
in  success,  and  who  master  their  anger,  and  forgive  others  1 
God  loveth  the  doers  of  good  "  ;  ^  [theirs  a  goodly  home  with 
their  Lord.]  "  O  our  Lord  !  forgive  us  then  our  sin,  and  hide 
away  from  us  our  evil  deeds,  and  cause  us  to  die  with  the 
righteous  "  :  ^  .  .  .  "  And  their  Lord  answereth  them,  '  I 
will  not  suffer  the  work  of  him  among  you  that  worketh, 
whether  of  male  or  female,  to  be  lost,  the  one  of  you  is  the 
issue  of  the  other.'  "  '  "  And  fear  ye  God,  in  whose  name  ye 
ask  favours  of  each  other — and  respect  women."  ® 

"  And  marry  not  women  whom  your  fathers  have  married  : 
for  this  is  a  shame,  and  hateful,  and  an  evil  way."  ^ 

"  Covet  not  the  gifts  by  which  God  hath  raised  some  of  you 
above  others."  ^° 

"  Be  good  to  parents,  and  to  kindred,  and  to  orphans,  and 

^  Sura  vi.  141.  *  Sura  ii.  261-263. 

3  Sura  ii.  286.  *  Sura  iii.  16.  ^  Sura  iii.  128. 

6  Sura  iii.  192.  '  Sura  iii.  194.  •  Sura  iv.  i. 

•  Sura  iv.  22.  ^^  Sura  iv.  32. 


I.  THE  IDEAL  OF  ISLAM  157 

to  the  poor,  and  to  a  neighbour,  whether  kinsman  or  new- 
comer, and  to  a  fellow-traveller,  and  to  the  wayfarer,  and  to 
the  slaves  whom  your  right  hands  hold  ;  verily,  God  loveth 
not  the  proud,  the  vain  boaster."  ^  "He  who  shall  mediate 
between  men  for  a  good  purpose  shall  be  the  gainer  by  it. 
But  he  who  shall  mediate  with  an  evil  mediation  shall  reap 
the  fruit  of  it.  And  God  keepeth  watch  over  everything."  ^ 
"  O  ye  Moslems  !  stand  fast  to  justice,  when  ye  bear  witness 
before  God,  though  it  be  against  yourselves,  or  your  parents 
or  your  kindred,  whether  the  party  be  rich  or  poor.  God 
is  nearer  than  you  to  both.  Therefore  follow  not  passion, 
lest  ye  swerve  from  truth."  ^ 

Do  the  preachings  of  this  desert-born  Prophet,  addressing  a 
larger  world  and  a  more  advanced  humanity,  in  the  nobility  of 
their  love,  in  their  strivings  and  yearnings  for  the  true,  the 
pure,  and  the  holy,  fall  short  of  the  warnings  of  Isaiah  or 
"  the  tender  appeals  of  Jesus  ?  " 

The  poor  and  the  orphan,  the  humble  dweller  of  the  earth 
"  with  his  mouth  in  the  dust,"  the  unfortunate  being  bereft 
in  early  life  of  parental  care,  are  ever  the  objects  of  his  tenderest 
solicitude.  Ever  and  again  he  announces  that  the  path  which 
leads  to  God  is  the  helping  of  the  orphan,  the  reHeving  of  the 
poor,  and  the  ransoming  of  the  captive.  His  pity  and  love 
were  not  confined  to  his  fellow-beings,  the  brute  creation 
shared  with  them  his  sympathy  and  tenderness. 

"  A  man  once  came  to  him  with  a  bundle,  and  said  :  '  O 
Prophet,  I  passed  through  a  wood  and  heard  the  voice  of  the 
young  of  birds,  and  I  took  them  and  put  them  in  my  carpet, 
and  their  mother  came  fluttering  round  my  head.'  And  the 
Prophet  said  :  '  Put  them  down  '  ;  and  when  he  had  put  them 
down  the  mother  joined  the  young.  And  the  Prophet  said  : 
'  Do  you  wonder  at  the  affection  of  the  mother  towards  her 
young  ?  I  swear  by  Him  who  has  sent  me.  Verily,  God  is  more 
loving  to  His  servants  than  the  mother  to  these  young  birds. 
Return  them  to  the  place  from  which  ye  took  them,  and  let 
their  mother  be  with  them.'  "  "  Fear  God  with  regard  to 
animals,"  said  Mohammed  ;  "  ride  them  when  they  are  fit  to 
be  ridden,  and  get  off  when  they  are  tired.     Verily,  there  are 

1  Sura  iv.  36.  »  Sura  iv.  85.  »  Sura  iv.  135. 


158  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

rewards  for  our  doing  good  to  dumb  animals,  and  giving  them 
water  to  drink." 

In  the  Koran,  animal  life  stands  on  the  same  footing  as 
human  life  in  the  sight  of  the  Creator.     "  There  is  no  beast  on 
earth,"  says  the  Koran,  "  nor  bird  which  flieth  with  its  wings, 
but  the  same  is  a  people  like  unto  you — unto  the  Lord  shall 
they  return,"     It  took  centuries  for  Christendom  to  awaken  to 
a  sense  of  duty  towards  the  animal  creation.     Long  before  the  i 
Christian  nations  ever  dreamt  of  extending  towards  animals 
tenderness  and  humanity,  Mohammed  proclaimed  in  impressive 
words  the  duty  of  mankind  towards  their  dumb  and  humble  , 
servitors.     These  precepts  of  tenderness  so  lovingly  embalmed  : 
in  the  creed  are  faithfully  rendered  into  a  common  duty  of 
everyday  life  in  the  world  of  Islam.  ! 


J 


CHAPTER   II 
THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


■<,'    o  ■ 


■^^'-  .-^';5-     o       ^   >  ^  -.o,      S       fi     '    C 


*  ..■^U,*!    ^ — XU)    *j.    ^^-tf_,     *— .ijj    »  ^_;»s\llj    i^l     aJDI  *  ,ck  ^..vl 


I- 


FOR  the  conservation  of  a  true  religious  spirit,  Mohammed 
attached   to  his  precepts  certain   practical   duties,   of 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  :    (i)  prayer,  (2) 
fasting,  (3)  alms-giving,  and  (4)  pilgrimage. 

Man's   consciousness   of   a   supreme,    all-pervading    Power ; 
his  helplessness  in  the  eternal  conflict  of  nature  ;   his  sense  of 


i6o  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

benefaction, — all  lead  him  to  pour  out  the  overflowing  senti- 
ments of  his  heart  in  words  of  gratitude  and  love,  or  repentance 
and  solicitation,  to  One  who  is  every-wakeful  and  merciful. 
Prayers  are  only  the  utterance  of  the  sentiments  which  fill 
the  human  heart.  All  these  emotions,  however,  are  the  result 
of  a  superior  development.  The  savage,  if  supplications  do 
not  answer  his  purpose,  resorts  to  the  castigation  of  his  fetish. 
But  every  religious  system  possessing  any  organic  element 
has  recognised,  in  some  shape,  the  efficacy  of  prayer.  In 
most,  however,  the  theurgic  character  predominates  over  the 
moral ;    in  some,  the  moral  idea  is  entirely  wanting. 

The  early  Hindu  worship  consisted  of  two  sets  of  acts — 
oblations  and  sacrifice  accompanied  with  invocations.  In 
the  infancy  of  religious  thought  the  gods  are  supposed  to 
possess  the  same  appetites  and  passions  as  human  beings  ; 
and  thus  whilst  man  needs  material  benefits,  the  gods  require 
offerings  and  propitiation.  This  idea  often  finds  expression 
in  the  old  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda.  With  the  development  of 
religious  conceptions,  it  is  probable  that,  among  at  least  the 
more  advanced  or  thoughtful  minds,  the  significance  attached 
to  oblations  and  sacrifice  underwent  considerable  modification. 
But  as  the  hold  of  the  priestly  caste,  which  claimed  the  posses- 
sion of  a  "  secret  virtue  "  transmissible  only  through  the  blood, 
strengthened  on  the  minds  of  the  masses,  Brahmanism  crystal- 
lised into  a  literally  sacrificial  cult.  The  sacrifice  could  be 
performed  only  by  the  priest  according  to  rigid  and  unalterable 
formula;  ;  whilst  he  recited  the  majitras  and  went  through  the 
rites  in  a  mechanical  spirit,  without  religious  feeling  or 
enthusiasm,  the  worshipper  stood  by,  a  passive  spectator  of 
the  worship  which  was  performed  on  his  behalf.  The  smallest 
mistake  undid  the  efficacy  of  the  observances.  The  devotional 
spirit,  however,  could  not  have  been  entirely  wanting,  or  the 
Bhagavad  Git  a  could  not  have  been  composed.  But  for  the 
people  as  a  whole,  their  worship  had  become  a  vast  system  of 
sacrifice,  the  value  of  which  depended  not  so  much  upon  the 
moral  conduct  of  the  individual  worshipper  as  upon  the 
qualification  of  the  officiating  priest.  The  former  had  only 
to  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  the  rite  and  be  in  a  state  of  legal 
purity  at  the  time. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i6i 

The  Mago-Zoroastrian  and  the  Sabaean  lived  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  prayer.  The  Zoroastrian  prayed  when  he  sneezed, 
when  he  cut  his  nails  or  hair,  while  preparing  meals,  day  and 
night,  at  the  lighting  of  lamps,  etc.  Ormuzd  was  first  invoked, 
and  then  not  only  heaven,  earth,  the  elements  and  stars,  but 
trees,  especially  the  moon-plant,^  and  beasts.  The  formuL-e 
were  often  to  be  repeated  as  many  as  twelve  hundred  times. ^ 
The  moral  idea,  however  pure  with  the  few,  would  be  perfectly 
eliminated  from  the  minds  of  the  common  people.  But  even 
the  sort  of  spiritual  life  enjoyed  by  exceptional  minds  was 
monopolised  by  the  ministers  of  religion.  The  barriers  of 
special  holiness  which  divided  the  priesthood  from  the  laity, 
shut  out  the  latter  from  all  spiritual  enjoyments  of  a  nobler 
type.  The  Magians,  like  the  Ophici,  had  two  forms  of  worship, 
or  rather,  two  modes  of  understanding  the  objects  of  worship  : 
one  esoteric,  especially  reserved  for  the  priestly  classes  ;  the 
other  exoteric,  in  which  alone  the  vulgar  could  participate.^ 

The  Mosaic  law  contained  no  ordinances  respecting  prayers  ; 
only  on  the  payment  of  tithes  to  the  priests,  and  the  domestic 
solemnity  of  the  presentation  of  the  firstlings,  was  there  a 
prescribed  formula  of  a  prayer  and  acknowledgment,  when 
the  father  of  the  house,  on  the  strength  of  his  having  obediently 
performed  the  behests  of  the  law,  suppHcated  blessings  from 
Jehovah  on  Israel,  "  even  as  He  had  sworn  unto  their  fathers."  * 
But,  with  the  rise  of  a  more  spiritual  idea  of  the  Deity  among 
the  people  and  the  teachers,  and  the  decUne  of  an  uncompro- 
mising anthropomorphism,  the  real  nature  of  prayer,  as  the 
medium  of  intercommunication  between  God  and  man,  began 
to  be  understood.  Tradition  and  custom,  in  default  of  any 
express  regulation  by  the  law,  made  the  Jews  at  last,  as  Dolhnger 
says,  a  people  of  prayer.^  Three  hours  daily  were  consecrated 
to  devotional  exercises,  viz.  nine,  twelve,  and  three  o'clock. 
The  necessity,  however,  for  the  service  of  priests,  combined 

1  Called  Soma  by  the  Sanscritic,  and  Homa  or  Haoina  by  the  Zend  races. 

2  Dollinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  vol.  i.  p.  398.  The  Zend  Avesta  itself 
is  a  grand  repertory  of  prayers,  hymns,  invocations,  etc.,  to  a  multitude  of 
deities,  among  whom  Ormuzd  ranks  first.  In  fact,  it  is  a  book  of  liturgies. 
Comp.  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions,  pp.  187,  202, 

'  Reland,  Dissertationes  Miscellanys,  part  i.  p.  191  ;    Shahristani. 
^  Deut.  xxvi.  12-15.  ^  Dollinger,  vol.  ii.  p.  372. 

S.I.  L 


i62  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

with  the  absence  of  any  positive  precedent  coming  down 
from  the  Lawgiver  himself,  tended  to  make  prayer,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  merely  mechanical.  Phylacteries  were  in 
use  in  the  time  of  Jesus,  and  the  Koran  reproaches  the  Jews 
in  bitter  terms  for  "  selling  the  signs  of  God."  ^ 

The  teachings  of  Jesus,  representing  a  later  development  of 
the  religious  faculty  in  man,  recognised  the  true  character  of 
prayer.  He  consecrated  the  practice  by  his  own  example. ^ 
The  early  disciples,  in  the  spirit  of  their  Master,  laid  great 
stress  on  the  habit  of  devotion  and  thanksgiving  to  God.^ 
But  the  want  of  some  definite  rule  for  the  guidance  of  the 
masses,  in  process  of  time,  left  them  completely  adrift  in  all 
that  regarded  the  practice  of  devotion,  and  under  subjection 
to  the  priests,  who  monopolised  the  office  of  regulating  the 
number,  length,  and  the  terminology  of  prayers.  Hence 
missals,  liturgies,  coimcils,  and  convocations  to  settle  articles 
of  faith  and  matters  of  conscience  ;  hence  also,  the  mechanical 
worship  of  droning  monks,  and  the  hebdomadal  flocking  into 
churches  and  chapels  on  one  day  in  the  week  to  make  up  for 
the  deficiency  of  spiritual  food  during  the  other  six  ;  hence 
also  the  "  presbyter,"  who,  merely  a  "  servant  "  at  first,* 
came  to  regard  himself  as  "  the  Lord  of  the  spiritual  heritage  " 
bequeathed  by  Jesus. 

All  these  evils  had  culminated  to  a  point  in  the  seventh 
century,  when  the  Prophet  of  Arabia  began  to  preach  a  re- 
formed religion.  In  instituting  prayers,  Mohammed  recognised 
the  yearning  of  the  human  soul  to  pour  out  its  love  and  gratitude 
to  God,  and  by  making  the  practice  of  devotion  periodic,  he 
impressed  that  disciplinary  character  on  the  observance  of 
prayer  which  keeps  the  thoughts  from  wandering  into  the 
regions  of  the  material.^  The  formulae,  consecrated  by  his 
example  and  practice,  whilst  sparing  the  Islamic  world  the 
evils  of  contests  regarding  liturgies,  leave  to  the  individual 
worshipper  the  amplest  scope  for  the  most  heartfelt  outpouring 
of  devotion  and  humility  before  the  Almighty  Presence. 

^  Sura  ii.  42.  -  Luke  ix.  1-4. 

^  E.g.  Eph.  vi.  18  ;    Col.  i.  12  et  seq. 

*  Mosheim,  vol.  i.  gg  et  seq. 

5  Comp.  Oelsner,  Des  Effets  de  la  Religion  de  Mohammed,  p.  6. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  163 

The  value  of  prayer  as  the  means  of  moral  elevation  and  the 
purification  of  the  heart,  has  been  clearly  set  forth  in  the 
Koran  : 

"  Rehearse  that  which  hath  been  revealed  unto  thee  of  the 
Book,  and  be  constant  at  prayer,  for  prayer  preserveth  from 
crimes  and  from  that  which  is  blameable  ;  and  the  remembering 
of  God  is  surely  a  most  sacred  duty."  ^ 

The  forms  of  the  supplicatory  hymns,  consecrated  by  the 
example  of  the  Prophet,  evince  the  beauty  of  the  moral  element 
in  the  teachings  of  Islam  : 

"  O  Lord  !  I  supplicate  Thee  for  firmness  in  faith  and  direction 
towards  rectitude,  and  to  assist  me  in  being  grateful  to  Thee, 
and  in  adoring  Thee  in  every  good  way  :  and  I  suppHcate 
Thee  for  an  innocent  heart,  which  shall  not  incline  to  wicked- 
ness ;  and  I  supplicate  Thee  for  a  true  tongue,  and  for  that 
virtue  which  Thou  knowest  ;  and  I  pray  Thee  to  defend  me 
from  that  vice  which  Thou  knowest,  and  for  forgiveness  of 
those  faults  which  Thou  knowest.  O  my  Defender  !  assist 
me  in  remembering  Thee  and  being  grateful  to  Thee,  and  in 
worshipping  Thee  with  the  excess  of  my  strength.  O  Lord  !  I 
have  injured  my  own  soul,  and  no  one  can  pardon  the  faults  of 
Thy  servants  but  Thou  ;  forgive  me  out  of  Thy  loving-kindness, 
and  have  mercy  on  me  ;  for  verily  Thou  art  the  forgiver  of 
offences  and  the  bestower  of  blessings  on  Thy  servants."  ^ 

Another  traditional  prayer,  called  the  prayer  of  David,  runs 
thus  ;  "  O  Lord,  grant  to  me  the  love  of  Thee  ;  grant  that  I 
may  love  those  that  love  Thee  ;  grant  that  I  may  do  the  deeds 
that  may  win  Thy  love  ;  make  Thy  love  to  be  dearer  to  me 
than  self,  family  or  than  wealth."  ^ 

The  two  following  prayers  of  Ali  (the  Caliph)  evince  the 
highest  devotional  spirit. 

"  Thanks  be  to  my  Lord  ;  He  the  Adorable,  and  only  to  be 
adored.  My  Lord,  the  Eternal,  the  Ever-existing,  the  Cherisher, 
the  True  Sovereign  whose  mercy  and  might  overshadow  the 
universe  ;  the  Regulator  of  the  world,  and  Light  of  the  creation. 
His  is  our  worship  ;  to  Him  belongs  all  worship  ;  He  existed 
before  all  things,  and  will  exist  after  all  that  is  living  has 

1  Koran  xxix.  45.  »  Mishkdt,  bk.  iv.  chap.  18,  parts  2,  3. 

^  Tasfsir-Jaldh,  p.  288. 


i64  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

ceased.  Thou  art  the  adored,  my  Lord  ;  Thou  art  the  Master, 
the  Loving  and  Forgiving  ;  Thou  bestowest  power  and  might 
on  whom  Thou  pleasest  ;  him  whom  Thou  hast  exalted  none 
can  lower  ;  and  him  whom  Thou  hast  lowered  none  can  exalt. 
Thou,  my  Lord,  art  the  Eternal,  the  Creator  of  all.  All-wise 
Sovereign  Mighty  ;  Thy  knowledge  knows  everything  ;  Thy 
beneficence  is  all-pervading  ;  Thy  forgiveness  and  mercy  are 
all-embracing.  O  my  Lord,  Thou  art  the  Helper  of  the 
afflicted,  the  Reliever  of  all  distress,  the  Consoler  of  the  broken- 
hearted ;  Thou  art  present  everywhere  to  help  Thy  servants. 
Thou  knowest  all  secrets,  all  thoughts,  art  present  in  every 
assembly,  Fulfiller  of  all  our  needs,  Bestower  of  all  blessings. 
Thou  art  the  Friend  of  the  poor  and  bereaved  ;  my  Lord, 
Thou  art  my  Fortress  ;  a  Castle  for  all  who  seek  Thy  help. 
Thou  art  the  Refuge  of  the  weak  ;  the  Helper  of  the  pure  and 
true.  O  my  Lord,  Thou  art  my  Supporter,  my  Helper,  the 
Helper  of  all  who  seek  Thy  help.  ...  O  my  Lord,  Thou  art 
the  Creator,  I  am  only  created  ;  Thou  art  my  Sovereign,  I 
am  only  Thy  servant  ;  Thou  art  the  Helper,  I  am  the  beseecher  ; 
Thou,  my  Lord  art  my  Refuge  ;  Thou  art  the  Forgiver,  I  am 
the  sinner  ;  Thou,  my  Lord,  art  the  Merciful,  All-knowing, 
All-loving  ;  I  am  groping  in  the  dark  ;  I  seek  Thy  knowledge 
and  love.  Bestow,  my  Lord,  all  Thy  knowledge  and  love  and 
mercy  ;  forgive  my  sins,  O  my  Lord,  and  let  me  approach 
Thee,  my  Lord." 

"  O  my  Lord,  Thou  the  Ever-praised,  the  Eternal,  Thou 
art  the  Ever-present,  Ever-exiiting,  the  Ever-near,  the  All- 
knowing.  Thou  livest  in  every  heart,  in  every  soul,  all-pervad- 
ing ;  Thy  knowledge  is  ingrained  in  every  mind."  "  He 
bears  no  similitude,  has  no  equal.  One,  the  Eternal ;  thanks 
be  to  the  Lord  whose  mercy  extends  to  every  sinner,  who 
provides  for  even  those  who  deny  Him.  To  Him  belong  the 
beginning  and  the  end,  all  knowledge  and  the  most  hidden 
secret  of  the  heart.  He  never  slumbers,  the  Ever-just,  the 
Ever-wakeful.  He  forgiveth  in  His  mercy  our  greatest  sins, — 
loveth  all  creation.  I  testify  to  the  goodness  of  my  Lord,  to 
the  truth  of  His  Messenger's  message,  blessings  on  him  and  his 
descendants  and  his  companions."  ^ 

1  Sahifai-Kdmila. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  165 

"It  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Islam,"  says  an  English  writer, 
"  that  its  temples  are  not  made  with  hands,  and  that  its 
ceremonies  can  be  performed  anywhere  upon  God's  earth  or 
under  His  heaven."  ^  Every  place  in  which  the  Almighty 
is  faithfully  worshipped  is  equally  pure.  The  Moslem,  whether 
he  be  at  home  or  abroad,  when  the  hour  of  prayer  arrives,  pours 
forth  his  soul  in  a  brief  but  earnest  supplicatory  address  ; 
his  attention  is  not  wearied  by  the  length  of  his  prayers,  the 
theme  of  which  is  always  self-humiliation,  the  glorification  of 
the  Giver  of  all  good,  and  rehance  on  His  mercy. ^  The  intensity 
of  the  devotional  spirit  embalmed  in  the  church  of  Mohammed 
has  hardly  been  realised  by  Christendom.  Tradition,  that 
faithful  chronicler  of  the  past,  with  its  hundred  corroborative 
witnesses,  records  how  the  Prophet  wept  during  his  prayers 
with  the  fervour  of  his  emotions  ;  how  his  noble  cousin  and 
son-in-law  became  so  absorbed  in  his  devotions  that  his  body 
grew  benumbed. 

The  Islam  of  Mohammed  recognises  no  caste  of  priesthood, 
allows  no  monopoly  of  spiritual  knowledge  or  special  holiness 
to  intervene  between  man  and  his  God.  Each  soul  rises  to  its 
Creator  without  the  intervention  of  priest  or  hierophant.  No 
sacrifice,^  no  ceremonial,  invented  by  vested  interests,  is 
needed  to  bring  the  anxious  heart  nearer  to  its  Comforter. 
Each  human  being  is  his  own  priest  ;  in  the  Islam  of  Mohammed 
no  one  man  is  higher  than  the  other. 

European  rationalists  have  complained  of  the  complex 
character  of  the  Moslem  prayers,  but  the  ritual  of  the  Koran 
is  astonishing  in  its  simplicity  and  soberness.  It  includes 
the  necessary  acts  of  faith,  the  recital  of  the  creed,  prayer, 
almsgiving,  fasting,  and  pilgrimage,  but  lays  down  scarcely 
any  rules  as  to  how  they  are  to  be  performed.  "  Observe  the 
prayers  and  the  mid-day  prayer,  and  stand  ye  at  tent  before 
God  ;  seek  aid  from  patience  and  prayer.  Verily,  God  is 
with  the  patient  ;  "  but  nothing  is  said  regarding  the  manner 
in  which  the  prayers  should  be  offered.     "  When  ye  journey 

^  Hunter,  Our  Indian  Musalmans,  p.  179. 

*  Sura  ii.  127,  239,  etc.,  vii.  204,  205,  xvii.  79,  xx.  130,  xxx.  16,  17,  etc.  etc. 
See  the  Kitdb  ul-Miistalraf. 

^  The  annual  sacrifice  at  the  Hajj  and  the  Bairam  is  a  mere  memorial 
observance. 


i66  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

about  the  earth,"  says  the  Koran,  "it  is  no  crime  to  you  that 
ye  come  short  in  prayer  if  ye  fear  that  those  that  disbeheve 
will  set  upon  you.  God  pardons  everything  except  associating 
aught  with  Him." 

The  practice  of  the  Prophet  has,  however,  attached  certain 
rites  and  ceremonies  to  the  due  observance  of  prayers.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  pointed  out  in  unmistakeable  terms  that  it 
is  to  the  devotional  state  of  the  mind  the  Searcher  of  the  spirit 
looks  :  "It  is  not  the  flesh  or  the  blood  of  that  which  ye 
sacrifice  which  is  acceptable  to  God  :  it  is  5/our  piety  which  is 
acceptable  to  the  Lord."  ^  "  It  is  not  righteousness,"  con- 
tinues the  Koran,  "  that  ye  turn  your  faces  in  praj^er  towards 
the  east  or  the  west  ;  but  righteousness  is  of  him  who  believeth 
in  God  ;  .  .  .  who  giveth  money  for  God's  sake  unto  his  kindred, 
and  unto  orphans,  and  the  needy,  and  the  stranger,  and  those 
who  ask,  and  for  the  redemption  of  captives  ;  who  is  constant 
at  prayers  and  giveth  alms  ;  and  of  those  who  perform  their 
covenant,  when  they  have  covenanted ;  and  who  behave 
themselves  patiently  in  hardship  and  adversity,  and  in  times 
of  violence  :   these  are  they  who  are  true."  ^  .  .  . 

It  was  declared  that  prayer  without  "  the  presence  of  the 
heart  "  was  of  no  avail,  and  that  God's  words  which  were 
addressed  to  all  mankind  and  not  to  one  people,  should  be 
studied  with  the  heart  and  lips  in  absolute  accord.  And  the 
Caliph  AH  held  that  devotion  offered  without  understanding 
was  useless  and  brought  no  blessing. ^  The  celebrated  Imam 
al-GhazzaU  ^  has  pronounced  that  in  reading  the  sacred  book  ^ 
heart  and  intelligence  must  work  together  ;  the  Ups  only  utter 
the  words  ;  intelligence  helps  in  the  due  apprehension  of  their 
meaning  ;  the  heart,  in  paying  obedience  to  the  dictates  of 
duty.^  "It  is  not  a  sixth  nor  a  tenth  of  a  man's  devotion," 
said  the  Prophet,  "  which  is  acceptable  to  God,  but  only  such 
portion  thereof  as  he  offers  with  understanding  and  true 
devotional  spirit."  ' 

The  practice  of  baptism  in  the  Christian  Church,  even  the 

1  Sura  xxii.  37.  -  Sura  ii.  177. 

3  Ghurrar  wa'd  Durrar.  ^  See  post,  chap.  xx. 

*  The  Koran.  «  The  Kit&b  ul-Mustatraf,  chap.  i. 

'  From  Muaz  ibn  Jabal,  reported  by  Abu  Daud  and  Nisai. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  167 

lustrations,  which  the  Egyptians,  the  Jews,  or  the  hierophants 
of  the  heathen  reUgions  in  the  East  and  the  West,  required  as 
preUminary  to  the  performance  of  devotional  or  religious 
exercises,  show  the  peculiar  sanctity  which  was  attached  to 
external  purifications.  Mohammed,  by  his  example,  conse- 
crated this  ancient  and  beneficent  custom.  He  required 
cleanliness  as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  worship  and 
adoration  of  God.^  At  the  same  time,  he  especially  inculcated 
that  mere  external,  or  rather  physical,  purity  does  not  imply 
true  devotion.  He  distinctly  laid  down  that  the  Almighty 
can  only  be  approached  in  purity  and  humility  of  spirit.^ 
Imam  al-Ghazzali  expressly  says,  as  against  those  who  are  only 
solicitous  about  external  purifications,  and  have  their  hearts 
full  of  pride  and  hypocrisy,  that  the  Prophet  of  God  declared 
the  most  important  purification  to  be  the  cleansing  of  the 
heart  from  all  blameable  inclinations  and  frailties,  and  the 
mind  from  all  vicious  ideas,  and  from  all  thoughts  which 
distract  attention  from  God.^ 

In  order  to  keep  alive  in  the  Moslem  world  the  memory  of 
the  birthplace  of  Islam,  Mohammed  directed  that  during 
prayers  the  Moslem  should  turn  his  face  towards  Mecca,  as  the 
glorious  centre  which  saw  the  first  glimmerings  of  the  light  of 
regenerated  truth. ^  With  the  true  instinct  of  a  prophet  he 
perceived  the  consolidating  effect  of  fixing  a  central  spot  round 
which,  through  all  time,  should  gather  the  rehgious  feelings  of 
his  followers  ;  and  he  accordingly  ordained  that  everywhere 
throughout  the  world  the  Moslem  should  pray  looking  towards 
the  Kaaba.  "  Mecca  is  to  the  Moslem  what  Jerusalem  is  to 
the  Jew.  It  bears  with  it  all  the  influence  of  centuries  of 
associations.  It  carries  the  Moslem  back  to  the  cradle  of  his 
faith,  the  childhood  of  his  Prophet,  it  reminds  him  of  the 
struggle  between  the  old  faith  and  the  new,  of  the  overthrow 
of  the  idols,  and  the  establishment  of  the  worship  of  the  one 

'  Sura  V.  6. 

The  Koran,  in  its  universality,  speaks  of  ablutions,  but  where  water  is  not 
available  it  allows  any  cleansing  substitute  for  lavation,  but  nowhere  lays 
down  the  details  of  the  WuzA.  As  usual,  the  manner  of  performing  the 
lavations  or  ablutions,  derived  from  the  practice  of  the  Prophet,  has  given 
rise  to  considerable  discussions  and  difference  among  the  theologians. 

-  Sura  vii.  206,  ^  Compare  the  Kitah  id-Mustatraf,  chap.  i.  sec.  i. 

■•  Sura  ii.  139,  144,  etc. 


i68  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

God  ;  and,  most  of  all,  it  bids  him  remember  that  all  his 
brother  Moslems  are  worshipping  towards  the  same  sacred 
spot  ;  that  he  is  one  of  a  great  company  of  believers,  united 
by  one  faith,  filled  with  the  same  hopes,  reverencing  the  same 
things,  worshipping  the  same  God.  Mohammed  showed  his 
knowledge  of  the  religious  emotions  in  man  when  he  preserved 
the  sanctity  of  the  temple  of  Islam."  ^  But  that  this  rule  is 
not  an  essential  requisite  for  devotion,  is  evident  from  the 
passage  of  the  Koran  quoted  above. ^ 

The  institution  of  fasting  has  existed  more  or  less  among  all 
nations.  But  it  may  be  said  that  throughout  the  ancient  world 
the  idea  attached  to  it  was,  without  exception,  more  of  penit- 
ence than  of  abstinence.  Even  in  Judaism  the  notion  of 
fasting  as  an  exercise  of  self-castigation  or  self-abnegation  was 
of  later  growth.  The  Essenians  (from  their  connection  with 
the  Pythagoreans,  and,  through  them,  with  the  asceticism 
of  the  further  East)  were  the  first  among  the  Jews  to  grasp 
this  moral  element  in  the  principle  of  fasting  ;  and  Jesus 
probably  derived  this  idea,  like  other  conceptions,  from  them. 

The  example  of  Jesus  consecrated  the  custom  in  the  Church. 
But  the  predominating  idea  in  Christianity,  with  respect  to 
fasts  generally,  is  one  of  penitence  or  expiation  ;  ^  and  partially, 
of  precedent.-  Voluntary  corporal  mortifications  have  been 
as  frequent  in  the  Christian  Churcli  as  in  other  Churches  ; 
but  the  tendency  of  such  mortifications  has  invariably  been 
the  destruction  of  mental  and  bodily  energies,  and  the  fosteiing 
of  a  morbid  asceticism.  The  institution  of  fasting  in  Islam, 
on  the  contrary,  has  the  legitimate  object  of  restraining  the 
passions,   by   diurnal   abstinence   for   a  hmited   and   definite 

1  Stanley  Lane-Poole,  Introd.  to  the  Selections  from  the  Koran,  p.  Ixxxv. 

2  See  ante,  p.  i66. 

^  Mosheim,  vol.  i.  p.  131.  Mosheim  distinctly  says  that  fasting  came  early 
to  be  regarded  "  as  the  most  effectual  means  of  repelling  the  force,  and  dis- 
concerting the  stratagems  of  evil  spirits,  and  of  appeasing  the  anger  of  an 
offended  deity."     Vol.  i.  p.  398. 

*  "  The  weekly  and  yearly  festivals  of  the  Christians,"  says  Neander, 
"  originated  in  the  same  fundamental  idea,  .  .  .  the  idea  of  imitating  Christ, 
the  crucified  and  risen  Saviour."  And,  again,  "  by  the  Christians— who  were 
fond  of  comparing  their  calling  to  a  warfare,  a  militia  Christi — such  fasts, 
united  with  prayers,  were  named  stationes,  as  if  they  constituted  the  watches 
of  the  soldiers  of  Christ  (the  milites  Christi)  "  ;  Neander,  Church  Hist.  vol.  i. 
pp.  408,  409. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  169 

period,  from  all  the  gratifications  of  the  senses,  and  directing 
the  overflow  of  the  animal  spirits  into  a  healthy  channel. 
Useless  and  unnecessary  mortification  of  the  flesh  is  discounte- 
nanced, nay,  condemned.  Fasting  is  prescribed  to  the  able- 
bodied  and  the  strong,  as  a  means  of  chastening  the  spirit  by 
imposing  a  restraint  on  the  body.  For  the  weak,  the  sickly, 
the  traveller,  the  student  (who  is  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge — the  Jihdd-ul-Akhar),  the  soldier  doing  God's 
battle  against  the  assailants  of  the  faith,  and  women  in  their 
ailments,  it  is  disallowed.  Those  who  bear  in  mind  the 
gluttony  of  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Persians,  and  the 
pre-Islamite  Arabs,  their  excesses  in  their  pleasures  as  well 
as  their  vices,  will  appreciate  the  value  of  the  regulation,  and 
comprehend  how  wonderfully  adapted  it  is  for  keeping  in 
check  the  animal  propensities  of  man,  especially  among  semi- 
civihsed  races. 

Mark  the  wisdom  of  the  rule  as  given  in  the  Koran  :  "  O 
ye  that  have  believed,  a  fast  is  ordained  to  you  .  .  .  that  ye 
may  practise  piety,  a  fast  of  a  computed  number  of  days. 
But  he  among  you  who  shall  be  ailing,  or  on  a  journey,  (shall 
fast)  an  equal  number  of  other  days  ;  and  they  that  are  able 
to  keep  it  (and  do  not),  shall  make  atonement  by  maintaining 
a  poor  man.  .  .  .  But  if  ye  fast,  it  will  be  better  for  you  if 
ye  comprehend  ;  .  .  .  God  willeth  that  which  is  easy  for  you."  ^ 

This  rule  of  abstinence  is  restricted  to  the  day  ;  in  the  night, 
in  the  intervals  of  prayer  and  devotion,  the  Moslem  is  allowed, 
perhaps  indeed,  is  bound,  to  refresh  the  system  by  partaking 
in  moderation  of  food  and  drink,  and  otherwise  enjoying  himself 
lawfully.  In  the  true  spirit  of  the  Teacher,  the  legists  invari- 
ably laid  down  the  nfle  that,  during  the  fast,  abstinence  of 
mind  from  all  base  thoughts  is  as  incumbent  as  the  abstinence 
of  the  body.  2 

No  religion  of  the  world  prior  to  Islam  had  consecrated 
charity,  the  support  of  the  widow,  the  orphan,  and  the  helpless 
poor,  by  enrolling  its  principles  among  the  positive  enactments 
of  the  system. 

The  agapce,  or  feasts  of  charity  among  the  early  Christians, 
depended  on  the  will  of  individuals  ;   their  influence,  therefore, 

'  Sura  ii.  183-4.  2  jj^^  Kitah  ul-Mustalraf,  chap.  i.  sec.  4. 


lyo  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

could  only  be  irregular  and  spasmodic.  It  is  a  matter  of 
history  that  this  very  irregularity  led  to  the  suppression  of  the 
"  feasts  of  charity  or  love-feasts  "  only  a  short  time  after  their 
introduction.  1 

By  the  laws  of  Islam  every  individual  is  bound  to  contribute 
a  certain  part  of  his  substance  towards  the  help  and  assistance 
of  his  poorer  neighbours.  This  portion  is  usually  one  part  of 
forty,  or  2|  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  all  goods,  chattels,  emble- 
ments, on  profits  of  trade,  mercantile  business,  etc.  But  alms 
are  due  only  when  the  property  amounts  to  a  certain  value, ^ 
and  has  been  in  the  possession  of  a  person  for  one  whole  year  ; 
nor  are  any  due  from  cattle  employed  in  agriculture  or  in  the 
carrying  of  burdens.  Besides,  at  the  end  of  the  month  of 
Ramazan  (the  month  of  fasting),  and  on  the  day  of  the  Id-id- 
Fitr,  the  festival  which  celebrates  the  close  of  the  Moslem 
Lent,  each  head  of  a  family  has  to  give  away  in  alms,  for  him- 
self and  for  ever}^  member  of  his  household,  and  for  each  guest 
who  breaks  his  fast  and  sleeps  in  his  house  during  the  month, 
a  measure  of  wheat,  barley,  dates,  raisins,  rice,  or  any  other 
grain,  or  the  value  of  the  same. 

The  rightful  recipients  of  the  alms,  as  pointed  out  by  the 
practice  of  Mohammed  and  his  disciples,  are  (i)  the  poor  and 
the  indigent  ;  (2)  those  who  help  in  the  collection  and  distri- 
bution of  the  obligatory  alms  ;  (3)  slaves,  who  wish  to  buy 
their  freedom  and  have  not  the  means  for  so  doing  ;  (4)  debtors, 
who  cannot  pay  their  debts  ;  (5)  travellers  and  strangers.^ 
General  charity  is  inculcated  by  the  Koran  in  the  most  forcible 
terms.*  But  the  glory  of  Islam  consists  in  having  embodied 
the  beautiful  sentiment  of  Jesus  ^  into  definite  laws. 

^  Neander,  vol.  i.  p.  450  et  seq.  ;  Mosheim,  vol.  ii.  p.  56.  I  do  not  mean 
to  say  that  this  was  the  only  form  in  which  Christian  charity  expressed  itself. 
The  support  of  the  widow,  the  poor,  and  orphan  was  as  much  insisted  upon 
in  Christianity  as  in  Islam.  But  even  this  divine  charity  taught  by  Jesus 
received  an  impress  of  exclusiveness  from  the  disciples,  in  whose  hands  he  left 
his  work.  The  widow,  in  order  to  claim  the  benefits  of  charity,  was  required 
to  be  "  threescore  years  of  age,  to  have  been  the  wife  of  one  man,  to  have 
brought  up  children,"  etc.  Compare  throughout  Blunt's  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,  p.  27  et  seq. 

^  For  example,  no  alms  are  due  from  a  man  unless  he  own  twenty  camels. 

^  Jamaa  ut-Tirmizi,  chapter  on  "  Alms-giving  "  ;  Jdmaa-Abbdsi  ;  Querry, 
Droit  Mtisulman.     Comp.  also  the  MabsHt. 

■*  Sura  ii.  267,  270,  271,  etc.,  ix.  60,  etc.  ^  Matt.  xxv.  35,  36. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  171 

The  wisdom  which  incorporated  into  Islam  tlie  time-honoured 
custom  of  annual  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  to  the  shrine  of  the 
Kaaba,  has  breathed  into  Mohammed's  religion  a  freemasonry 
and  brotherhood  of  faith  in  spite  of  sectarian  divisions.  The 
eyes  of  the  whole  Moslem  world  fixed  on  that  central  spot, 
keep  alive  in  the  bosom  of  each  some  spark  of  the  celestial 
fire  which  lighted  up  the  earth  in  that  century  of  darkness. 
Here,  again,  the  wisdom  of  the  inspired  Lawgiver  shines  forth 
in  the  negative  part  of  the  enactment,  in  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  make  the  injunction  obligatory : — (i)  ripeness  of 
intelligence  and  discernment ;  (2)  perfect  freedom  and  liberty  ; 
(3)  possession  of  the  means  of  transport  and  subsistence  during 
the  journey  ;  (4)  possession  of  means  sufficient  to  support  the 
pilgrim's  family  during  his  absence  ;  (5)  the  possibility  and 
practicability  of  the  voyage.^ 

Owing  to  the  mhmte  regulations,  almost  Brahmxinical  in 
their  strictness,  in  force  among  the  heathen  Arabs  regarding 
the  lawful  or  unlawful  character  of  various  kinds  of  food,  the 
Teacher  of  Islam  had  frequently  to  admonish  his  followers 
that,  with  certain  exceptions,  all  food  was  lawful  "  And 
eat  of  what  God  hath  given  you  for  food  that  which  is  lawful 
and  wholesome  :  and  fear  God,  in  whom  ye  beUeve."  ^  "  Say," 
says  the  Koran,  "  I  find  not  in  what  hath  been  revealed  to  me 
aught  forbidden  to  the  eater  to  eat,  except  it  be  that  which 
dieth  of  itself,  or  blood  poured  forth,  or  swine's  flesh,  for  that 
is  an  abomination,  and  meat  which  has  been  slain  in  the  name 
of  other  than  God  [idols]."  This  is  amphfied  in  the  fifth  sura, 
which  is  also  directed  against  various  savage  and  idolatrous 
practices  of  the  pagan  Arabs.  "  That  which  dieth  of  itself, 
and  blood,  and  swine's  .flesh,  and  all  that  hath  been  sacrificed 
under  the  invocation  of  any  other  name  than  that  of  God,^ 
and  the  strangled,  and  the  killed  by  a  blow  or  by  a  fall,  or  by 
goring,*  and  that  which  hath  been  eaten  by  beasts  of  prey, 

»  Radd-ul-muhtar ,  chapter  on  Hajj  ;  Querry,  Droit  Miisulman,  vol.  i.  ;  the 
Mabsut. 

*  Sura  V.  98. 

'  The  heathen  Arabs,  when  killing  any  animal  for  food,  used  to  consecrate 
it  by  invoking  the  names  of  their  gods  and  goddesses. 

■*  The  idolatrous  Arabs  had  different  savage  methods  of  killing  animals. 
This  prohibition  has  reference  to  the  brutal  processes  employed  by  them. 


172  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

unless  ye  give  the  death-stroke  yourselves,  and  that  which 
hath  been  sacrificed  on  the  blocks  of  stone/  is  forbidden  to 
you  :  and  to  make  division  of  the  slain  by  consulting  the 
arrows,  is  impiety  in  you."  ^  "  Eat  ye  of  the  good  things 
wherewith  we  have  provided  you  and  give  thanks  to  God."  ^ 

Intoxication  and  gambling,  the  curse  of  Christian  com- 
nmnities,  and  the  bane  of  all  uncultured  and  inferior  natures, 
and  excesses  of  all  kinds,  were  rigorously  prohibited. 

Nothing  can  be  simpler  or  more  in  accord  with  the  advance 
of  the  human  intellect  than  the  teachings  of  the  Arabian 
Prophet.  The  few  rules  for  religious  ceremonial  which  he 
prescribed  were  chiefly  with  the  object  of  maintaining  discipHne 
and  uniformity,  so  necessary  in  certain  stages  of  society  ; 
but  they  were  by  no  means  of  an  inflexible  character.  He 
allowed  them  to  be  broken  in  cases  of  illness  or  other  causes. 
"  God  wishes  to  make  things  easy  for  you,  for,"  says  the 
Koran,  "  man  was  created  weak."  The  legal  principles  which 
he  enunciated  were  either  delivered  as  answers  to  questions 
put  to  him  as  the  Chief  Magistrate  of  Medina,  or  to  remove  or 
correct    patent    evils.     The    Prophet's    Islam    recognised    no 

^  Sacrificial  stones  placed  round  the  Kaaba  or  at  the  entrance  of  houses 
over  which  the  offerings  were  made  to  the  idols. 

^  Sura  V.  3. 

^  Things  by  nature  abhorrent  to  man,  such  as  the  flesh  of  carnivorous 
animals,  birds  of  prey,  snakes,  etc.,  required  no  specific  prohibition.  The 
idea  prevalent  in  India,  borrowed  from  the  Hindus,  that  Moslems  should  not 
partake  of  food  with  Christians,  is  entirely  fallacious,  and  opposed  to  the 
precept  contained  in  the  following  passage  of  the  Koran  (sura  v.  5)  :  "  This 
day  things  healthful  are  legalised  to  you,  and  the  meats  of  those  who  have 
received  the  Scriptures  are  allowed  to  you,  as  your  meats  are  to  them."  With 
regard  to  the  sumptuary  regulations,  precepts,  and  prohibitions  of  Mohammed, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  they  were  called  forth  by  the  temporary  cir- 
cumstances of  the  times  and  people.  With  the  disappearance  of  such 
circumstances,  the  need  for  these  laws  has  also  disappeared.  To  suppose, 
therefore,  that  every  Islamic  precept  is  necessarily  immutable,  is  to  do  an 
injustice  to  history  and  the  development  of  the  human  intellect.  Ibn 
Khaldun's  words  are,  in  this  connection,  deserving  of  our  serious  consideration  : 
"  It  is  only  by  an  attentive  examination  and  well-sustained  application  that 
we  can  discover  the  truth,  and  guard  ourselves  against  errors  and  mistakes. 
In  fact,  if  we  were  merely  to  satisfy  ourselves  by  reproducing  the  records 
transmitted  by  tradition  without  consulting  the  rules  furnished  by  experience, 
the  fundamental  principles  of  the  art  of  government,  the  nature,  even,  of  the 
particular  civilisation,  or  the  circumstances  which  characterise  the  human 
society  ;  if  we  are  not  to  judge  of  the  wants  which  occurred  in  distant  times 
by  those  which  are  occurring  under  our  eyes,  if  we  are  not  to  compare  the  past 
with  the  present  we  can  hardly  escape  from  falling  into  errors  and  losing  the 
way  of  truth."  Prolegonienes  d' Ibn  Khaldoun,  traduits  par  M.  de  Slane, 
Premiere  Par  tie,  p.  13. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  173 

ritual  likely  to  distract  the  mind  from  the  thought  of  the  one 
God  ;  no  law  to  keep  enchained  the  conscience  of  advancing 
huInanit3^ 

The  ethical  code  of  Islam  is  thus  simimarised  in  the  fourth 
Sura  :  "  Come,  I  will  rehearse  what  your  Lord  hath  enjoined 
on  you — that  ye  assign  not  to  Him  a  partner  ;  that  ye  be  good 
to  your  parents  ;  and  that  ye  slay  not  3^our  children  because 
of  poverty  :  for  them  and  for  you  will  We  provide  ;  and  that 
ye  come  not  near  to  pollutions,  outward  or  inward  ;  and  that 
ye  slay  not  a  soul  whom  God  hath  forbidden,  unless  by  right 
.  .  .  and  draw  not  nigh  to  the  wealth  of  the  orphan,  save  so 
as  to  better  it  .  .  .  and  when  ye  pronounce  judgment  then  be 
just,  though  it  be  the  affair  of  a  kinsman.  And  God's  compact 
fulfil  ye  ;  that  is,  what  He  hath  ordained  to  you.  Verily, 
this  is  my  right  way  ;  follow  it,  then."  ^  And  again,  "  Blessed 
are  they  who  believe  and  humbly  offer  their  thanks-giving  to 
their  Lord  .  .  .  who  are  constant  in  their  charity,  and  who 
guard  their  chastity,  and  who  observe  their  trust  and  covenants 
.  .  .  Verily,  God  bids  you  do  justice  and  good,  and  give  to 
kindred  their  due  ;  and  He  forbids  you  to  sin  and  to  do  wrong 
and  oppress." 

"  Faith  and  charity,"  to  use  the  words  of  the  Christian 
historian,  "  are  not  incompatible  with  external  rites  and 
positive  institutions,  which,  indeed,  are  necessary  in  this 
imperfect  state  to  keep  ahve  a  sense  of  religion  in  the  common 
mass."  2  And,  accordingly,  Mohammed  had  attached  a  few 
rites  to  his  teachings  in  order  to  give  a  more  tangible  conception 
to  the  generahty  of  mankind.  Jesus  himself  had  instituted 
two  rites,  baptism  and  the  "  Holy  Supper."  »  Probably,  had 
he  lived  longer,  he  would  have  added  more.  But  one  thing  is 
certain,  that  had  a  longer  career  been  vouchsafed  to  him,  he 
would  have  placed  his  teachings  on  a  more  systematic  basis. 
This  fundamental  defect  in  Christianity  has  been,  in  fact, 
the  real  cause  of  the  assembling  of  councils  and  convocations 
for  the  estabhshment  of  articles  and  dogmas,  which  snap 
asunder  at  every  slight  tension  of  reason  and  free  thought. 
The  work  of  Jesus  was  left  unfinished.  It  was  reserved  for 
another  Teacher  to  systematise  the  laws  of  morality. 

*  Sura  iv.  155  et  seq.  ^  Mosheim,  vol.  i.  p.  124.  '  Ibid. 


174  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Our  relations  with  our  Creator  are  matters  of  conscience  ; 
our  relations  with  our  fellow-beings  must  be  matters  of  positive 
rules  ;  and  what  higher  sanction — to  use  a  legal  expression — 
can  be  attached  to  the  enforcement  of  the  relative  duties  of 
man  to  man  than  the  sanction  of  religion.  Rehgion  is  not  to 
be  regarded  merely  as  a  subject  for  unctuous  declamations  by 
"  select  preachers,"  or  as  some  strange  theory  for  the  peculiar 
gratification  of  dreamy  minds.  Religion  ought  to  mean  the 
rule  of  life  ;  its  chief  object  ought  to  be  the  elevation  of  human- 
ity towards  that  perfection  which  is  the  end  of  our  existence. 
The  religion,  therefore,  which  places  on  a  systematic  basis  the 
fundamental  principles  of  morality,  regulating  social  obligations 
and  human  duties,  which  brings  us  nearer  and  nearer,  by  its 
compatibility  with  the  highest  development  of  intellect,  to  the 
All-Perfect — that  religion,  we  say,  has  the  greatest  claim  to 
our  consideration  and  respect.  It  is  the  distinctive  character- 
istic of  Islam,  as  taught  by  Mohammed,  that  it  combines  within 
itself  the  grandest  and  the  most  prominent  features  in  all 
ethnic  and  catholic  ^  religions  compatible  with  the  reason  and 
moral  intuition  of  man.  It  is  not  merely  a  system  of  positive 
moral  rules,  based  on  a  true  conception  of  human  progress, 
but  it  is  also  "  the  establishment  of  certain  principles,  the 
enforcement  of  certain  dispositions,  the  cultivation  of  a  certain 
temper  of  mind,  which  the  conscience  is  to  apply  to  the  ever- 
var3dng  exigencies  of  time  and  place."  The  Teacher  of  Islam 
preached,  in  a  thousand  varied  ways,  universal  love  and 
brotherhood  as  the  emblem  of  the  love  borne  towards  God. 
"  How  do  you  think  God  will  know  you  when  you  are  in  His 
presence — by  your  love  of  your  children,  of  your  kin,  of  your 
neighbours,  of  your  fellow-creatures  ?  "  ^  "Do  you  love 
your  Creator  ?  love  your  fellow-beings  first."  ^  "Do  you  wish 
to  approach  the  Lord  ?  love  His  creatures,  love  for  them  what 
you  love  yourself,  reject  for  them  what  you  reject  for  yourself, 
do  unto  them  what  you  wish  to  be  done  unto  you."  He 
condemned  in  scathing  language  the  foulness  of  impurity,  the 
meanness   of   hypocrisy,    and   the    ungodliness   of   self-deceit. 

'  For  the  use  of  these  words  see  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions,  chap.  i. 

2  Mishkdt,  bks.  xxii.,  xxiii.  chaps,  xv.  and  xvi. 

^Comp.  Kastalani's  Commentary  on  the  SahVi  oj  Bukhdri,  pt.  i.  p.  70. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  175 

He  proclaimed,  in  unmistakable  terms,  the  preciousness  of 
truth,  charity,  and  brotherly  love. 

The  wonderful  adaptability  of  Islamic  precepts  to  all  ages 
and  nations  ;  their  entire  concordance  with  the  light  of  reason  ; 
the  absence  of  all  mysterious  doctrines  to  cast  a  shade  of 
sentimental  ignorance  round  the  primal  truths  implanted  in 
the  human  breast, — all  prove  that  Islam  represents  the  latest 
development  of  the  religious  faculties  of  our  being.  Those 
who  have  ignored  the  historic  significance  of  some  of  its  precepts 
have  deemed  that  their  seeming  harshness,  or  unadaptability 
to  present  modes  of  thought  ought  to  exclude  it  from  any 
claim  to  universality.  But  a  Uttle  inquiry  into  the  historic 
value  of  laws  and  precepts,  a  little  more  fairness  in  the  exam- 
ination of  facts,  would  evince  the  temporary  character  of  such 
rules  as  may  appear  scarcely  consonant  with  the  requirements 
or  prejudices  of  modern  times.  The  cathoHcity  of  Islam,  its 
expansiveness,  and  its  charity  towards  all  moral  creeds,  has 
been  utterly  mistaken,  perverted,  or  wilfully  concealed  by  the 
bigotry  of  rival  religions. 

"  Verily,"  says  the  Koran,  "  those  who  believe  (the  Moslems), 
and  those  who  are  Jews,  Christians,  or  Sabasans,  whoever  hath 
faith  in  God  and  the  last  day  (future  existence),  and  worketh 
that  which  is  right  and  good, — for  them  shall  be  the  reward 
with  their  Lord  ;  there  will  come  no  fear  on  them  ;  neither 
shall  they  be  grieved."  ^ 

The  same  sentiment  is  repeated  in  similar  words  in  the  fifth 
Sura  ;  and  a  hundred  other  passages  prove  that  Islam  does  not 
confine  "  salvation  "  to  the  followers  of  Mohammed  alone  : — 
"  To  every  one  have  we  given  a  law  and  a  way.  .  .  .  And  if 
God  had  pleased.  He  would  have  made  you  all  (all  mankind) 
one  people  (people  of  one  religion).  But  He  hath  done  other- 
wise, that  He  might  try  you  in  that  which  He  hath  severally 
given  unto  you  :  wherefore  press  forward  in  good  works.  Unto 
God  shall  ye  return,  and  He  will  tell  you  that  concerning  which 
ye  disagree."  ^ 

Of  all  the  religions  of  the  world  that  have  ruled  the  conscience 

'  Sura  V.  69.  Compare  the  spirit  of  these  teachings  with  that  of  the 
Athanasian  Creed. 

^  Sura  V.  48.     Compare  also  xxix.  46,  xxxii.  23,  24,  xxxix.  41,  xl.  13,  etc. 


176  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

of  mankind,  the  Islam  of  Mohammed  alone  combines  both  the 
conceptions  which  have  in  different  ages  furnished  the  main- 
spring of  human  conduct, — the  consciousness  of  human  dignity, 
so  valued  in  the  ancient  philosophies,  and  the  sense  of  human 
sinfulness,  so  dear  to  the  Christian  apologist.  The  belief  that 
man  will  be  judged  by  his  work  solely,  throws  the  Moslem  on 
the  practice  of  self-denial  and  universal  charity  ;  the  belief 
in  Divine  Providence,  in  the  mercy,  love,  and  omnipotence 
of  God,  leads  him  to  self-humiliation  before  the  Almighty, 
and  to  the  practice  of  those  heroic  virtues  which  have  given 
rise  to  the  charge  that  the  virtues  of  Islam  are  stoical,"  ^ 
patience,  resignation,  and  firmness  in  the  trials  of  life.  It 
leads  him  to  interrogate  his  conscience  with  nervous  anxiety, 
to  study  with  scrupulous  care  the  motives  that  actuate  him,^ 
to  distrust  his  own  strength,  and  to  rely  upon  the  assistance  of 
an  Almighty  and  All-Loving  Power  in  the  conflict  between 
good  and  evil. 

In  some  religions  the  precepts  which  inculcated  duties  have 
been  so  utterly  devoid  of  practicabihty,  so  completely  wanting 
in  a  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  partaking  so  much  of  the 
dreamy  vagueness  of  enthusiasts,  as  to  become  in  the  real 
battles  of  life  simply  useless.^  The  practical  character  of  a 
religion,  its  abiding  influence  on  the  common  relations  of 
mankind,  in  the  affairs  of  everyday  life,  its  power  on  the 
masses,  are  the  true  criteria  for  judging  of  its  universality. 
We  do  not  look  to  exceptional  minds  to  recognise  the  nature 
of  a  religion.  We  search  among  the  masses  to  understand  its 
true  character.  Does  it  exercise  deep  power  over  them  ? 
does  it  elevate  them  ?  does  it  regulate  their  conception  of 
rights  and  duties  ?  does  it,  if  carried  to  the  South  Sea  islander, 
or  preached  to  the  Caffrarians,  improve  or  degrade  them  ? — 
are  the  questions  we  naturally  ask.  In  Islam  is  joined  a 
lofty  ideaHsm  with  the  most  rationahstic  practicality.  It 
did  not  ignore  human  nature  ;  it  never  entangled  itself  in  the 
tortuous  pathways  which  lie  outside  the  domains  of  the  actual 

1  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions,  p.  484. 

2  Compare  the  first  Apologue  in  the  Akhlah  (Ethics)  of  Husain  Waiz  on 
Ikhlds. 

3  Compare  M.  Ernest  Havet's  remarks  in  his  valuable  and  learned  work, 
Le  Christianisine  et  ses  Origines,  Pref.  p.  xxxix. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  177 

and  the  real.  Its  object,  like  that  of  other  systems,  was  the 
elevation  of  humanity  towards  the  absolute  ideal  of  perfection  ; 
but  it  attained,  or  tries  to  attain,  this  object  by  grasping  the 
truth  that  the  nature  of  man  is,  in  this  existence,  imperfect. 
If  it  did  not  say,  "  If  thy  brother  smite  thee  on  one  cheek, 
turn  thou  the  other  also  to  him  "  ;  if  it  allowed  the  punishment 
of  the  wanton  wrong-doer  to  the  extent  of  the  injury  he  had 
done,^  it  also  taught,  in  fervid  words  and  varied  strains,  the 
practice  of  forgiveness  and  benevolence,  and  the  return  of  good 
for  evil  : — "  Who  speaketh  better,"  says  the  Koran,  "  than 
he  who  inviteth  unto  God,  and  worketh  good  ?  .  .  .  Good  and 
evil  shall  not  be  held  equal.  Turn  away  evil  with  that  which 
is  better."  ^  And  again,  speaking  of  paradise,  it  says,  "  It 
is  prepared  for  the  godly,  who  give  alms  in  prosperity  and 
adversity,  who  bridle  their  anger,  and  forgive  men  ;  for  God 
loveth  the  beneficent."  ^ 

The  practice  of  these  noble  precepts  does  not  lie  enshrined 
in  the  limbo  of  false  sentimentalism.  With  the  true  follower 
of  the  Prophet  they  form  the  active  principles  of  life.  History 
has  preserved,  for  the  admiration  of  wondering  posterity, 
many  examples  of  patience  under  suffering  exhibited  by  the 
followers  of  other  creeds.  But  the  practice  of  the  virtue  of 
patient  forgiveness  is  easier  in  adversity,  when  we  have  no 
power  to  punish  the  evil-doer,  than  in  prosperity.  It  is  related 
of  Husain,  the  noble  martyr  of  Kerbela,  that  a  slave  having 
once  thrown  the  contents  of  a  scalding  dish  over  him  as  he  sat 
at  dinner,  fell  on  his  knees  and  repeated  the  verse  of  the  Koran, 
"  Paradise  is  for  those  who  bridle  their  anger."  "I  am  not 
angry,"  answered  Husain.  The  slave  proceeded,  "  and  for 
those  who  forgive  men."  "  I  forgive  3^ou."  The  slave,  how- 
ever, finished  the  verse,  adding,  "  for  God  loveth  the  beneficent." 
"  I  give  you  your  liberty  and  four  hundred  pieces  of  silver," 
replied  Husain.* 

'  Koran,  sura  xxii.  39,  40.  Thonissen's  remark,  that  Mohammed  allowed 
the  punishment  of  the  wilful  wrong-doer  for  tiie  purpose  of  preventing 
enormous  evils,  must  always  be  borne  in  mind. — L'Hist.  da  Droit  Crimi}iel 
des  Peuples  Anciens,  vol.  ii.  p.  67. 

-  Koran,  sura  xli.  33,  34.  ^  Koran,  sura  xlii.  37. 

'  This  anecdote  has  been  told  by  Sale  in  a  note  to  the  third  chapter  of  his 
translation  of  the  Koran,  and  also  by  Gibbon  ;     but  both  have,  by  mistake, 

S.I.  M 


178  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

The  author  of  the  Kashshdf  thus  sums  up  the  essence  of  the 
Islamic  teachings  :  "  Seek  again  him  who  drives  you  away  ; 
give  to  him  who  takes  away  from  you  ;  pardon  him  who 
injures  you  :  ^  for  God  loveth  that  you  should  cast  into  the 
depth  of  your  soul  the  roots  of  His  perfections."  ^ 

In  the  purity  of  its  aspiration,  can  anything  be  more  beautiful 
than  the  following  :  "  The  servants  of  the  Merciful  are  they 
that  walk  upon  the  earth  softly  ;  and  when  the  ignorant 
speak  unto  them,  they  reply,  Peace  !  they  that  spend  the  night 
worshipping  their  Lord,  prostrate,  and  standing,  and  resting  : 
those  that,  when  they  spend,  are  neither  profuse  nor  niggardly, 
but  take  a  middle  course  :  .  .  .  those  that  invoke  not  with  God 
any  other  God,  and  slay  not  a  soul  that  God  hath  forbidden 
otherwise  than  by  right ;  and  commit  not  fornication  :  .  .  . 
they  who  bear  not  witness  to  that  which  is  false  ;  and  when 
they  pass  by  vain  sport,  they  pass  it  by  with  dignity  :  who 
say,  '  Oh,  our  Lord,  grant  us  of  our  wives  and  children  such  as 
shall  be  a  comfort  unto  us,  and  make  us  examples  unto  the 
pious,' — these  shall  be  the  rewarded,  for  that  they  persevered  ; 
and  they  shall  be  accosted  in  paradise  with  welcome  and 
salutation  : — For  ever  therein, — a  fair  abode  and  resting- 
place  !  "  ^ 

This  is  the  Islam  of  Mohammed.  It  is  not  "  a  mere  creed  ; 
it  is  a  life  to  be  lived  in  the  present  " — a  religion  of  right-doing, 
right-thinking,  and  right-speaking,  founded  on  divine  love, 
universal  charity,  and  the  equality  of  man  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord.  However  much  the  modern  professors  of  Islam  may 
have  dimmed  the  glory  of  their  Prophet  (and  a  volume  might 
also  be  written  on  the  defects  of  modern  Mohammedanism), 
the  religion  which  enshrines  righteousness  and  "  justification 
by  work  "  *  deserves  the  recognition  of  the  lovers  of  humanity. 

applied  the  episode  to  Hasan,  the  brother  of  Husain.  See  the  Tafsir- 
Husaini,  Mirat  Ed.  p.  199. 

1  Compare  this  with  the  precept  of  Mohammed  reported  by  Abii  Darda, 
Mishkdt,  bk.  iv.  chap.  i.  part  ii.,  and  the  whole  chapter  on  "  Forgiveness  " 
(chap,  xxxvi.)  in  the  Mustatraf. 

-  Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshdf),  Egypt.  Ed.  part  i.  p.  280. 

'  Koran,  sura  xxv.  63-76. 

*  Mr.  Cotter  Morrison,  in  his  Service  of  Man,  calls  the  other  doctrine  the 
most  disastrous  to  human  morality. 


THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  179 

"  Wishest  thou  to  approach  God  ? 
Live  purely,  and  act  righteously." 


Jalal 

iid-din  Rumi  says, — 

r*>^^ 

^A-  ;; 

^^^ 

Vi-' 

fiV^  ;' 

^)^^^. 

^ft  ^>U 

r^'v 

3'   ;^C 

"  Thou  partakest  of  the  nature  of  the  beast  as  well  as  the  angel  ; 
Leave  the  nature  of  the  beast,  that  thou  mayest  surpass  the  angel." 

The  present  life  was  the  seed-ground  of  the  future.  To  work 
in  all  humility  of  spirit  for  the  human  good,  to  strive  with  all 
energy  to  approach  the  perfection  of  the  All-Perfect,  is  the 
essential  principle  of  Islam.  The  true  Moslem  is  a  true 
Christian,  in  that  he  accepts  the  ministry  of  Jesus,  and  tries 
to  work  out  the  moral  preached  by  him.  Why  should  not  the 
true  Christian  do  honour  to  the  Preacher  who  put  the  finishing 
stroke  to  the  work  of  the  earlier  Masters  ?  Did  not  he  call 
back  the  wandering  forces  of  the  world  into  the  channel  of 
progress  ? 

Excepting  for  the  conception  of  the  sonship  of  Jesus,  there  is 
no  fundamental  difference  between  Christianity  and  Islam. 
In  their  essence  they  are  one  and  the  same  ;  both  are  the 
outcome  of  the  same  spiritual  forces  working  in  humanity. 
One  was  a  protest  against  the  heartless  materialism  of  the 
Jews  and  the  Romans  ;  the  other  a  revolt  against  the  degrading 
idolatry  of  the  Arabs,  their  ferocious  customs  and  usages. 
Christianity,  preached  among  a  more  settled  and  civilised 
people  subject  to  an  organised  government,  had  to  contend 
with  comparatively  milder  evils.  Islam,  preached  among 
warring  tribes  and  clans,  had  to  fight  against  all  the  instincts 
of  self-interest  and  ancient  superstition.  Christianity,  arrested 
in  its  progress  towards  the  East  by  a  man  of  cultured  but 
bizarre  character,  who,  though  a  Jew  by  birth,  was  by  education 
an  Alexandrian  Greek,  was  carried  to  Greece  and  Rome,  and 
there  gathering  up  the  pagan  civilisation  of  centuries,  gave 


i8o  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

birth  to  new  ideas  and  doctrines.  Christianity  ceased  to  be 
Christian  the  moment  it  was  transplanted  from  the  home  of 
its  birth.  It  became  the  rehgion  of  Paul,  and  ceased  to  be  that 
of  Jesus.  The  pantheons  of  ancient  paganism  were  tottering 
to  their  fall.  Greek  and  Alexandrian  philosophy  had  prepared 
the  Roman  world  for  the  recognition  of  an  incarnate  God — a 
demiurgus,  an  JEon  born  in  the  bosom  of  eternity,  and  this 
conception  imbedded  itself  in  Pauline  Christianity.  Modern 
idealistic  Christianity,  which  is  more  a  philosophy  than  a 
positive  rehgion,  is  the  product  of  centuries  of  pre-Christian 
and  post-Christian  civilisation.  Islam  was  preached  among 
a  people,  among  conditions  social  and  moral,  wholly  divergent. 
Had  it  broken  down  the  barrier  which  was  raised  against  it  by 
a  degraded  Christianity,  and  made  its  way  among  the  higher 
races  of  the  earth,  its  progress  and  its  character  would  have 
presented  a  totally  different  aspect  from  what  it  now  offers 
to  the  observer  among  the  less  cultured  Moslem  communities. 
Like  rivers  flowing  through  varied  tracts,  both  these  creeds 
have  produced  results  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the 
soil  through  which  they  have  found  their  course.  The  Mexican 
who  castigates  himself  with  cactus  leaves,  the  idol -worshipping 
South  American,  the  lower  strata  of  Christian  nations,  are 
hardly  in  any  sense  Christians.  There  exists  a  wide  gulf 
between  them  and  the  leaders  of  modern  Christian  thought. 
Islam,  wherever  it  has  found  its  way  among  culturable  and 
progressive  nations,  has  shown  itself  in  complete  accord  with 
progressive  tendencies,  it  has  assisted  civilisation,  it  has 
idealised  religion.^ 

A  religion  has  to  be  eminently  positive  in  its  "  command- 
ments and  prohibitions "  to  exercise  an  abiding  salutary 
influence  on  the  ignorant  and  vmcultured.  The  higher  and 
more  spiritualised  minds  are  often  able  to  forge  on  the  anvils 
of  their  own  hearts,  lines  of  duty  in  relation  to  their  fellow 
creatures  without  reference  to  outside  directions.     They  are 

^  The  faith  which  could  give  birth  to  the  heroic  devotion  of  Ah,  the  gentle- 
ness of  Ja'far  (the  Sadik),  the  piety  and  patience  of  Musa,  the  divine  purity 
of  Fatima,  the  saintliness  of  Rabi'a  ;  the  religion  which  could  produce  men 
like  Ibn-Sina,  Al-Beiruni,  Ibn-Khaldun,  Sanai,  Jalal  ud-din  Rumi,  Farid 
ud-din  (the  Attar),  Ibrahim  Adham,  and  a  host  of  others,  suiely  contains 
every  element  of  hopefulness. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i8i 

in  commune  with  God  and  are  guided  by  the  consciousness  of 
right  and  wrong,  of  truth  and  purity  which  had  grown  up  with 
their  being.  Plato  and  Aristotle,  who  had  never  received  the 
light  of  the  Semitic  revelations,  spoke  to  the  world  of  the 
highest  principles  of  morality  in  as  distinct  terms  as  the  great 
prophets.  They  too  had  heard  the  voice  of  God,  and  were 
lifted  up  to  Him  by  their  own  thoughts. 

To  the  mass  of  mankind,  however,  sunk  either  in  ignorance 
or  barbarism,  for  the  uncultured  and  the  sodden,  moral  enuncia- 
tions convey  no  meaning  unless  they  are  addressed  in  a  positive 
form  and  formulated  with  the  precision  of  enactments 
surrounded  with  definite  sanctions.  The  ethical  side  of  a 
religion  does  not  appeal  to  their  feelings  or  sentiments  ;  and 
philosophical  conceptions  exercise  no  influence  on  their  minds, 
their  daily  conduct  or  their  lives. 

They  are  swayed  far  more  by  authority  and  precedent  than 
by  sermons  on  abstract  principles.  They  require  definite 
prescriptions  to  regulate  not  only  their  relations  towards  their 
fellow-beings  but  also  towards  their  Creator  whom,  in  the 
absence  of  such  rules,  they  are  apt  to  forget. 

The  success  of  Islam  in  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  its  rapid  and  marvellous  diffusion  over  the  surface 
of  the  globe,  were  due  to  the  fact  that  it  recognised  this  essential 
need  of  human  nature.  To  a  world  of  wrangling  sects  and 
creeds,  to  whom  words  were  of  far  greater  importance  than 
practice,  it  spoke  in  terms  of  positive  command  from  an 
Absolute  Source.  Amidst  the  moral  and  social  wreck  in  which 
it  found  its  birth,  it  aimed  at  the  integration  of  the  worship 
of  a  Personal  Will,  and  thereby  to  recall  humanity  to  the 
observance  of  duty  which  alone  pointed  to  the  path  of 
spiritual  development.  And  by  its  success  in  lifting  up 
the  lower  races  to  a  higher  level  of  social  morality  it  proved 
to  the  world  the  need  of  a  positive  system.  It  taught  them 
sobriety,  temperance,  charity,  justice  and  equality  as  the 
commandments  of  God.  Its  afhrmation  of  the  principle  of 
equality  of  man  and  man  and  its  almost  socialistic  tendency 
represented  the  same  phase  of  thought  that  had  found 
expression  on  the  shores  of  Gahlee.  But  even  in  his  most 
exalted  mood  the  great  Teacher  of  Islam  did  not  forget  the 


i82  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

limitations  imposed  on  individual  capacity  which  occasion 
economic  inequalities. 

Alas  for  the  latter-day  professors  of  Islam  !  The  bUght  of 
patristicism  has  ruined  the  blossom  of  true  religion  and  a  true 
devotional  spirit. 

A  Christian  preacher  has  pointed  out  with  great  force  the 
distinction  between  reUgion  and  theology,  and  the  evils  which 
have  followed  in  his  Church  from  the  confusion  of  the  two.^ 
What  has  happened  in  Christianity  has  happened  in  Islam. 
Practice  has  given  way  to  the  mockery  of  profession,  cere- 
monialism has  taken  the  place  of  earnest  and  faithful  work, — 
doing  good  to  mankind  for  the  sake  of  doing  good,  and  for  the 
love  of  God.  Enthusiasm  has  died  out,  and  devotion  to  God 
and  His  Prophet  are  meaningless  words.  The  earnestness 
without  which  human  existence  is  no  better  than  that  of  the 
brute  creation,  earnestness  in  right-doing  and  right-thinking, 
is  absent.  The  Moslems  of  the  present  day  have  ignored  the 
spirit  in  a  hopeless  love  for  the  letter.  Instead  of  living  up  to 
the  ideal  preached  by  the  Master,  instead  of  "  striving  to 
excel  in  good  works,"  "  of  being  righteous  "  ;  instead  of  loving 
God,  and  for  the  sake  of  His  love  loving  His  creatures, — they 
have  made  themselves  the  slaves  of  opportunism  and  outward 
observance.  It  was  natural  that  in  their  reverence  and 
admiration  for  the  Teacher  his  early  disciples  should  stereotype 
his  ordinary  mode  of  life,  crystaUise  the  passing  incidents  of  a 
chequered  career,  imprint  on  the  heart  orders,  rules,  and 
regulations  enunciated  for  the  common  exigencies  of  the  day 
in  an  infant  society.  But  to  suppose  that  the  greatest 
Reformer  the  world  has  ever  produced,  the  greatest  upholder 
of  the  sovereignty  of  Reason,  the  man  who  proclaimed  that  the 
universe  was  governed  and  guided  by  law  and  order,  and  that 
the  law  of  nature  meant  progressive  development,  ever  con- 
templated that  even  those  injunctions  which  were  called  forth 
by  the  passing  necessities  of  a  semi-civilised  people  should 
become  immutable  to  the  end  of  the  world,  is  doing  an  injustice 
to  the  Prophet  of  Islam. 

No  one  had  a  keener  perception  than  he  of  the  necessities  of 
this  world  of  progress  with  its  ever-changing  social  and  moral 

^  Professor  Momerie  in  his  Defects  of  Modern  Christianity. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  183 

phenomena,  nor  of  the  Hkelihood  that  the  revelations  vouch- 
safed to  him  might  not  meet  all  possible  contingencies.  When 
Muaz  was  appointed  as  governor  of  Yemen,  he  was  asked  by 
the  Prophet  by  what  rule  he  would  be  guided  in  his  administra- 
tion of  that  province.  "  By  the  law  of  the  Koran,"  said  Muaz. 
"  But  if  you  find  no  direction  therein  ?  "  "  Then  I  will  act 
according  to  the  example  of  the  Prophet."  "  But  if  that 
fails  ?  "  "  Then  I  will  exercise  my  own  judgment."  The 
Prophet  approved  highly  of  the  answer  of  his  disciple,  and 
commended  it  to  the  other  delegates. 

The  great  Teacher,  who  was  fully  conscious  of  the  exigencies 
of  his  own  times,  and  the  requirements  of  the  people  with  whom 
he  had  to  deal, — people  sunk  in  a  slough  of  social  and  moral 
despond, — with  his  keen  insight  and  breadth  of  views,  perceived, 
and  one  may  say  foretold,  that  a  time  would  come  when  the 
accidental  and  temporary  regulations  would  have  to  be  differ- 
entiated from  the  permanent  and  general.  "  Ye  are  in  an 
age,"  he  declared,  "  in  which,  if  ye  abandon  one-tenth  of  what 
is  ordered,  ye  will  be  ruined.  After  this,  a  time  will  come 
when  he  who  shall  observe  one-tenth  of  what  is  now  ordered 
will  be  redeemed."  ^ 

[sr'  ii  j^i  1«j£jS   ^^'ijo  J*.c  ^^»a:   ^i,,U3  ^li,  ^i   cl^U  ^J^t  L«  j£j^  ^ii>c  ^Jjj 

As  we  have  already  observed,  the  bUght  which  has  fallen  on 
Musulman  nations  is  not  due  to  the  teachings  of  the  Master. 
No  rehgion  contained  greater  promise  of  development,  no 
faith  was  purer,  or  more  in  conformity  with  the  progressive 
demands  of  humanity. 

The  present  stagnation  of  the  Musulman  communities  is 
principally  due  to  the  notion  which  has  fixed  itself  on  the 
minds  of  the  generahty  of  Moslems,  that  the  right  to  the 
exercise  of  private  judgment  ceased  with  the  early  legists, 

^  This  authentic  tradition  is  given  in  the  Jdma'  nt-Tirmizi  and  is  to  be 
found  also  in  the  Mishkdt. 


i84  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

that  its  exercise  in  modern  times  is  sinful,  and  that  a  Moslem 
in  order  to  be  regarded  as  an  orthodox  follower  of  Mohammed 
should  belong  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  schools  established  by 
the  schoolmen  of  Islam,  and  abandon  his  judgment  absolutely 
to  the  interpretations  of  men  who  lived  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  could  have  no  conception  of  the  necessities  of  the  twentieth. 

Among  the  Sunnis,  it  is  the  common  belief  that  since  the 
four  Imams, ^  no  doctor  has  arisen  qualified  to  interpret  the 
laws  of  the  Prophet.  No  account  is  taken  of  the  altered 
circumstances  in  which  Moslems  are  now  placed  ;  the  con- 
clusions at  which  these  learned  legists  arrived  several  centuries 
ago  are  held  to  be  equally  applicable  to  the  present  day. 
Among  the  Shiahs,  the  Akhbari  will  not  allow  his  judgment  to 
travel  beyond  the  dictates  of  "  the  expounders  of  the  law." 
The  Prophet  had  consecrated  reason  as  the  highest  and  noblest 
function  of  the  human  intellect.  Our  schoolmen  and  their 
servile  followers  have  made  its  exercise  a  sin  and  a  crime. 

As  among  Christians,  so  among  Moslems.  The  lives  and 
conduct  of  a  large  number  of  Moslems  at  the  present  day  are 
governed  less  by  the  precepts  and  teachings  of  the  Master, 
and  more  by  the  theories  and  opinions  of  the  mujtahids  and 
imams  who  have  tried,  each  according  to  his  light,  to  construe 
the  revelations  vouchsafed  to  the  Teacher.  Like  men  in  a 
crowd  listening  to  a  preacher  who  from  a  lofty  position  addresses 
a  large  multitude  and  from  his  vantage  ground  overlooks  a 
vast  area,  they  observed  only  their  immediate  surroundings, 
and,  without  comprehending  the  wider  meaning  of  his  words 
or  the  nature  of  the  audience  whom  he  addressed,  adapted  his 
utterances  to  their  own  limited  notions  of  human  needs  and 
human  progress.  Oblivious  of  the  universality  of  the  Master's 
teachings,  unassisted  by  his  spirit,  devoid  of  his  inspiration, 
they  forgot  that  the  Prophet,  from  the  pinnacle  of  his  genius, 
had  spoken  to  all  humanity.  They  mixed  up  the  temporary 
with  the  permanent,  the  universal  with  the  particular.  Like 
many  of  the  ecclesiastics  of  Christendom,  not  a  few  were  the 
servants  of  sovereigns  and  despots  whose  demands  were  not 
consistent  with  the  precepts  of  the  Master.  Canons  were 
invented,  theories  started,  traditions  discovered,  and  glosses 

1  Abu  Hanifa,  Shafe'i,  Malik,  and  Ibn  Hanbal. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  185 

put  upon  his  words  utterly  at  variance  with  their  spirit.  And 
hence  it  is  that  most  of  the  rules  and  regulations  which  govern 
now  the  conscience  of  so  many  professors  of  the  faith  are 
hardly  derived  from  any  express  and  positive  declarations  of 
the  Koran,  but  for  the  most  part  from  the  lego-religious  books 
with  which  the  Islamic  world  was  flooded  in  the  later  centuries. 
"  Just  as  the  Hebrews  deposed  their  Pentateuch  in  favour  of 
the  Talmud,"  justly  observes  an  English  writer,  "  so  the 
Moslems  have  abolished  the  Koran  in  favour  of  the  traditions 
and  decisions  of  the  learned."  "  We  do  not  mean  to  say," 
he  adds  most  pertinently,  "  that  any  Mohammedan  if  asked 
what  was  the  text-book  of  his  religion,  would  answer  anything 
but  the  '  Koran  '  ;  but  we  do  mean  that  practically  it  is  not 
the  Koran  that  guides  his  behef  or  practice.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  of  Christendom  it  was  not  the  New  Testament,  but  the 
Summa  Theologica  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  that  decided  questions 
of  orthodoxy  ;  and  in  the  present  day,  does  the  orthodox 
churchman  usually  derive  his  creed  from  a  personal  investiga- 
tion of  the  teaching  of  Christ  in  the  Gospels  ?  Probably,  if 
he  refers  to  a  document  at  all,  the  Church  Catechism  contents 
him  ;  or  if  he  be  of  a  peculiarly  inquiring  disposition,  a  perusal 
of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  will  resolve  all  doubts.  Yet  he  too 
would  say  his  religion  was  drawn  from  the  Gospels,  and  would 
not  confess  to  the  medium  through  which  it  was  filtered.  In 
precisely  the  same  way  modern  Mohammedanism  is  constructed, 
and  a  large  part  of  what  Moslems  now  believe  and  practise 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Koran  at  all." 

And  yet  each  system,  each  school  contains  germs  of  improve- 
ment, and  if  development  is  now  stopped,  it  is  not  even  the 
fault  of  the  lawyers.  It  is  due  to  a  want  of  apprehension  of 
the  spirit  of  the  Master's  enunciations,  and  even  of  those  of 
the  fathers  of  the  Church. ^ 

In  the  Western  world,  the  Reformation  was  ushered  in  by 
the  Renaissance  and  the  progress  of  Europe  commenced  when 

^  The  Radd  ul-Muhidr  of  Mohammed  Amin  the  Syrian,  and  the  Majma' 
ul-Anhdr  of  the  Shaikh  Zadeh  are  as  much  in  advance  of  the  Multeka  and  the 
Heddya  as  the  views  of  an  Eldon  or  Mansfield  upon  those  of  a  Coke  or  Black- 
stone.  The  opinions  of  Shaikh  Murtaza,  in  their  liberal  and  liberalising 
tendencies,  are  far  above  those  of  the  narrow-minded  self-opinionated  Mohak- 
kik.     But  the  servile  Akhbari  follows  the  latter  in  preference  to  the  former. 


i86  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

it  threw  off  the  shackles  of  Ecclesiasticism.  In  Islam  also, 
enlightenment  must  precede  reform  ;  and,  before  there  can  be 
a  renovation  of  religious  life,  the  mind  must  first  escape  from 
the  bondage  which  centuries  of  literal  interpretation  and  the 
doctrine  of  "  conformity "  have  imposed  upon  it.  The 
formahsm  that  does  not  appeal  to  the  heart  of  the  worshipper 
must  be  abandoned  ;  externals  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
inner  feeUngs  ;  and  the  lessons  of  ethics  must  be  impressed 
on  the  plastic  mind  ;  then  alone  can  we  hope  for  that  enthusiasm 
in  the  principles  of  duty  taught  by  the  Prophet  of  Islam.  The 
reformation  of  Islam  will  begin  when  once  it  is  recognised  that 
divine  words  rendered  into  any  language  retain  their  divine 
character  and  that  devotions  offered  in  any  tongue  are  accept- 
able to  God.  The  Prophet  himself  had  allowed  his  foreign 
disciples  to  say  their  prayers  in  their  own  tongue.^  He  had 
expressly  permitted  others  to  recite  the  Koran  in  their  respective 
dialects  ;  and  had  declared  that  it  was  revealed  in  seven 
languages. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  Islam  there  was  a  consensus  of  opinion 
that  devotion  without  understanding  was  useless.  Imam 
Abu  Hanifa  considered  the  recitation  of  the  namdz  and  also  of 
the  Khutba  or  sermon,  lawful  and  vaUd  in  any  language. ^ 
The  disciples  of  Abu  Hanifa,  Abu  Yusuf  and  Mohammed, 
have  accepted  the  doctrine  of  their  master  with  a  certain 
variation.  They  hold  that  when  a  person  does  not  know 
Arabic,  he  may  validly  offer  his  devotions  in  any  other 
language.^ 

There  is,  however,  one  great  and  cogent  reason  why  the 
practice  of  reciting  prayers  in  Arabic  should  be  maintained 
wherever  it  is  possible  and  practicable.  Not  because  it  was 
the  language  of  the  Prophet,  but  because  it  has  become  the 
language  of   Islam   and  maintains    the   unity    of    sentiment 

1  Salman  the  Persian,  whom  Ali  had  saved  from  a  lion,  was  the  first  to 
whom  this  permission  was  granted. 

^  Jawahir  ul-Akhldti  ;  Durr  id-Mukhtar,  Bab  us-Saldt  (Chapter  on  Prayer). 
This  view  is  also  given  in  the  Tajnis.  Tahtawi  states  that  the  Imam's  opinion 
is  authoritative  and  should  be  followed.  The  commentator  of  the  Diirr 
ul-Mukhtdr  also  recognises  the  validity  of  reciting  prayers  in  Persian. 

^  This  is  construed  by  the  Ulemas  of  the  present  day  to  mean,  when  the 
worshipper  is  unable  to  pronounce  Arabic  words  !  The  absurdity  of  the 
explanation  is  obvious. 


II.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  187 

throughout  the  Islamic  world.     And  wherein  lies  more  strength 
than  in  unity  ? 


Note  I. 

The  sumptuary  prohibitions  of  Mohammed  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  qualitative  and  quantitative .  The  prohibition 
against  excess  in  eating  and  drinking  and  others  of  the  like 
import  belong  to  the  latter  class.  They  were  called  forth  in 
part  by  the  peculiar  semi-barbarous  epicureanism  which  was 
coming  into  fashion  among  the  Arabs  from  their  intercourse 
with  the  demoralised  Syrians  and  Persians,  and  in  part  by 
circumstances  of  which  only  glimpses  are  afforded  us  in  the 
Koran.  The  absolute  prohibition  of  swine's  flesh,  which  may 
be  classed  under  the  head  of  qualitative  prohibitions,  arose, 
as  is  evident,  from  hygienic  reasons  and  this  prohibition  must 
remain  unchanged  as  long  as  the  nature  of  the  animal  and  the 
diseases  engendered  by  the  eating  of  the  flesh  remain  as  at 
present.  The  prohibition  against  dancing  was  directed  against 
the  orgiastic  dances  with  which  the  heathen  Arabs  used  to 
celebrate  the  Syro-Phoenician  worship  of  their  Ashtoreth, 
Moloch  and  Baal. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM 

THE  idea  of  a  future  existence — of  an  existence  after 
the  separation  of  the  Hving  principle  of  our  nature 
from  the  mortal  part- — is  so  generally  shared  by  races 
of  men,  otherwise  utterly  distinct  from  each  other,  that  it  has 
led  to  the  belief  that  it  must  be  one  of  the  first  elementary 
constituents  of  our  being.  A  more  careful  examination  of 
facts,  however,  connected  with  the  infancy  of  races  and  tribes, 
leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  conception  of  a  future 
existence  is  also  the  result  of  the  natural  development  of  the 
human  mind. 

The  wild  savage  has  scarcely  any  idea  of  a  life  separate  and 
distinct  from  that  which  he  enjoys  on  earth.  He  looks  upon 
death  as  the  end  of  existence.  Then  comes  a  later  stage  when 
man  has  passed  out  of  his  savage  state,  his  hopes  and  aspirations 
are  bounded  no  more  by  an  earthly  death  ;  he  now  anticipates 
another  course  of  existence  after  the  course  here  has  been 
fulfilled.  But  even  in  this  stage  the  conception  of  immortahty 
does  not  rise  out  of  the  groove  of  daily  life.  Life  after  death 
is  a  mere  continuation  of  life  on  earth.  This  idea  of  a  continued 
life  beyond  the  grave  must  have  been  developed  from  the  yet 
unconscious  longing  of  the  human  soul  for  a  more  extended 

^  See  translation  at  end  of  this  chapter. 


III.         THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM         189 

sphere,  where  the  separation  of  dear  friends,  so  painful  to  both 
savage  and  civiUsed  man,  should  end  in  reunion. 

The  next  stage  is  soon  reached  ;  man  comes  to  believe  that 
present  happiness  and  misery  are  not,  cannot  be,  the  be-all  and 
end-all  of  his  existence  ;  that  there  will  he  another  life,  or  that 
there  is  another  life  after  death,  where  he  will  be  happy  or 
miserable  in  proportion  to  his  deserts. 

Now  we  have  reached  a  principle  and  a  law. 

The  mind  of  man  goes  no  further  towards  developing  the 
idea  of  future  existence.  The  nihilistic  philosopher  makes  no 
discovery,  asserts  no  new  position.  He  is  only  treading  in  the 
footsteps  of  our  savage  ancestor,  whose  field  of  vision  was 
restricted  to  this  life  alone. 

It  is  a  well-authenticated  fact,  however,  that  all  those  ideas 
which  represent  the  various  stages,  from  a  subjective  point  of 
view,  exist  simultaneously  not  only  among  different  nations 
but  even  in  the  same  nation,  in  different  combinations,  accord- 
ing to  the  individual  development. 

The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  recognise 
the  doctrine  of  a  future  life,  or,  at  least,  to  base  the  principles 
of  human  conduct  on  such  a  doctrine.^  With  an  idea  of 
metempsychosis  the}^  joined  an  idea  of  future  recompense  and 
punishment.  Man  descended  into  the  tomb  only  to  rise  again. 
After  his  resurrection  he  entered  on  a  new  life,  in  company 
with  the  sun,  the  principle  of  generation,  the  self-existent 
cause  of  all.  The  soul  of  man  was  considered  immortal  like 
the  sun,  and  as  accomphshing  the  same  pilgrimages.  All 
bodies  descended  into  the  lower  world,  but  they  were  not  all 
assured  of  resurrection.  The  deceased  were  judged  by  Osiris 
and  his  forty-two  assessors.  Annihilation  was  often  believed 
to  be  the  lot  of  those  adjudged  guilty.  The  righteous, 
purified  from  venial  faults,  entered  into  perfect  happiness, 
and  as  the  companions  of  Osiris,  were  fed  by  him  with 
delicious  food.^ 

We  might  naturally  expect  that  the  long  stay  of  the  Israelites 
in  Egypt  would  introduce  among  them  some  conception  of  a 

'  Rawlinson's  History  of  Ancient  Egypt,  vol.  ii.  p.  423. 

^  Comp.  Lenormant,  Ancient  History  oj  the  East,  vol.  i.  pp.  319-322  ;  and 
Alger.  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  p.  102  et  seq. 


igo  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

future  life  with  its  concomitant  idea  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. But  pure  Mosaism  (or  the  teachings  which  pass  under 
that  name)  does  not  recognise  a  state  of  existence  differing 
from  the  present.  The  pivot  on  which  the  entire  system  of 
Mosaic  legislation  turns  consists  of  tangible  earthly  rewards  and 
punishments.^  The  vitality  of  the  laws  is  confined  within  a 
very  small  compass.  The  doctrine  of  a  resurrection,  with  the 
ideas  arising  from  it,  which  appears  in  later  Judaism, — especially 
in  the  writings  of  Daniel  and  Ezekiel, — is  evidently  a  fruit  of 
foreign  growth  derived  from  Zoroastrian  sources.  Even  the 
descriptions  of  Sheol,  the  common  sojourn  of  departed  beings, 
equally  of  the  just  and  unjust,  which  appear  in  comparatively 
earl}^  writings,  do  not  seem  of  true  Hebraic  origin.  In  Sheol 
man  can  no  longer  praise  God  or  remember  His  loving-kindness. ^ 
It  is  a  shadow-realm,  a  Jewish  counterpart  of  the  heathen 
Hades,  in  which  the  souls  lead  a  sad,  lethargic,  comfortless 
existence  ;  knowing  nothing  of  those  who  were  dear  to  them 
on  earth,  mourning  only  over  their  own  condition.^ 

But  later  Judaism  is  full  of  the  strongest  faith  in  a  future 
life.  Tradition  revels  in  the  descriptions  of  the  abodes  of  bliss, 
or  of  the  horrors  of  the  damned.*  Zoroastrianism  thus  acted 
on  the  Hebraic  race  in  a  double  way.  It  not  only  developed 
in  them  a  purer  and  more  spiritual  conception  of  a  future 
existence,  but  later  Mago-Zoroastrianism,  itself  a  product  of 
Chaldaeism,  strongly  coloured  the  Rabbinical  beliefs  with 
materialistic  ideas  of  punishments  and  rewards  hereafter.^  It 
was,  however,  among  the  Aryan  nations  of  the  East  that  the 
doctrine  of  a  future  life  after  visible  death  was  distinctly  and 
vividly  recognised.  In  one  branch  of  the  Aryan  family,  it  took 
the  shape  either  of  an  eternal  metempsychosis,  a  ceaseless  whirl 
of  births  and  deaths,  or  of  utter  absorption  after  a  prolonged 
probation  in  absolute  infinity,  or  endless  unfathomable  space, 

1  Comp.  Alger,  History  of  the  Doctrine  oj  a  Future  Life,  p.  157  ;  also  Milman's 
Christianity,  vol.  i.  pp.  21,  25,  75,  etc. 

2  Ps.  vi.  5. 

^  Job  xiv.  22.  Comp.  DoUinger,  vol.  ii.  p.  389  ;  and  Alger,  History  of  the 
Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  pp.  151,  152  et  seq. 

•*  See  Milman,  History  of  Christianity ,  vol.  i.  p.  242,  notes. 

*  See  the  chapter  of  Alger,  tracing  the  influence  of  the  Persian  system  on 
later  Judaism,  p.  165  et  seq. 


III.  THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM         191 

or  nothing.^  In  the  other  branch,  this  doctrine  was  clothed 
in  the  shape  of  a  graduated  scale  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
in  the  sense  in  which  human  accountability  is  understood 
by  the  modern  Christian  or  Moslem.  Whether  the  Mago- 
Zoroastrians  from  the  beginning  believed  in  a  corporeal  resur- 
rection is  a  question  on  which  scholars  are  divided.  Bollinger, 
with  Burnouf  and  others,  believes  that  this  notion  was  not 
really  Zoroastric,  and  that  it  is  of  later  growth,  if  not  derived 
from  Hebrews.  2 

However  this  be,  about  the  time  of  the  Prophet  of  Arabia, 
the  Persians  had  a  strong  and  developed  conception  of  future 
hfe.  The  remains  of  the  Zend-Avesta  which  have  come  down 
to  us  expressly  recognise  a  belief  in  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. The  Zoroastrianism  of  the  Vendidad  and  the  Bunde- 
hesh,  enlarging  upon  the  beliefs  of  the  Avesta,  holds  that  after 
a  man's  death  the  demons  take  possession  of  his  body,  yet 
on  the  third  day  consciousness  returns.  Souls  that  in  their 
lifetime  have  yielded  to  the  seductions  of  evil  cannot  pass  the 
terrible  bridge  Chinevad,  to  which  they  are  conducted  on  the 
day  following  the  third  night  after  their  death.  The  good 
successfully  pass  it,  conducted  by  the  Yazatas  (in  modern 
Persian,  Izad),  and,  entering  the  realms  of  bliss,  join  Ormuzd 
and  the  Amshaspands  in  their  abode,  where  seated  on  thrones 
of  gold,  they  enjoy  the  society  of  beautiful  fairies  {Hoordn-i- 
Behisht)  and  all  manner  of  delights.  The  wicked  fall  over  the 
bridge  or  are  dragged  down  into  the  gulf  of  Dnzakh  where  they 
are  tormented  by  the  Dcevas.  The  duration  of  this  punishment 
is  fixed  by  Ormuzd,  and  some  are  redeemed  by  the  prayers 
and  intercessions  of  their  friends.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
world  a  prophet  is  to  arise,  who  is  to  rid  the  earth  of  injustice 

1  And  yet  the  Brahmanical  priests  painted  the  horrors  of  hell  and  the 
pleasures  of  heaven  with  the  vividness  of  a  thoroughly  morbid  imagination. 
The  Arabic  scholar  is  referred  to  the  appreciative  account  of  the  Buddhistic 
doctrines  (not  so  much  regarding  future  life  as  generally)  in  Shahristani, 
p.  446. 

^  Alger  has  furnished  us  with  strong  reasons  for  supposing  that  the  early 
Zoroastrians  believed  in  a  bodily  resurrection.  The  extreme  repugnance  with 
which  the  Mago- Zoroastrians  regarded  corpses  is  no  reason  for  discarding 
this  conclusion,  as  most  probably  this  repugnance  arose  under  Manichaean 
influences  ;  see  Alger,  p.  138  et  seq.  Apropos  of  the  repugnance  with  which 
the  Persians  in  Mohammed's  time  looked  upon  corpses,  consult  Dollinger, 
vol.  ii.  p.  409. 


192  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

and  wickedness,  and  usher  in  a  reign  of  happiness — the 
Zoroastrian  millennium,  Ormuzd's  kingdom  of  heaven.^ 
After  this,  a  universal  resurrection  will  take  place,  and  friends 
and  relatives  will  meet  again.  After  the  joys  of  recognition 
there  will  follow  a  separation  of  the  good  from  the  bad.  The 
torments  of  the  unrighteous  will  be  fearful.  Ahriman  will 
run  up  and  down  Chinevad  overwhelmed  with  anguish.  A 
blazing  comet,  falling  on  the  earth,  will  ignite  the  world. 
Mountains  will  melt  and  flow  together  like  liquid  metal.  All 
mankind,  good  and  bad  alike,  will  pass  through  this  glowing 
flood,  and  come  out  purified.  Even  Ahriman  will  be  changed 
and  Duzakh  purified.  Evil  thenceforth  will  be  annihilated, 
and  all  mankind  will  live  in  the  enjoyment  of  ineffable  delights. 

Such  is  the  summary  of  a  religion  which  has  influenced  the 
Semitic  faiths  in  an  unmistakable  manner,  and  especially  the 
eclectic  faith  of  Mohammed. 

About  the  time  when  Jesus  of  Nazareth  made  his  appearance, 
the  Phoenicians  and  Assyrians  had  passed  away.  The  hellenised 
Roman  ruled  the  world,  checked  in  the  East,  however,  by 
triumphant  and  revived  Mago-Zoroastrianism. 

The  Jew  had  lost  his  independence  for  ever.  A  miserable 
sycophant  occupied  the  throne  of  David.  A  mightier  power 
than  that  of  the  Seleucidae  kept  in  subjection  his  spirit  of 
unruliness.  Like  every  nation  animated  by  a  fierce  love  of 
their  country,  creed,  and  individuality,  the  Jews,  as  their  fate 
grew  darker  and  darker,  became  more  and  more  inspired  with 
the  hope  that  some  heaven-commissioned  ministrant,  like 
Gideon  or  Maccabeus,  would  restore  their  original  glory,  and 
enable  them  to  plant  their  foot  on  the  necks  of  their  many 
oppressors. 2  The  appearance  of  a  Messiah  portrayed  in  vivid 
colours  by  all  their  patriotic  seers,  the  Jewish  bards,  was 
founded    on    one    grand    aspiration — the    restoration    of    the 

^  Shahristani  calls  this  prophet  Ushizerbeka  (Cureton's  ed.  p.  i88)  ;  but 
according  to  Western  authors  his  name  is  said  to  be  Sosiosch,  who  is  to  be 
preceded  by  two  other  prophets,  called  Oscheder  Bami  and  Oschedermah 
(Dollinger  v.  ii.  p.  401).  De  Sacy  calls  him  Pashoutan  {Sur  Div.  Ant.  de  la 
Perse,  p.  95). 

*  It  is  not  necessary,  as  Alger  supposes,  that  because  the  Jews  looked 
forward  to  the  reappearance  of  Elijah  or  some  other  prophet  among  them 
for  these  national  purposes,  we  must  conclude  that  they  believed  in  trans- 
migration. 


III.  THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM         193 

kingdom  of  Israel.  Under  the  influences  of  the  Mago-Zoro- 
astrians  and  Chaldaeans  in  the  East,  and  the  Grecian  schools  of 
philosophy  in  the  West,  among  some  classes  of  society 
(especially  among  those  whom  the  hellenising  tendencies  of 
Herod  had  withdrawn  from  the  bosom  of  Israel),  the  belief  in 
a  personal  Messiah  was  either  faint  and  indistinct,  or  a  mere 
echo  from  the  vulgar  masses.  But,  as  Milman  beautifully 
observes,  the  Palestinian  Jews  had  about  this  time  moulded 
out  of  various  elements  a  splendid  though  confused  vision  of 
the  appearance  of  the  Messiah,  the  simultaneous  regeneration 
of  all  things,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  reign  of 
Messiah  upon  earth.  All  these  events  were  to  take  place  at 
once,  or  to  follow  close  upon  each  other. ^  The  Messiah  was  to 
descend  from  the  Hne  of  David  ;  he  was  to  assemble  all  the 
scattered  descendants  of  the  tribes,  and  to  expel  and  destroy 
their  hateful  alien  enemies.  Under  the  Messiah  a  resurrection 
would  take  place,  but  would  be  confined  to  the  righteous  of 
their  race.^ 

Amidst  all  this  enthusiasm  and  these  vague  aspirations,  the 
hopes  of  eternal  life  and  future  bliss  were  strangely  mingled. 
The  extremes  of  despair  and  enthusiastic  expectation  of 
external  relief  always  tend  to  the  development  of  such  a  state 
of  mind  among  the  people.  One  section  appears  to  look 
forward  to  an  unearthly  kingdom,  a  reign  of  peace  and  law 
under  divine  agency,  as  an  escape  from  the  galling  yoke  of 
brute  force  ;  the  other  looks  forward  to  the  same  or  cognate 
means  for  securing  the  kingdom  of  heaven  by  the  blood  of 
aUens  and  heathens.^ 

The  traditions  which  record  the  sayings  of  Jesus  have  gone 

^  Milman,  History  of  Christianity,  vol.  i.  p.  76. 

2  The  similarity  between  the  Zoroastrian  idea  of  a  deliverer  and  restorer 
of  religion  and  order  on  earth,  and  the  Messianic  conception  among  the  Jews, 
is,  to  say  the  least,  wonderful.  The  Jews,  it  is  certain,  derived  this  concep- 
tion from  the  Zoroastrians  ;  and  in  their  misfortunes  developed  it  in  more 
vivid  terms.  But  I  am  strongly  disposed  to  think  that  the  idea  of  a  Sosiosch, 
whatever  its  prophetic  significance,  arose  among  the  Persians  also  when 
labouring;  under  a  foreign  yoke — whether  of  the  Semitic  Assyrians  or  the  Greek 
Macedonians  it  is  difficult  to  say.  The  very  country  in  which  the  scene  of 
his  appearance  is  laid — KanguMez  in  Khorasan,  according  to  De  Sacy, 
Cansoya,  according  to  Dollinger's  authorities— shows  that  the  Persians,  in  their 
misfortunes,  looked  to  the  East,  especially  to  the  "  Land  of  the  Sun,"  for 
assistance  and  deliverance. 

^  Like  the  modern,  though  obscure,  sect  of  Christadelphians. 

S.I.  N 


194  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

through  such  a  process  of  ehmination  and  selection,  that  it  is 
hardly  possible  at  the  present  moment  to  say  which  are  really 
his  own  words  and  which  are  not.^  But  taking  them  as  they 
stand,  and  on  the  same  footing  as  we  regard  other  religioufe 
documents  (without  ignoring  their  real  spirit,  yet  without 
trying  to  find  m3^sterious  meanings  like  the  faithful  believer), 
we  see  that  throughout  these  traditional  records  the  notion  of 
an  immediate  advent  of  a  new  order  of  things,  "  of  a  kingdom 
of  heaven,"  is  so  predominant  in  the  mind  of  Jesus  as  to  over- 
shadow all  other  ideas.  The  Son  of  Man  has  appeared,  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  at  hand  ;  such  is  the  burden  of  every  hopeful 
word. 2  This  kingdom  was  to  replace  the  society  and  govern- 
ment which  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth  found  so  imperfect  and 
evil.  At  times  his  words  led  the  disciples  to  conclude  that  the 
new  Teacher  was  born  to  lead  only  the  poor  and  the  famished 
to  glory  and  happiness  ;  that  under  the  hoped-for  theocratic 
regime  these  alone  would  be  "  the  blessed,"  and  would  con- 
stitute the  predominating  element,  for  "  woe  "  is  denounced 
in  awful  terms  against  the  rich  and  the  well-fed.^  At  other 
times,  the  realm  of  God  is  understood  to  mean  the  literal 
fulfilment  of  the  apocalyptic  visions  or  dreams  connected  with 
the  appearance  of  the  Messiah.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  a  realm  of  souls,  and  the  approaching 
deliverance  is  merely  a  spiritual  deliverance  from  the  bondage 

^  Milman  himself  admits  that  the  traditions  regarding  the  acts  and  sayings 
of  Jesus,  which  were  floating  about  among  the  Christian  communities,  were 
not  cast  into  their  present  shape  till  almost  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century  {History  of  Christianity,  vol.  i.  p.  126).  Necessarily,  therefore, 
the  ancient  collectors  and  modellers  of  the  Christian  Gospels,  or  as  Milman 
regards  them,  rude  and  simple  historians,  must  have  exercised  a  discretionary 
latitude  in  the  reception  of  the  traditions.  They  must  have  decided  every- 
thing on  dogmatic  grounds.  "  If  a  narrative  or  scripture  was,  in  its  tone  and 
substance,  agreeable  to  their  (preconceived)  views,  they  looked  upon  defective 
external  evidence  as  complete  ;  if  it  was  not  agreeable,  the  most  sufficient 
was  explained  away  as  a  misunderstanding."  Hence  a  great  many  additions 
were  made,  though  unconsciously,  to  the  sayings  and  doings  of  Jesus.  On 
this  point  the  testimony  of  Celsus,  with  every  allowance  for  exaggeration, 
must  be  regarded  as  conclusive  when  he  says  the  Christians  were  in  the  habit 
of  coining  and  remodelling  their  traditional  accounts  {Origen  c.  Celsus,  ii.  27). 
And  this  on  the  principle  laid  down  by  Sir  W.  Muir  in  Canon  III.  p.  Ixxxi. 
vol.  i.  (Life  of  Mahomet). 

-  Matt.  iv.  17,  X.  7,  etc. 

^  Luke  vii.  20  et  seq.  In  Matthew  "  the  poor  in  spirit  "  are  mentioned. 
But  the  simpler  statement  of  Luke,  from  a  comparison  of  all  the  circum- 
stances, seems  more  authentic. 


III.         THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN   ISLAM         195 

of  this  miindaiie  existence.  All  these  conceptions  appear  at 
one  period  to  have  existed  in  the  mind  of  Jesus  simultaneously.^ 
But  the  fierceness  and  bigotry  of  the  dominant  party  and  the 
power  of  the  Roman  eagle  made  any  immediate  social  change 
impossible.  As  every  hope  of  present  amelioration  died  away, 
hopes  and  aspirations  of  a  brighter  future  took  possession  of 
the  heart.  Jesus  felt  the  present  state  could  not  last  long  ; 
that  the  time  of  the  regeneration  of  m.ankind  was  at  hand,- 
when  he  himself  would  appear  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,  clothed 
in  divine  garments,  seated  on  a  throne,  surrounded  by  angels 
and  his  chosen  disciples.^  The  dead  would  rise  from  their 
graves,^  and  the  Messiah  would  sit  in  judgment.  The  angels 
would  be  the  executors  of  his  sentence.  He  would  send  the 
elect  to  a  delightful  abode  prepared  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  and  the  unrighteous  into  "  everlasting  fire  prepared  for 
the  devil  and  his  angels,"  ^  where  there  would  be  weeping  and 
gnashing  of  teeth.  The  chosen,  not  numerically  large, "^  would 
be  taken  into  an  illuminated  mansion,  where  they  would 
partake  of  banquets  presided  over  by  the  father  of  the  race  of 
Israel,  the  patriarchs,  and  the  prophets,'  and  in  which  Jesus 
himself  will  share. ^ 

^  Renan,  Vie  de  Jesus,  p.  282. 

*Matt.  xix.  18. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Jesus  himself  believed  in  a  corporeal  resur- 
rection, and  in  tangible  rewards  and  punishments  in  a  future  life.  He  often 
spoke  of  "  the  blessed  "  in  his  kingdom  eating  and  drinking  at  his  table.  But 
whilst  in  the  earl}'  traditions  passing  under  the  name  of  the  four  apostles, 
the  accounts,  owing  to  careful  pruning,  are  meagre  enough,  later  traditionists 
enlarge  upon  the  descriptions  of  paradise  and  hell,  and  revel  in  the  most 
gorgeous  fantasies,  which  go  under  the  name  of  revelations  {uide  Rev.  xxi. 
8-21,  xxii.  I,  2).  In  puerility  even  the  Christian  traditionists  do  not  fall 
short  of  the  followers  of  other  creeds.  The  tradition  handed  down  by 
Irenaeus  on  the  authority  of  John  declares  Jesus  to  have  said,  "  Days  shall 
come  in  which  there  shall  be  vines,  which  shall  have  each  ten  thousand 
branches,  and  every  one  of  these  branches  shall  have  ten  thousand  lesser 
branches,  and  ever}'  one  of  these  branches  shall  have  ten  thousand  twigs,  and 
every  one  of  these  twigs  shall  have  ten  thousand  clusters  of  grapes,  and  in 
every  one  of  these  clusters  there  shall  be  ten  thousand  grapes,  and  every  one 
of  these  grapes  being  pressed  shall  yield  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  gallons 
of  wine  ;  and  when  a  man  shall  take  hold  of  one  of  these  sacred  bunches, 
another  bunch  shall  cry  out,  I  am  a  better  bunch,  take  me,  and  bless  the 
Lord  by  me,"  etc. 

^  Matt.  xvi.  27,  xxiv.  30,  31,  xxv.  31  et  seq.  etc. 

^  Rev.  XX.  12,  13.     Compare  these  notions  with  the  Zoroastrian  belief. 

'  Matt.  xxv.  41.  ^  Luke  xiii.  23. 

^  Matt.  viii.  11  ;   Luke  xiii.  28,  xxii.  30.  =*  Matt.  xxvi.  29. 


196  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

That  the  inauguration  of  the  new  regime  with  the  second 
advent  of  Jesus  and  the  resurrection  of  the  human  race  was 
considered  not  to  be  distant,  is  apparent  from  the  words  of 
the  Master  himself,  when  he  impressed  upon  his  hearers  the 
approach  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  the  utter  futiUty  of  every 
provision  for  the  occupations  and  exigencies  of  the  present 
hfe.i 

The  words  of  the  Teacher,  acting  in  unison  with  the  state 
of  mind  engendered  by  the  circumstances  of  the  age,^  had  sunk 
deep  into  the  hearts  of  his  disciples,  and  all  looked  forward, 
with  a  vividness  of  expectation  hardly  surpassed  in  the  annals 
of  human  beliefs,  to  the  literal  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies 
concerning  the  millennium. 

"  If  the  first  generation  of  the  Christians  had  a  profound  and 
constant  behef,  it  was  that  the  world  was  approaching  its  end, 
and  that  the  great  '  revelation  '  of  Christ  was  to  happen  soon."  ^ 
It  is  only  when  the  Christian  Church  becomes  a  regular 
organisation  that  the  followers  of  Jesus  expand  their  views 
beyond  the  restricted  horizon  of  the  Judaic  world,  and,  for- 
getting their  millenarian  dream,  they  pass  into  the  Greek  and 
Roman  system,  and  extend  the  empire  of  their  creed  over 
untold  legions  of  barbarians  fresh  from  their  forests,  who 
looked  upon  Jesus  and  his  mother  as  the  counterparts  of  their 
own  Odin  and  Freya  worshipped  in  their  primeval  homes. 

But  ever  and  anon  the  Christian  world  has  been  agitated  in 
moments  of  convulsions  and  disasters  by  the  millenary  excite- 
ment and  fierce  expectation  of  the  apocalyptic  appearance  of 
the  great  Prophet  of  Nazareth.  The  idea,  however,  of  the 
realm  of  God  has,  with  the  lapse  of  ages  and  the  progress  of 
thought,  taken  either  a  spiritual  shape  or  utterly  faded  away 
from  the  mind,  or,  where  it  has  been  retained,  derives  its 
character  from  the  surroundings  of  the  individual  believers. 
The  Jew,  the  Mago-Zoroastrian,  and  the  Christian  all  believed 
in  a  bodily  resurrection.  The  crude  notions  of  primitive 
Mosaism  had  made  way  for  more  definite  ideas  derived  chiefly 

1  Matt.  X.  23  ;   Mark  xiii.  30  ;   Luke  xiii.  35  ;   Matt.  vi.  25-34,  viii.  22. 
^  Mark  the  bitter  term  which  Jesus  applies  to  his  generation. 
^  Renan,  Vie  de  Jesus,  p.  287.     Comp.  also  Milman's  History  of  Christianity, 
vol.  i.  p.  378. 


III.         THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN   ISLAM        197 

from  the  Chaldaeo-Zoroastrian  doctrines.  We  know  how  among 
the  Persians  the  old  worship  of  the  mountains,  the  simple 
teachings  of  the  early  teachers,  had  grown,  under  the  magic 
wands  of  the  Babylonian  wizards,  into  a  complex  system  of 
graduated  rewards  and  punishments, — how  Chaldaean  philo- 
sophy had  permeated  Mago-Zoroastrianism  to  its  innermost 
core.  Primitive  Christianity,  with  its  vivid  belief  in  the 
immediate  advent  of  the  material  kingdom  of  Christ,  had 
imbibed  notions  from  Chaldaean,  Mago-Zoroastrian,  and 
Alexandrian  sources  which  had  considerably  altered  the  old 
conceptions.  Jew,  Christian,  and  Zoroastrian  all  looked,  more 
or  less,  to  material  rewards  and  punishments  in  a  future 
existence. 

The  popular  Christian  notion,  fostered  by  ecclesiasticism , 
that  Mohammed  denied  souls  to  women,  is  by  this  time,  we 
believe,  exploded.  It  was  a  calumny  concocted  to  create  an 
aversion  against  Islam.  But  the  idea  that  the  Arabian  Prophet 
promised  his  followers  a  sensual  paradise  with  hooris,  and  a 
graduated  scale  of  delights,  still  lingers.  It  is  a  sign  alike  of 
ignorance  and  ancient  bigotry.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the 
Suras  of  the  intermediate  period,  before  the  mind  of  the  Teacher 
had  attained  the  full  development  of  religious  consciousness, 
and  when  it  was  necessary  to  formulate  in  language  inteUigible 
to  the  common  folk  of  the  desert,  the  realistic  descriptions  of 
heaven  and  hell,  borrowed  from  the  floating  fancies  of  Zoro- 
astrian, Sabaean,  and  the  Talmudical  Jew,  attract  the  attention 
as  a  side  picture,  and  then  comes  the  real  essence — the  adoration 
of  God  in  humility  and  love.  The  hooris  are  creatures  of 
Zoroastrian  origin,  so  is  paradise,^  whilst  hell  in  the  severity  of 
its  punishment  is  Talmudic.  The  descriptions  are  realistic, 
in  some  places  almost  sensuous  ;  but  to  say  that  they  are 
sensual,  or  that  Mohammed,  or  any  of  his  followers,  even  the 
ultra-literalists  accepted  them  as  such,  is  a  calumny.  The  wine 
"  that  does  not  inebriate  "  and  the  attendants  "  that  come  not 
nigh,"  can  hardly  be  said  to  represent  sensual  pleasures  ! 

The  chief  and  predominating  idea  in  Islam  respecting  a  future 
life  is  founded  upon  the  belief  that,  in  a  state  of  existence  here- 
after, every  human  being  will  have  to  render  an  account  of  his 
1  In  Persian,  firdous. 


igS  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

or  her  actions  on  earth,  and  that  the  happiness  or  misery  of 
individuals  will  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  have 
performed  the  behests  of  their  Creator.  His  mercy  and  grace 
are  nevertheless  unbounded,  and  will  be  bestowed  alike  upon 
His  creatures.  This  is  the  pivot  on  which  the  whole  doctrine 
of  future  life  in  Islam  turns,  and  this  is  the  only  doctrinal  point 
one  is  required  to  beUeve  and  accept.  All  the  other  elements, 
caught  up  and  syncretised  from  the  floating  traditions  of  the 
races  and  peoples  of  the  time,  are  mere  accessories.  Setting 
aside  from  our  consideration  the  question  of  subjectivity 
involved  in  all  ideas  of  future  rewards  and  punishments,  we 
may  say,  in  all  ideas  of  a  hfe  after  death,  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  these  ideas  have  furnished  to  the  moral  teachers  of  the 
world  the  most  powerful  instrument  for  influencing  the  conduct 
of  individuals  and  nations.  But  though  every  rehgion,  more 
or  less,  contains  the  germ  of  this  principle  of  future  account- 
ability in  another  state,  all  have  failed  thoroughly  to  realise 
its  nature  as  a  continuous  agency  for  the  elevation  of  the  masses. 
Virtue,  for  its  own  sake,  can  only  be  grasped  by  minds  of 
superior  development  ;  for  the  average  intellect,  and  for  the 
uneducated,  sanctions,  more  or  less  comprehensible,  will  always 
be  necessary. 

To  turn  now  to  the  nature  of  these  sanctions,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  it  is  scarcely  ever  possible  to  convey  an  idea 
of  spiritual  pleasure  or  spiritual  pain  to  the  apprehensions  of  the 
generality  of  mankind  without  clothing  the  expressions  in  the 
garb  of  tangible  personalities,  or  introducing  sensible  objects 
into  the  description  of  such  pleasure  or  pain.  Philosophy  has 
wrangled  over  abstract  expressions,  not  dressed  in  tangible 
phraseology.  Such  expressions  and  conceptions  have  seen 
their  day,  have  flourished,  and  have  died  without  making  them- 
selves felt  beyond  a  restricted  circle  of  dreamers,  who  Hved  in 
the  indefinable  vagueness  of  their  own  thoughts. 

Mohammed  was  addressing  himself  not  only  to  the  advanced 
minds  of  a  few  idealistic  thinkers  who  happened  to  be  then 
living,  but  to  the  wide  world  around  him  engrossed  in 
materialism  of  every  type.  He  had  to  adapt  himself  to  the 
comprehensions  of  all.  To  the  wild  famished  Arab,  what  more 
grateful,  or  what  more  consonant  to  his  ideas  of  paradise  than 


III.        THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE   IN   ISLAM        199 

rivers  of  unsullied  incorruptible  water,  or  of  milk  and  honey  ; 
or  anything  more  acceptable  than  unlimited  fruit,  luxuriant 
vegetation,  inexhaustible  fertility  ?  He  could  conceive  of  no 
bliss  unaccompanied  with  these  sensuous  pleasures.  This  is 
the  contention  of  that  portion  of  the  Moslem  world  which, 
like  Sanai  and  Ghazzali,  holds  that  behind  the  descriptions  of 
material  happiness  portrayed  in  objects  like  trees,  rivers,  and 
beautiful  mansions  with  fairy  attendants,  lies  a  deeper  meaning  ; 
and  that  the  joy  of  joys  is  to  consist  in  the  beatific  visions  of 
the  soul  in  the  presence  of  the  Almighty,  when  the  veil  which 
divides  man  from  his  Creator  will  be  rent,  and  heavenly  glory 
revealed  to  the  mind  untrammelled  by  its  corporeal,  earthly 
habiliments.  In  this  they  are  upheld  by  the  words  of  the 
Koran  as  well  as  the  authentic  sayings  of  the  Prophet.  "  The 
most  favoured  of  God,"  said  Mohammed,  "  will  be  he  who  shall 
see  his  Lord's  face  (glory)  night  and  morning,  a  felicity  which 
will  surpass  all  the  pleasures  of  the  body,  as  the  ocean  surpasses 
a  drop  of  sweat."  One  day,  talking  to  his  friend,  Abu  Huraira, 
the  Prophet  said,  "  God  has  prepared  for  His  good  people  what 
no  eye  hath  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  nor  hath  it  entered  into  the 
heart  of  anyone,"  and  then  recited  the  following  verse  of  the 
Koran  :  "No  soul  knoweth  the  joy  which  is  secretly  prepared 
for  it  as  a  reward  for  that  it  may  have  wrought."  ^  Another 
tradition  ^  reports  that  Mohammed  declared  the  good  will 
enjoy  the  beatific  vision  of  God,  to  which  reference,  he  said, 
is  made  in  the  following  verse  of  the  Koran  :  "  And  God 
inviteth  unto  the  dwelling  of  peace  .  .  .  For  those  who  do  good 
there  is  excellent  reward  and  superabundant  addition."  ^ 

As  to  the  parabolical  nature  of  the  Koranic  expressions,  this 
school  of  thinkers  bases  its  convictions  on  the  following  passage 
of  the  inspired  Book  :  "  It  is  He  who  hath  sent  down  unto  thee 
'  the  Book.'  Some  of  the  signs  (verses)  are  firm  {i.e.  per- 
spicuous or  clear  to  understand) — these  are  the  basis  (or 
fundamental  part)  of  the  book — and  others  are  figurative."  ^ 

^  Koran  xxxii.  17  ;  Mishkat,  bk.  xxiii.  chap.  xiii.  pt.  i.  -  From  Suhaib. 

'  Koran  x.  26.  Consult  here  Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshdf),  Egyp.  Ed.,  pt.  i. 
p.  244  ;  he  gives  the  fullest  references  to  the  opinions  of  the  different  theo- 
logians and  schools,  and  especially  mentions  the  doctrines  of  the  Mush- 
habbahSs  and  the  Jabarias. 

*  Koran  iii.  5. 


200  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Another  section  looks  upon  the  joys  and  pains  of  the  Here- 
after as  entirely  subjective.  It  holds  that  as  extreme  mental 
pain  is  far  more  agonising  than  physical  pain,  so  is  mental 
pleasure  of  the  higher  type  far  more  rapturous  than  any 
sensuous  pleasure  ;  that  as,  after  physical  death,  the  indi- 
vidual soul  "  returns,"  to  use  the  Koranic  expression,  to  the 
Universal  Soul,  all  the  joys  and  pains,  portrayed  in  vivid 
colours  by  the  inspired  Teacher  to  enable  the  masses  to  grasp 
the  truth,  will  be  mental  and  subjective.  This  section  includes 
within  its  bosom  some  of  the  greatest  philosophers  and  mystics 
of  the  Moslem  world. 

Another,  and  by  far  perhaps  the  larger  class,  however,  believe 
in  the  Uteral  fulfilment  of  all  the  word-paintings  of  the  Koran. 

Without  venturing  to  pass  any  opinion  on  these  different 
notions,  we  may  take  this  occasion  to  state  our  own  behef 
with  regard  to  the  Koranic  conception  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments. 

A  careful  study  of  the  Koran  makes  it  evident  that  the  mind 
of  Mohammed  went  through  the  same  process  of  development 
which  marked  the  religious  consciousness  of  Jesus.  Moham- 
med and  Jesus  are  the  only  two  historic  Teachers  of  the  world, 
and  for  this  reason  we  take  them  together.  How  great  this 
development  was  in  Jesus  is  apparent,  not  only  from  the 
idealised  conception  towards  the  end  of  his  earthly  career 
regarding  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  but  also  from  the  change 
of  tone  towards  the  non-Israelites.  Thoroughly  exclusive  at 
first,  1  with  a  more  developed  religious  consciousness  wider 
sympathies  awaken  in  the  heart. ^ 

As  with  Jesus  so  with  Mohammed. 

The  various  chapters  of  the  Koran  which  contain  the  ornate 
descriptions  of  paradise,  whether  figurative  or  literal,  were 
delivered  wholly  or  in  part  at  Mecca.  Probably  in  the  infancy 
of  his  reUgious  consciousness,  Mohammed  himself  believed  in 
some  or  other  of  the  traditions  which  floated  around  him.  But 
with  a  wider  awakening  of  the  soul,  a  deeper  communion  with 
the  Creator  of  the  Universe,  thoughts,  which  bore  a  material 

^  Matt.  X.  5,  XV.  22-26. 

-  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  etc. ;  comp.  throughout  Strauss,  New  Life  of  Jesus  (1865), 
vol.  i.  p.  296  et  seq. 


III.         THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM        201 

aspect  at  first,  became  spiritualised.  The  mind  of  the  Teacher 
progressed  not  only  with  the  march  of  time  and  the  develop- 
ment of  his  religious  consciousness,  but  also  with  the  progress 
of  his  disciples  in  apprehending  spiritual  conceptions.  Hence, 
in  the  later  suras  we  observe  a  merging  of  the  material  in  the 
spiritual,  of  the  body  in  the  soul.  The  gardens  "  watered  by 
rivers,"  perpetual  shade, ^  plenty  and  harmony,  so  agreeable  to 
the  famished  denizen  of  the  parched,  shadeless,  and  waterless 
desert,  at  perpetual  discord  with  himself  and  all  around  him, 
— these  still  form  the  groundwork  of  beautiful  imageries  ;  but 
the  happiness  of  the  blessed  is  shown  to  consist  in  eternal  peace 
and  goodwill  in  the  presence  of  their  Creator.  "  But  those," 
says  the  Koran,  "  who  are  pious  shall  dwell  in  gardens,  amidst 
fountains  ;  they  shall  say  unto  them,  '  Enter  ye  therein  in 
peace  and  security  '  ;  and  aU  rancour  will  we  remove  from  their 
bosoms  ;  they  shall  sit  as  brethren,  face  to  face,^  on  couches  ; 
weariness  shall  not  affect  them  therein,  neither  shall  they  be 
repelled  thence  for  ever."  ^ 

What  can  be  nobler  or  grander  in  its  conception  or  imagery, 
or  give  a  better  idea  of  the  belief  in  the  Prophet's  mind 
when  conveying  his  final  message  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  present  and  future  life,  than  the  following  passage  : 
"  It  is  He  who  enableth  you  to  travel  by  land  and  by  sea  ;  so 
that  ye  go  on  board  of  ships,  which  sail  on  with  them,  with 
favourable  breeze,  and  they  rejoice  therein.  But  if  a  tem- 
pestuous wind  overtake,  and  the  waves  come  on  them  from 
every  side,  and  they  think  they  are  encompassed  therewith, 
they  call  on  God,  professing  unto  Him  sincere  religion  ;  (saying) 
wouldst  Thou  but  rescue  us  from  this,  then  we  will  ever  be 
indeed  of  the  thankful.  But  when  We  have  rescued  them, 
Behold  !  they  commit  unrighteous  excesses  on  the  earth.  O 
men  !  verily  the  excesses  ye  commit  to  the  injury  of  your  own 
souls  are  only  for  the  enjoyment  of  this  earthly  life  ;  soon  shall 
ye  return  to  Us,  and  We  will  declare  unto  you  that  which  ye 
have  done.  Verily,  the  likeness  of  this  present  life  is  not 
otherwise  than  the  water  which  We  send  down  from  heaven  ; 
and  the  productions  of  the  earth,  of  which  men  and  cattle  eat, 

^  Koran  xiii.  34,  xlvii.  16,  17.     Comp.  also  chaps,  ix.,  x.,  and  xiv. 

^  I.e.  with  peace  and  good-will  in  their  hearts.  ^  Koran  xv.  48. 


202  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

are  mixed  therewith,  till  the  earth  has  received  its  beautiful 
raiment,  and  is  decked  out,  and  they  who  inhabit  it  imagine 
they  have  power  over  it  !  (But)  Our  behest  cometh  unto  it 
by  night  or  by  day,  and  We  make  it  as  if  it  had  been  mown,  as 
though  it  had  not  teemed  (with  fertihty)  only  yesterday.  Thus 
do  we  make  our  signs  clear  unto  those  who  consider.  And 
God  inviteth  unto  the  abodes  of  peace,  and  guideth  whom  He 
pleaseth  into  the  right  way.^  For  those  who  do  good  is 
excellent  reward  and  superabundant  addition  of  it  ;  neither 
blackness  nor  shame  shall  cover  their  faces.  These  are  the 
inhabitants  of  paradise  ;  therein  do  they  abide  for  ever.  But 
those  who  have  wrought  evil  shall  receive  the  reward  of  evil 
equal  thereunto  ;  ^  and  shame  shall  cover  them  (for  there  will 
be  none  to  protect  them  against  God)  as  though  their  faces 
were  covered  with  a  piece  of  the  night  of  profound  darkness."  ^ 

Then  again,  what  can  be  purer  in  its  aspirations  than  the 
following  : 

"  Who  fulfil  the  covenant  of  God  and  break  not  their  com- 
pact ;  and  who  join  together  what  God  hath  bidden  to  be 
joined  ;  and  who  fear  their  Lord  and  dread  an  ill-reckoning  ; 
and  who,  from  a  sincere  desire  to  please  their  Lord,^  are  constant 
amid  trials,  and  observe  prayers  and  give  alms,  in  secret  and 
openly,  out  of  what  We  have  bestowed  on  them  ;  and  turn 
aside  evil  with  good  :  for  them  there  is  the  recompense  of  that 
abode,  gardens  of  eternal  habitation,  into  which  they  shall 
enter,  together  with  such  as  shall  have  acted  rightly  from 
among  their  fathers,  their  wives,  and  their  posterity  ;  and  the 
angels  shaU  go  in  unto  them  by  every  portal,  (saying)  '  Peace 
be  with  you  !  because  ye  have  endured  with  patience.'  Excellent 
is  the  reward  in  that  abode  !  "  ^ 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  utter  falsehood  of  the 
theory   that    Mohammed's   pictures   of   future    life    were    all 

^  Baizawi  explains  the  expression  "  whom  He  pleaseth,"  as  "  those  who 
repent  "  (p.  67,  n.  i,  chap.  iv).     Compare  Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshaf). 

-  Observe  the  reward  of  virtue  will  not  be  confined  to  an  exact  measure 
of  man's  works  ;  it  will  far  exceed  his  deserts  ;  but  the  recompense  of  evil 
will  be  strictly  proportioned  to  what  one  has  done. 

^  Koran  x.  23-27. 

•*  This  may  also  be  translated  as  "  from  a  desire  to  see  the  face  (glory)  of 
their  Lord." 

6  Koran  xiii.  20-24.     Compare  throughout  Zamakhshari  (the  Kashshaf). 


III.         THE  IDEA  OF  FUTURE  LIFE  IN  ISLAM         203 

sensuous.  We  will  conclude  this  chapter  with  the  following 
passage  from  the  Koran  to  show  the  depth  of  spirituality  in 
Islam,  and  the  purit}^  of  the  hopes  and  aspirations  on  which  it 
bases  its  rule  of  Ufe  :  "  O  thou  soul  which  art  at  rest,  return 
unto  thy  Lord,  pleased  and  pleasing  Him,  enter  thou  among 
my  servants,  and  enter  thou  my  garden  of  felicity."  ^ 

^  Koran  Ixxxix.  27-30. 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM 


THE  extraordinary  rapidity  with  which  the  religion  of 
the  Arabian  Prophet  spread  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  phenomena 
in  the  history  of  religions.  For  centuries  Christianity  had 
hidden  itself  in  byways  and  corners  ;  not  until  it  had  largely 
absorbed  and  assimilated  paganism,  not  until  a  half-pagan 
monarch  had  come  to  its  assistance  with  edicts  and  orders, 
was  it  able  to  rear  its  head  among  the  creeds  of  the  world. 
Islam,  within  thirty  years  of  the  death  of  its  Teacher, 
found  its  way  into  the  hearts  of  millions  of  people.  And 
before  a  century  was  well  over  the  voice  of  the  Recluse  of 
Hira  had  rolled  across  three  continents.  The  legions  of  the 
Caesars  and  the  Chosroes,  who  endeavoured  to  stop  the  onrush 
of  the  new  democracy  preached  in  Arabia,  were  shattered  to 
pieces  by  the  children  of  the  desert.  Its  remarkable  success  and 
marvellous  effect  upon  the  minds  of  men  have  given  rise  to  the 
charge  that,  as  a  religion  of  the  sword,  Islam  was  propagated 

1  Sura  ii.  261,  "  Let  there  be  no  compulsion  in  religion." 
*  Sura  V.  69  ;  see  p.  175.     Compare  this  with  the  thunders  of  the  Athanasian 
Creed. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  205 

by  the  sword  and  upheld  by  the  sword.  We  propose,  therefore, 
carefully  to  examine  the  circumstances  and  facts  connected 
with  the  rise  of  Islam,  to  see  whether  there  is  any  truth  in  the 
statement. 

At  the  time  of  the  Prophet's  advent  into  Medina,  the  two 
tribes  of  Aus  and  Khazraj,  who  had  been  engaged  in  deadly 
conflict  for  years,  had  just  ended  their  strife  by  a  hollow  peace. 
There  was  every  prospect  of  the  war  breaking  out  again  with 
fiercer  animosity.  The  Jews,  who  after  the  onslaught  of  Jabala 
had  accepted  the  cHentage  of  the  Medinite  Arabs,  were  fast 
recovering  their  strength  and  were  openly  threatening  their 
pagan  compatriots  with  the  vengeance  of  the  Messiah,  whose 
appearance  was  hourly  expected.  The  surrounding  tribes, 
among  whom  the  influence  of  the  Koreish  was  supreme,  were 
arrayed  in  all  their  desert  ferocity  against  Medina.  The 
moment  Mohammed  appeared  among  the  Medinites  the 
elements  of  danger  which  threatened  the  new  religion  became 
apparent.  The  Meccan  disciples  who  had  braved  death,  and 
now  faced  destitution  and  exile  for  their  Master  and  the  light 
which  he  had  brought  to  their  hearts,  were  few  and  weak.  His 
Medinite  followers  were  not  many  ;  they  were  divided  amongst 
themselves,  actuated  by  tribal  jealousies.  An  important 
faction,  headed  by  an  influential  chieftain,  an  aspirant  to  the 
throne  of  Medina,  worked  in  the  city  on  the  side  of  the  heathens. ^ 
The  Jews,  compact  and  united,  jealously  and  relentlessly,  with 
poison  and  with  treachery,  opposed  him  in  every  direction. 
But  the  heart,  which  did  not  fail  when  the  Koreish  threatened 
him  with  death,  was  not  daunted  when  the  existence  of  others 
depended  on  him.  He  at  once  set  himself  to  the  task  of 
organising  into  a  social  entity  the  varied  elements  which  had 
gathered  round  him  as  the  minister  of  God.  He  substituted 
referees  for  the  old  tribal  vendetta  ;  he  abolished  the  dis- 
tinction of  Aus  and  Khazraj  ;  he  comprehended  the  Jews  and 
Christians  in  his  little  commonwealth,  and  planted  germs  of 
cordial  relations  among  all  believers  ;  he  proclaimed  that  a  Jew, 
Sabaean,  or  Christian,  whoever  believed  in  God  and  future  life 
and  acted  righteously,  "  on  him  shall  come  no  fear."  To  a 
people  wedded  to  the  worst  type  of  heathenism,  to  a  race  with 
1  See  ante,f-p.  57. 


2o6  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  it. 

whom  the  shedding  of  blood  was  a  second  nature,  he  taught 
purity  and  truth,  self-restraint,  charity,  and  love  of  one's  kind. 
"  It  shall  be  an  expiation  with  God,"  he  said  to  them,  "  when 
one  shall  drop  his  right  of  retaliation."  "  He  who  shall  mediate 
between  men  for  a  good  purpose  shall  be  the  gainer  thereby, 
but  the  mediator  for  evil  shall  reap  the  fruit  of  his  doing."  ^ 

Whilst  engaged  in  this  divine  work  of  humanising  his  people, 
raising  them  from  the  abyss  of  degradation,  purifying  them  from 
abominations,  he  is  attacked  by  his  enemies,  ruthless  and  un- 
tiring in  their  vengeance.     They  had  sworn  his  death  and  the 
extirpation  of  his  creed.     The  apostates  from  the  faith  of  their 
fathers,  as  the  Koreish  regarded  Mohammed  and  his  followers 
to  be,  had  betaken  themselves  to  the  rival  city,  to  plant  the 
germs  of  revolutionary  doctrines.     United  Arabia  must  annihi- 
late these  crazy  enthusiasts  who  had  forsaken  home  and  wealth 
for  the  sake  of  an  unseen  God,  so  exacting  in  His  worship,  so 
insistent  on  the  common  duties  of  love,  charity,  and  benevolence, 
on  purity  of  thought  and  deed.     From  the  moment  of  his  entry  i 
into  Medina,   Mohammed's  destiny  had  become  intertwined  j 
with  that  of  his  people,  and  of  those  who  had  invited  and  j 
welcomed  him  into  their  midst.     His  destruction  meant  the  j 
destruction  of  the  entire  body  of  people  who  had  gathered  j 
round   the   minister   of   God.     Surrounded   by   enemies   and  ; 
traitors,  the  whole  of  Arabia  responding  to  the  caU  of  the  j 
Koreish,  the  ancient  servitors  of  the  national  gods  marching  to  j 
their  slaughter,  his  followers  would  have  inevitably  perished  j 
but  for  the  swords  in  their  hands.     And  it  was  not  until  their  ; 
enemies  were  upon  them  that  it  was  declared,  "  The  infidels  1 
regard  not  in  a  behever  either  ties  of  blood  or  covenant  ;  when 
they  break  their  oaths  of  alUance,  and  attack  you,  defend 
yourself  "  ;  and  again,  "  Defend  yourself  against  your  enemies  ; 
but  attack  them  not  first  :    God  hateth  the  aggressor."  ^     To 
the   Moslems   self-defence   had   become   a   question    of    self- 
preservation.     They  must  either  submit  to  be  massacred  or 
fight  when  they  were  attacked.     They  chose  the  latter  alter- 
native, and  succeeded,  after  a  long  struggle,  in  subduing  their 
enemies. 

The  bitter  animosity  of  the  Jews,  their  repeated  violations  of 

^  Sura  iv.  85.  ^  Sura  ii.  190. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  207 

the  most  solemn  engagements,  their  constant  seditiousness,  and 
then-  frequent  endeavours  to  betray  the  Moslems  to  the  idolaters, 
led  naturally  to  severe  chastisement.  It  was  essentially  neces- 
sary for  the  safety  of  the  weak  and  small  community,  more  as 
a  deterrent  warning  than  as  a  vindictive  punishment. 

We  have  no  right  to  assume  that  because  some  of  the  great 
teachers  who  have  from  time  to  time  appeared  on  earth  have 
succumbed  under  the  force  of  opposing  circumstances  and 
become  martyrs,  that  because  others  have  created  in  their 
brams  an  unreahsed  Utopia,  that  because  dreamers  have 
existed,  and  enthusiasts  have  suffered,  Mohammed  was  bound 
to  follow  their  example,  and  leave  the  world  before  he  had 
fulfilled  his  mission.  Nor  was  he  obliged  to  sacrifice  himself 
and  the  entire  community  over  which  he  was  called  to  preside, 
for  the  sake  of  carrying  out  what,  in  the  present  time,  would 
be  called  an  '  Idea.' 

Let  us  compare  the  struggles  of  the  Moslems  in  self-defence, 
and  for  self-preservation,  with  the  frightful  wars  of  the  Jews 
and  the  Christians,  and  even  of  the  gentle  Parsis,  for  the 
propagation  of  their  respective  faiths.  In  the  case  of  the  Jews, 
aggression  and  extirpation  were  sanctified  by  rehgion.  They 
were  cursed  for  sparing. 

In  the  case  of  the  early  Christians,  the  doctrine  of  humility 
and  meekness,  preached  by  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth,  was  soon 
forgotten  in  the  pride  of  power.  From  the  moment  Christianity 
became  a  recognised  force, — the  dominant  faith  of  a  community, 
— it  became  aggressive  and  persecuting.  Parallels  have  been 
drawn  between  Jesus  and  Mohammed  by  different  writers. 
Those  fully  penetrated  with  the  conviction  of  the  godhead  of 
Jesus  have  recognised  in  the  "  earthly  "  means  employed  by 
the  Arabian  Prophet  for  the  regeneration  of  his  people  the 
result  of  "  Satanic  suggestions,"  while  the  non-employment  of 
such  means  (perhaps  from  want  of  opportunity  to  use  them) 
has  been  looked  upon  as  establishing  the  divinity  of  the  Prophet 
of  Nazareth.  We  shall  furnish  reasons  to  show  that  such  com- 
parisons are  unfair,  based  as  they  are  on  what  is  not  only  false 
to  history,  but  false  to  human  nature. 

The  circumstances  attending  the  lives  of  Jesus  and 
Mohammed  were  wholly  different.     During  his  short  ministry 


2o8  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

the  influence  of  Jesus  remained  confined  to  a  small  body  of 
followers,  taken  chiefly  from  the  lower  and  uneducated  ranks. 
He  fell  a  victim  ^  to  the  passions  he  had  evoked  by  his  scathing 
denunciations  of  the  lifeless  sacerdotalism  of  the  priestly  classes 
—to  the  undying  hatred  of  a  relentless  race — before  his  followers 
had  become  either  numerous  or  influential  enough  to  require 
practical  rules  for  their  guidance,  or  before  they  could  form  an 
organisation,  either  for  purposes  of  spiritual  teaching,  or  as  a 
safeguard  against  the  persecutions  of  the  dominant  creed. 
Drawn  from  among  a  people  with  settled  laws,  the  observance 
of  which  was  guaranteed  by  the  suzerain  power,  the  followers 
of  Jesus  had  no  occasion  to  constitute  themselves  into  an 
organised  body,  nor  had  the  Teacher  any  need  to  frame  rules 
of  practical  positive  morality.  The  want  was  felt  when  the  ' 
community  became  more  extensive,  and  the  genius  of  a  scholar, 
well-versed  in  the  Neo-Platonic  lore,  destroyed  the  individuality  ; 
and  simplicity  of  the  teachings  of  the  Master.  j 

Mohammed,  like  Jesus,  was  followed  from  the  commence-  j 
ment  of  his  career  as  a  preacher  and  reformer  by  the  hostility  j 
and  opposition  of  his  people.  His  followers  also,  in  the  j 
beginning,  were  few  and  insignificant.  He  also  was  preceded  i 
by  men  who  had  shaken  off  the  bondage  of  idolatry,  and  had  ! 
listened  to  the  springs  of  the  life  within.  He,  too,  preached  j 
gentleness,  charity,  and  love.  | 

But  Mohammed  appeared  among  a  nation  steeped  in  barbar-  j 
ous  usages,  who  looked  upon  war  as  the  object  of  life, — a  nation  \ 
far  removed  from  the  materiahsing,  degrading  influences  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  yet  likewise  far  from  their  humanising 
influences.     At  first  his  enunciations  evoked  scorn,  and  then  ^ 
vengeful  passions.     His  followers,  however,  increased  in  number  j 
and  strength  until  at  last  the  invitation  of  the  Medinites  \ 
crowned  his  glorious  work  with  success.     From  the  moment  he 
accepted  the  asylum  so  nobly  proffered,  from  the  moment  he  , 
was  called  upon  to  become  their  chief  magistrate  as  well  as.; 

1  I  write  according  to  the  generally  received  opinion  among  Western 
scholars  ;  that  Mohammed,  in  accordance  with  the  traditions  current  in  his 
time,  believed  that  Jesus  miraculously  disappeared,  there  is  no  doubt.  In 
spite  of  this  so-called  apocryphal  Gnostic  tradition  being  opposed  to  the 
general  body  of  Christian  traditions,  there  is  as  much  historic  probability  on 
one  side  as  the  other. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  209 

their  spiritual  teacher,  his  fate  became  involved  in  theirs  ; 
from  that  time  the  hostilities  of  the  idolaters  and  their  allies 
required  an  unsleeping  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  Moslems. 
A  single  city  had  to  make  head  against  the  combined  attacks 
of  the  multitudinous  tribes  of  Arabia.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, energetic  measures  were  often  necessary  to  sustain  the 
existence  of  the  Moslem  commonwealth.  When  persuasion 
failed,  pressure  was  required. 

The  same  instinct  of  self-preservation  which  spoke  so  warmly 
within  the  bosom  of  the  great  Prophet  of  Nazareth, ^  when  he 
advised  his  disciples  to  look  to  the  instruments  of  defence, 
caused  the  persecuted  Moslems  to  take  up  arms  when  attacked 
by  their  relentless  enemies. 

Gradually,  by  gentle  kindness  and  energy,  all  the  disjointed 
fragments  of  the  Arabian  tribes  were  brought  together  to  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  and  then  peace  settled  upon  the  land. 
Born  among  a  people  the  most  fiery  of  the  earth,  then  as  now 
vehement  and  impulsive  by  nature,  and  possessed  of  passions 
as  burning  as  the  sun  of  their  desert,  Mohammed  impressed 
on  them  habits  of  self-control  and  self-denial  such  as  have 
never  before  been  revealed  in  the  pages  of  history. 

At  the  time  of  Mohammed's  advent  international  obligations 
were  unknown.  When  nations  or  tribes  made  war  upon  each 
other,  the  result  usually  was  the  massacre  of  the  able-bodied, 
the  slavery  of  the  innocent,  and  plunder  of  the  household 
penates. 

The  Romans,  who  took  thirteen  centuries  to  evolve  a  system 
of  laws  which  was  as  comprehensive  as  it  was  elevated  in  con- 
ception, ^  could  never  realise  the  duties  of  international  morality 
or  of  humanity.  They  waged  war  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
subjugating  the  surrounding  nations.  Where  they  succeeded, 
they  imposed  their  will  on  the  people  absolutely.  The  sacred- 
ness  of  treaties  was  unknown  ;  pacts  were  made  and  broken, 
just  as  convenience  dictated.  The  liberty  of  other  nations 
was  never  of  the  slightest  importance  in  their  estimation.^  The 

'  Luke  xxii.  256. 

*  In  justice  to  the  Semitic  races,  I  must  say  that  almost  all  the  great  jurists 
of  Rome  were  Semites, — Phoenicians,  Syrians,  or  Carthaginians. 

^  Compare  Dollinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  throughout  on  this  subject. 
S.I.  o 


210  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

introduction  of  Christianity  made  little  or  no  change  in  the 
views  entertained  by  its  professors  concerning  international  obli- 
gations. War  was  as  inhuman  and  as  exterminating  as  before  ; 
people  were  led  into  slavery  without  compunction  on  the  part 
of  the  captors  ;  treaties  were  entered  into  and  broken  just  as 
suited  the  purpose  of  some  designing  chieftain.  Christianity 
did  not  profess  to  deal  with  international  morahty,  and  so  left 
its  followers  groping  in  the  dark. 

Modern  thinkers,  instead  of  admitting  this  to  be  a  real 
deficiency  in  the  Christian  system,  natural  to  the  unfinished 
state  in  which  it  was  left,  have  tried  to  justify  it.  A  strange 
perversion  of  the  human  intellect !  Hence,  what  is  right  in  the 
individual  comes  to  be  considered  wrong  in  the  nation,  and 
vice  versa.  Religion  and  morality,  two  convertible  terms,  are 
kept  apart  from  the  domain  of  law.  Religion,  which  claims 
to  regulate  the  ties  of  individual  men,  ignores  the  reciprocal 
relations  of  the  various  aggregates  of  humanity.  Religion  is 
thus  reduced  into  mere  sentimentaHsm,  an  object  of  gushing 
effusion,  or  mutual  laudation  at  debating  societies,  albeit 
sometimes  rising  to  the  dignity  of  philosophical  morahty. 

The  basis  of  international  obligations  consists  in  the  recogni- 
tion of  nations  as  individuals,  and  of  the  fact  that  there  is  not 
one  standard  for  individuals  and  another  for  nations  ;  for  as 
individuals  compose  a  nation,  so  nations  compose  humanity  ; 
and  the  rights  of  nations  and  their  obligations  to  each  other 
in  nowise  differ  from  those  existing  between  individuals.^ 

True  it  is,  that  the  rise  of  the  Latin  Church  in  the  West,  and 
the  necessary  augmentation  of  the  power  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  introduced  in  the  Latin  Christian  world  a  certain  degree 
of  international  responsibility.  But  this  was  absolutely  con- 
fined to  the  adherents  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  or  was  occasion- 
ally extended  as  a  favour  to  Greek  Christianity.  The  rest  of 
the  world  was  unconditionally  excluded  from  the  benefits  of 
such  responsibility.  "  The  name  of  rehgion  served  as  the  plea 
and  justification  of  aggression  upon  weaker  nations  ;  it  led  to 
their  spoliation  and  enslavement."  Every  act  of  violation 
was  sanctified  by  the  Church,  and,  in  case  of  extreme  iniquity, 

^  Comp.  David  Urquhart's  essay  on  the  "  Effects  of  the  Contempt  of  Inter- 
national Law,"  reprinted  from  The  East  and  West,  Feb.  1867. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  211 

absolution  paved  the  criminal's  way  to  heaven.  From  the 
first  slaughters  of  Charlemagne,  with  the  full  sanction  of  the 
Church,  to  the  massacre  and  enslavement  of  the  unoffending 
races  of  America,  there  is  an  unbroken  series  of  the  infringement 
of  international  duties  and  the  claims  of  humanity.  This 
utter  disregard  of  the  first  principles  of  charity  led  also  to  the 
persecution  of  those  followers  of  Jesus  who  ventured  to  think 
differently  from  the  Church.^ 

The  rise  of  Protestantism  made  no  difference.  The  wars 
and  mutual  persecutions  of  the  several  religious  factions  form 
a  history  in  themselves.  "  Persecution,"  says  Hallam,  "  is 
the  deadly  original  sin  of  the  Reformed  Church,  that  which 
cools  every  honest  man's  zeal  for  their  cause,  in  proportion  as 
his  reading  becomes  more  expansive."  ^ 

But,  however  much  the  various  new-born  Churches  disagreed 
among  themselves,  or  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  regarding 
doctrinal  and  theological  points,  they  were  in  perfect  accord 
with  each  other  in  denying  all  community  of  interests  and 
rights  to  nations  outside  the  pale  of  Christendom.^ 

The  spirit  of  Islam.,  on  the  contrary,  is  opposed  to  isolation 
and  exclusiveness.  In  a  comparatively  rude  age,  when  the 
world  was  immersed  in  darkness,  moral  and  social,  Mohammed 
preached  those  principles  of  equality  which  are  only  half- 
realised  in  other  creeds,  and  promulgated  laws  which,  for  their 
expansiveness  and  nobility  of  conception,  would  bear  com- 
parison with  the  records  of  any  faith.  "  Islam,"  says  an  able 
writer,  "  offered  its  religion,  but  never  enforced  it  ;  and  the 
acceptance  of  that  religion  conferred  co-equal  rights  with  the 
conquering  body,  and  emancipated  the  vanquished  States  from 
the  conditions  which  every  conqueror,  since  the  world  existed 
up  to  the  period  of  Mohammed,  had  invariably  imposed." 

^  Compare  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  i.  p.  352,  and  Lecky,  History  of 
Rationalism  in  Europe,  chap,  on  "  Persecution." 

^  Hallam's  Const.  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  p.  62.  When  Calvin 
burnt  Servetus  for  his  opinions  regarding  the  Trinity,  his  act  was  applauded, 
says  Lecky,  by  all  sections  of  Protestants.  Melanchthon,  Bullinger,  and 
Farel  wrote  to  express  their  warm  approbation  of  the  crime.  Beza  defended 
it  in  an  elaborate  treatise  ;  Lecky,  Hist,  of  Rationalism,  vol.  ii.  p.  49.  A 
study  of  the  penal  laws  of  England  against  the  Catholics,  Dissenters,  and 
non-Conformists  is  enough  to  shock  any  candid  mind. 

*  Grotius,  the  founder,  perhaps,  of  international  law  in  Europe,  formally 
excepted  the  Moslems  from  all  community  of  rights  with  the  European  nations. 


212  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

By  the  laws  of  Islam,  liberty  of  conscience  and  freedom  of 
worship  were  allowed  and  guaranteed  to  the  followers  of  every 
other  creed  under  Moslem  dominion.  The  passage  in  the 
Koran,  "  Let  there  be  no  compulsion  in  religion,"  ^  testifies  to 
the  principle  of  toleration  and  charity  inculcated  by  Islam. 
"  If  thy  Lord  had  pleased,  verily  all  who  are  in  the  world 
would  have  beheved  together."  "  Wilt  thou  then  force  men 
to  beheve  when  belief  can  come  only  from  God  ?  " — "  Adhere 
to  those  who  forsake  you  ;  speak  truth  to  your  own  heart  ;  do 
good  to  every  one  that  does  ill  to  you  "  :  these  are  the  precepts 
of  a  Teacher  who  has  been  accused  of  fanaticism  and  intolerance. 
Let  it  be  remembered  that  these  are  the  utterances,  not  of  a 
powerless  enthusiast  or  philosophical  dreamer  paralysed  by  the 
weight  of  opposing  forces.  These  are  the  utterances  of  a  man 
in  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  of  the  head  of  a  sufficiently  strong 
and  well-organised  State,  able  to  enforce  his  doctrines  with  the 
edge  of  his  reputed  sword. 

In  religion,  as  in  politics,  individuals  and  sects  have  preached 
toleration,  and  insisted  upon  its  practice  only  so  long  as  they 
have   been   powerless   and  feeble.     The   moment   they  have 
acquired  strength  enough  to  battle  with  the  forces  which  they 
wish  to  supersede,  tolerance  gives  way  to  persecution.     With 
the  accession  of  Constantine  to  the  throne  of  the  Caesars, 
Christianity  was  safe  from  molestation.     But  from  that  period  ; 
commenced  a  system  of  rehgious  persecution  in  its  atrocity  | 
paralleled  only  by  that  of  the  Jews.     "  From  the  very  moment,"  i 
says  Lecky,   "  the  Church  obtained  civil  power  under  Con-  ; 
stantine,  the  general  principle  of  coercion  was  admitted  and  : 
acted  on,  both  against  the  Jews,  the  heretics,  and  pagans."  ^ 
They  were  tortured  with  every  refinement  of  cruelty  ;    they 
were  burnt  at  a  slow-consuming  fire  to  enable  them  to  think ; 
of  the  charity  and  humanity  of  the  church  of  Christ.     Father 
after  father  wrote  about  the  holiness  of  persecution.     One  of 
the  greatest  saints  of  the  Church,  "  a  saint  of  the  most  tender  ■ 
and    exquisite    piety " — supplied    arguments    for    the    most 
atrocious  persecution.     Except  during  the  titanic  struggles  in 
Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Christian 

1  Sura  ii.  257  (a  Medina  sura). 

2  Comp.  Hallam,  Const.  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  i.  chap.  iii.  p.  98. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  213 

church,  purporting  to  derive  its  authority  from  the  Apostles, 
has  never  hesitated  to  encourage  war,i — or  to  give  its  sanction, 
in  the  name  of  reHgion  and  "  the  glory  of  Christ,"  to  exter- 
minating enterprises  against  heretics  and  heathens.  These 
had  no  claims  on  Christian  humanity  or  the  law  of  nations  ; 
nor  have  the  poor  black  races  now  !  In  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  Pope  granted  a  special  charter  by  which  the  non-Christian 
world  was  allotted  to  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  in  equal 
shares  with  absolute  power  to  convert  the  inhabitants  in  any 
way  they  chose  !  History  records  how  hberally  they  construed 
the  permission.  And  all  the  atrocious  doctrines  relating  to 
persecution  and  the  treatment  of  non-Christians  are  unjustly 
based  upon  the  words  of  Jesus  himself  !  Did  not  the  Master 
say,  "  Compel  them  to  come  in  "  ? 

In  the  hour  of  his  greatest  triumph,  when  the  Arabian 
Prophet  entered  the  old  shrine  of  Mecca  and  broke  down  the 
idols,  it  was  not  in  wrath  or  religious  rage,  but  in  pity,  that  he 
said — "  Truth  is  come,  darkness  departeth," — announcing 
amnesty  almost  universal,  commanding  protection  to  the  weak 
and  poor,  and  freeing  fugitive  slaves. 

Mohammed  did  not  merely  preach  toleration  ;  he  embodied 
it  into  a  law.  To  all  conquered  nations  he  offered  liberty  of 
worship.  A  nominal  tribute  was  the  only  compensation  they 
were  required  to  pay  for  the  observance  and  enjoyment  of  their 
faith.  Once  the  tax  or  tribute  was  agreed  upon,  every  inter- 
ference with  their  religion  or  the  liberty  of  conscience  was 
regarded  as  a  direct  contravention  of  the  laws  of  Islam. - 
Could  so  much  be  said  of  other  creeds  ?  Proselytism  by  the 
sword  was  wholly  contrary  to  the  instincts  of  Mohammed,  and 
wrangling  over  creeds  his  abhorrence.  Repeatedly  he  exclaims, 
"  Why  wrangle  over  that  which  you  know  not  ;  try  to  excel  in 
good  works  ;  when  you  shall  return  to  God,  He  will  tell  you 
about  that  in  which  you  have  differed." 

We  must  now  return  to  our  examination  of  the  wars  of  the 
Prophet.     We  have  seen  that   the   various  conflicts  of  the 

^  In  the  colossal  and  devastating  struggle  of  the  twentieth  century,  in 
which  all  the  great  nations  of  Christendom  were  engaged,  the  ministers  of 
religion  on  both  sides  took  vehement  part  in  fostering  the  warlike  spirit. 

^  See  chapter  on  The  Political  Spirit  of  Islam. 


214  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Moslems  under  Mohammed  with  the  surrounding  tribes  were 
occasioned  by  the  aggressive  and  unrelenting  hostility  of  the 
idolaters,  and  were  necessary  for  self-defence. 

The  battle  of  Muta  and  the  campaign  of  Tabuk,  the  earliest 
demonstrations  against  a  foreign  State,  arose  out  of  the 
assassination  of  an  envoy  by  the  Greeks.  Probably  we  should 
not  have  heard  of  the  promulgation  of  Islam  by  the  sword  had 
the  Moslems  not  punished  the  eastern  Christians  for  this 
murder.  The  battle  of  Muta  was  indecisive,  and  the  campaign 
of  Tabuk,  which  was  entirely  defensive  in  its  nature  (being 
undertaken  to  repulse  the  gathering  of  the  forces  of  Herachus) , 
left  this  international  crime  unpunished  during  the  lifetime  of 
the  Prophet ;  but  his  successors  did  not  forget  it,  and  a  heavy 
penalty  was  exacted. 

The  extent  of  the  Greek  empire  brought  the  Moslems  into  a 
state  of  belligerency  with  the  greatest  portion  of  Christendom. 
Besides,  the  anomalous  position  occupied  by  the  governors  of 
the  provinces  under  the  waning  suzerainty  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors  rendered  it  impossible  for  the  Moslem  Chiefs  to  put 
an  end  to  this  condition  of  affairs  by  means  of  treaty-stipula- 
tions with  any  one  of  them.  Before  one  could  be  subdued  and 
brought  to  terms  another  committed  some  act  of  hostility, 
and  compelled  the  Moslems  to  punish  him.  Hence  the  career 
once  entered  upon,  they  were  placed  in  just  warfare  with  nearly 
the  whole  of  Christendom.^ 

Religion  has  often  furnished  to  designing  chieftains,  among 
Moslems  as  among  Christians,  a  pretext  for  the  gratification  of 
ambition.  The  Moslem  casuists,  like  the  Christian  jurists  and 
divines,  have  divided  the  world  into  two  regions — the  Ddr 

1  See  Urquhart's  Isldni  as  a  Political  System.  I  do  not  mean  to  assert  that 
the  Moslems  were  never  actuated  by  the  spirit  of  aggression  or  by  cupidity. 
It  would  be  showing  extreme  ignorance  of  human  nature  to  make  such  an 
assertion.  It  was  hardly  possible,  that  after  the  unprecedented  progress 
they  had  made  against  their  enemies  and  assailants,  and  after  becoming 
aware  of  the  weakness  of  the  surrounding  nations,  they  should  still  retain 
their  moderation,  and  keep  within  the  bounds  of  the  law.  Nor  do  I  shut 
my  eyes  to  the  fact  that  there  have  been  wars  among  the  followers  of  Moham- 
med perhaps  as  cruelly  waged  as  among  the  Christians.  But  these  wars  have 
been  invariably  dynastic.  The  persecutions  to  which  certain  sects  have  been 
subjected  have  arisen  also,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  same  cause.  The 
persecution  of  the  descendants  of  Mohammed,  the  children  of  Ali  and  Fatima, 
by  the  Ommeyyades,  found  its  origin  in  the  old  hatred  of  the  Koreish  to 
Mohammed  and  the  HAshimis,  as  I  shall  show  hereafter. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  215 

ul-Harb  and  the  Ddr  ul-Isldm,  the  counterparts  of  Heathendom 
and  Christendom.  An  examination,  however,  of  the  principles 
upon  which  the  relations  of  Moslem  states  with  non-Moslem 
countries  were  based,  shows  a  far  greater  degree  of  liberality 
than  has  been  evinced  by  Christian  writers  on  international 
law.  It  is  only  in  recent  times,  and  under  stress  of  circum- 
stances that  non-Christian  states  have  been  admitted  into  the 
"  comity  of  nations."  The  Moslem  jurists,  on  the  other  hand, 
differentiate  between  the  condition  of  belligerency  and  that  of 
peace.  The  expression,  Ddr  ul-Harb,^  thus  includes  countries 
with  which  the  Moslems  are  at  war  ;  whilst  the  States  with 
which  they  are  at  peace  are  the  Day  ul-Amdn.^  The  harhi,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Ddr  ul-Harb,  is  an  alien,  pure  and  simple. 
He  has  no  right  to  enter  Islamic  States  without  express  permis- 
sion. But  once  he  receives  the  amdn  or  guarantee  of  safety 
from  even  the  poorest  Moslem,  he  is  perfectly  secure  from 
molestation  for  the  space  of  one  year.  On  the  expiration  of 
that  period,  he  is  bound  to  depart.  The  inhabitant  of  the 
Ddr  ul-Amdn  is  a  mustdmin.  The  amdn  may  be  for  ever  or  for 
a  Hmited  duration  ;  but  so  long  as  it  lasts,  the  nmstdmin's 
treatment  is  regulated  in  strict  accordance  with  the  terms  of 
the  treaty  with  his  country. ^  The  mustdmins  were  governed 
by  their  own  laws,  were  exempt  from  taxation  and  enjoyed 
other  privileges. 

The  spirit  of  aggression  never  breathed  itself  into  that  code 
which  formally  incorporated  the  Law  of  Nations  with  the 
reUgion  ;  and  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  in  the  plenitude  of 
their  power,  were  always  ready  to  say  to  their  enemies,  "  Cease 
all  hostility  to  us,  and  be  our  alUes,  and  we  shall  be  faithful  to 
you  ;  or  pay  tribute,  and  we  will  secure  and  protect  you  in  all 
your  rights  ;  or  adopt  our  religion,  and  you  shall  enjoy  every 
privilege  we  ourselves  possess." 

The  principal  directions  of  Mohammed,  on  which  the  Moslem 
laws  of  war  are  founded,  show  the  wisdom  and  humanity 
which  animated  the  Islamic  system  :  "  And  fight  for  the 
reUgion  of  God  against  those  who  fight  against  you  ;    but 

*  Lit.  The  country  of  war.  -  The  country  of  peace. 

'Tliese  Amdns  formed  the  origin  of  the  Capitulations  which  have  proved 
the  ruin  of  Turkish  resources. 


2i6  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

transgress  not  (by  attacking  them  first),  for  God  loveth  not 
the  transgressors  ;  ...  if  they  attack  you,  slay  them  ;  .  .  .  but 
if  they  desist,  let  there  be  no  hostihty,  except  against  the 
ungodly."  ^ 

In  turning  their  arms  against  Persia  the  Moslems  were  led 
on  by  circumstances.  The  Munzirs,  a  dynasty  of  semi-Arab 
kings  who  reigned  under  the  shadow  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 
though  politically  hostile,  were  aUied  to  the  Byzantines  by  ties 
of  faith  and  community  of  interests.  The  first  conflicts  of  the 
Moslems  with  the  Greeks  naturally  re-acted  on  the  Hirites,  the 
subjects  of  the  Munzirs.  The  Hirite  territories  comprehended 
a  large  tract  of  country,  from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  west- 
ward, overlapping  the  desert  of  Irak,  and  almost  reaching  the 
pasturage  of  the  Ghassanide  Arabs,  who  owned  allegiance  to 
the  Byzantines.  i 

The  position  of  Hira  under  the  Persians  was  similar  to  that  ' 
of  Judasa  under  Augustus  or  Tiberias.     About  the  time  of  the 
Moslem  conquest  a  Persian  nominee  ruled  this  principahty  ;  , 
but  the  jealousy  of  the  Chosroes  associated  a  marzbdn,  or  | 
satrap,  with  the  successor  of  the  Munzirs,  whose  subjects,  as  ' 
impatient  of  control  then  as  their  descendants  now,  engaged 
in  predatory  raids  on  the  neighbouring  tribes,  and  became  i 
involved  in  hostilities  with  the  Moslems.     A  strong  government  i 
under  the  guidance  of  a  single  ruler,  whose  power  had  become 
doubly  consohdated  after  the  suppression  of  the  revolts  of  the 
nomads  on  the   death  of   the  Prophet,  was  little  incUned  to 
brook  quietly  the  insults  of  the  petty  dependency  of  a  tottering 
empire.     A  Moslem  army  marched  upon  Hira  ;    the  marzbdn ; 
fled  to  Madain  (Ctesiphon),  the  capital  of  the  Persian  empire,' 
and  the  Arab  chief  submitted,  almost  without  a  struggle,  to! 
the  Moslems  under  Khahd  bin-Walid.  : 

The  conquest  of  Hira  brought  the  Moslems  to  the  threshold ; 
of  the  dominions  of  the  Chosroes.  Persia  had,  after  a  long 
period  of  internecine  conflict,  signalised  by  revolting  murders 
and  atrocities,  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  energetic  ruler,  in  the 
person  of  Yezdjard.  Under  the  directions  of  this  sovereign, 
the  Persian  general  brought  an  imposing  force  to  bear  on  the 
Moslems.     The  great  Omar  who  now  ruled  at  Medina,  before 

1  Sura  ii.  i86,  compare  ver.  257. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  217 

taking  up  the  challenge,  offered  to  Yezdjard,  through  his 
deputies,  the  usual  terms  by  which  war  might  be  avoided. 
These  terms  were,  the  profession  of  Islam,  which  meant  the 
reform  of  the  pohtical  abuses  that  had  brought  the  Sasanian 
empire  so  low  ;  the  reduction  of  all  those  heavy  taxes  and 
perquisites,^  which  sucked  out  the  life-blood  of  the  nation  ; 
and  the  administration  of  justice  by  the  code  of  Mohammed, 
which  held  all  men,  without  distinction  of  rank  or  office,  equal 
in  the  eye  of  the  law.  The  alternative  offer  was  the  payment 
of  tribute  in  return  for  protection.  These  terms  were  disdain- 
fully refused  by  the  Persian  monarch  and  the  days  of  Kadesia 
followed.  After  the  conquest  of  Madain  (Ctesiphon),  the 
Caliph  promulgated  peremptory  orders  that  under  no  circum- 
stance should  the  Moslems  cross  the  Tigris  towards  the  East, 
and  that  that  river  should  for  ever  form  the  boundary  between 
the  Persian  and  the  Saracenic  empires.  Upon  this  basis  a 
peace  was  concluded.  But  Iran  chafed  under  the  loss  of 
Mesopotamia  ;  and  the  successive  breaches  of  faith  by  the 
Persians  led  to  Nehavend.  The  Kesra's  power  was  irretrievably 
shattered  ;  many  of  his  nobles  and  the  chiefs  of  the  priesthood, 
whose  interest  it  was  to  keep  up  the  reign  of  disorder  and 
oppression,  were  cut  off,  and  he  himself  became  a  fugitive  Hke 
another  Darius.  The  nation  at  large  hailed  the  Moslems  as 
their  deliverers.  ^  The  advance  of  the  Saracens  from  the  Tigris 
to  the  Elburz  and  from  the  Elburz  to  Transoxiana  was  not 
different  from  that  of  the  British  in  India  and  due  to  similar 
causes. 

The  general  conversion  of  the  Persians  to  the  religion  of 
Mohammed  is  often  taken  as  a  proof  of  the  intolerant  character 
of  Islam.  But,  in  the  blindness  of  bigotry,  even  scholars  forget 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  Moslems  entered  the 
country.  Every  trace  of  religious  life  was  extinct  among  the 
people  ;  the  masses  were  ground  down  by  the  worst  of  all 
evils,  a  degenerate  priesthood  and  a  licentious  ohgarchy.  The 
Mazdakian  and  Manichaean  heresies  had  loosened  every  rivet 

*  Save  the  tenth  on  landed  property,  and  2  J  per  cent,  of  every  man's  means 
for  the  poor,  the  distribution  of  which  would  have  been  left  to  himself  and 
his  officers. 

-  Yezdjard,  like  Darius,   was  assassinated  by  his  own  people.     See  The 

Short  History  of  the  Saracens  (Macmillan,  1921),  p.  32. 


2i8  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

in  the  social  fabric.  Kesra  Anushirvan  had  only  postponed 
for  a  time  the  general  disruption  of  society. 

The  consequence  was,  that  as  soon  as  the  Moslems  entered 
the  country  as  the  precursors  of  law  and  order,  a  general  con- 
version took  place,  and  Persia  became  for  ever  attached  to 
Islam.  ^ 

An  impartial  analyst  of  facts  will  now  be  able  to  judge  for 
himself  how  much  truth  there  is  in  the  following  remark  of 
Muir  :  "It  was  essential  to  the  permanence  of  Islam  that  its 
aggressive  course  should  be  continuously  pursued,  and  that  its 
claim  to  an  universal  acceptance,  or,  at  the  least,  to  an  universal 
supremacy,  should  be  enforced  at  the  point  of  the  sword."  - 
Every  religion,  in  some  stage  of  its  career,  has,  from  the 
tendencies  of  its  professors,  been  aggressive.  Such  also  has 
been  the  case  with  Islam  ;  but  that  it  ever  aims  at  proselytism 
by  force,  or  that  it  has  been  more  aggressive  than  other  religions, 
must  be  entirely  denied.^ 

Islam  seized  the  sword  in  self-defence,  and  held  it  in  self- 
defence,  as  it  wiU  ever  do.  But  Islam  never  interfered  with 
the  dogmas  of  any  moral  faith,  never  persecuted,  never 
established  an  Inquisition.  It  never  invented  the  rack  or  the 
stake  for  stifling  difference  of  opinion,  or  strangling  the  human 
conscience,  or  exterminating  heresy.  No  one  who  has  a  com- 
petent knowledge  of  history  can  deny  that  the  Church  of 
Christ,  when  it  pretended  to  be  most  infalhble,  "  shed  more 
innocent  blood  than  any  other  institution  that  has  ever  existed 
among  mankind  "  ;  whilst  the  fate  of  the  man  or  woman  who 
forsook  the  Church,  or  even  expressed  a  preference  for  any 
other  creed,  was  no  less  cruel.*  In  1521,  death  and  confisca- 
tion of  property  was  decreed  by  Charles  V.  against  all  heretics. 
Burnings  and  hangings,  and  tearing  out  and  twisting  of  tongues 

1  As  a  testimony  to  the  spirit  which  animated  the  Moslems,  we  quote  the 
following  from  Gibbon  :  "  The  administration  of  Persia  was  regulated  by  an 
actual  survey  of  the  people,  the  cattle,  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth  ;  and  this 
monument,  which  attests  the  vigilance  of  the  Caliphs,  might  have  instructed 
the  philosophers  of  every  age." — Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  vol.  v. 
p,  97.     See  also  Suyflti,  Tdnhh  ul-Khulafd  {History  of  the  Caliphs). 

-  Muir,  Life  of  Mahomet,  vol.  iii.  p.  251. 

^  Compare  Niebuhr's  remarks  in  his  Description  de  I'Arabie. 

■*  In  the  seventeenth  century  a  young  man  was  hanged  for  having  said,  it  is 
stated,  that  he  did  not  think  Mohammed  was  a  bad  man. 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  219 

were  the  usual  penalties  of  refusal  to  adopt  the  orthodox 
communion.  In  England,  after  it  became  Protestant,  the 
Presbyterians,  through  a  long  succession  of  reigns,  were 
imprisoned,  branded,  mutilated,  scourged,  and  exposed  in  the 
pillory.  In  Scotland,  they  were  hunted  like  criminals  over 
the  mountains  ;  their  ears  were  torn  from  the  roots  ;  they 
were  branded  with  hot  irons  ;  their  fingers  were  wrenched 
asunder  by  thumbkins  ;  the  bones  of  their  legs  were  shattered 
in  the  boots.  Women  were  scourged  pubhcly  through  the 
streets.  The  Catholics  were  tortured  and  hanged.  Anabaptists 
and  Arians  were  burnt  alive.  But  as  regards  non-Christians, 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  orthodox  and  un-orthodox,  were  in 
perfect  accord.  Musulmans  and  Jews  were  beyond  the  pale 
of  Christendom.  In  England,  the  Jews  were  tortured  and 
hanged.  In  Spain,  the  Moslems  were  burnt  Marriages  between 
Christians  and  Jews,  and  Christians  and  "  infidels,"  were  null 
and  void,  in  fact  prohibited  under  terrible  and  revolting 
penalties.  Even  now.  Christian  America  burns  alive  a  Christian 
negro  marrying  a  Christian  white  woman  !  Such  has  been  the 
effect  produced  by  Christianity. 

To  this  day,  wherever  scientific  thought  has  not  infused  a 
new  soul,  wherever  true  culture  has  not  gained  a  foothold,  the 
old  spirit  of  exclusiveness  and  intolerance,  the  old  ecclesiastical 
hatred  of  Islam,  displays  itself  in  writings,  in  newspaper 
attacks,  in  private  conversations,  in  pubhc  speeches.  The 
spirit  of  persecution  is  not  dead  in  Christianity  ;  it  is  lying 
dormant,  ready  to  burst  into  flame  at  the  touch  of  the  first 
bigot. 

Let  us  turn  from  this  picture  to  the  world  of  Islam.  Whilst 
orthodox  Christianity  persecuted  with  equal  ferocity  the  Jews 
and  Nestorians, — the  descendants  of  the  men  who  were  sup- 
posed to  have  crucified  its  Incarnate  God,  and  the  men  who 
refused  to  adore  his  mother, — Islam  afforded  them  both 
shelter  and  protection.  Whilst  Christian  Europe  was  burning 
witches  and  heretics,  and  massacring  Jews  and  "  infidels," 
the  Moslem  sovereigns  were  treating  their  non-Moslem  subjects 
with  consideration  and  tolerance.  They  were  the  trusted 
subjects  of  the  State,  councillors  of  the  empire.  Every  secular 
office  was  open  to  them  along  with  the  Moslems.     The  Teacher 


220  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

himself  had  declared  it  lawful  for  a  Moslem  to  intermarry  with 
a  Christian,  Hebrew,  or  Zoroastrian.  The  converse  was  not 
allowed,  for  obvious  political  reasons.  Moslem  Turkey  and 
Persia  entrust  their  foreign  interests  to  the  charge  of  their 
Christian  subjects.  In  Christendom,  difference  of  faith  has 
been  a  crime  ;  in  Islam  it  is  an  accident.  "  To  Christians," 
says  Urquhart,  "  a  difference  of  religion  was  indeed  a  ground 
for  war,  and  that  not  merely  in  dark  times  and  amongst 
fanatics."  From  the  massacres,  in  the  name  of  religion,  of  the 
Saxons,  the  Frisians  and  other  Germanic  tribes  by  Charle- 
magne ;  from  the  burning  to  death  of  the  thousands  of  innocent 
men  and  women  ;  from  the  frightful  slaughters  of  the  Arians, 
the  Paulicians,  the  Albigenses  and  the  Huguenots,  from  the 
horrors  of  the  sacks  of  Magdeburg  and  Rome,  from  the  san- 
guinary scenes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  down  to  the  cruel 
persecutions  of  Calvinistic  Scotland  and  Lutheran  England, 
there  is  an  uninterrupted  chain  of  intolerance,  bigotry,  and 
fanaticism.  Can  anything  be  more  heart-rending  than  the 
wholesale  extermination  of  the  unoffending  races  of  America 
in  the  name  of  Christ  ? 

It  has  been  said  that  a  warlike  spirit  was  infused  into 
mediaeval  Christianity  by  aggressive  Islam  !  The  massacres 
of  Justinian  and  the  fearful  wars  of  Christian  Clovis  in  the 
name  of  religion,  occurred  long  before  the  time  of  Mohammed. 

Compare,  again,  the  conduct  of  the  Christian  Crusaders  with 
that  of  the  Moslems.  "  When  the  Khalif  Omar  took  Jeru- 
salem, A.D.  637,  he  rode  into  the  city  by  the  side  of  the 
Patriarch  Sophronius,  conversing  with  him  on  its  antiquities. 
At  the  hour  of  prayer,  he  declined  to  perform  his  devotions  in 
the  Church  of  the  Resurrection,  in  which  he  chanced  to  be,  but 
prayed  on  the  steps  of  the  Church  of  Constantine  ;  for,  said  he 
to  the  Patriarch,  '  had  I  done  so,  the  Musulmans  in  a  future 
age  might  have  infringed  the  treaty,  under  colour  of  imitating 
my  example.'  But  in  the  capture  by  the  Crusaders,  the  brains 
of  young  children  were  dashed  out  against  the  walls  ;  infants 
were  pitched  over  the  battlements  ;  men  were  roasted  at  fires  ; 
some  were  ripped  up,  to  see  if  they  had  swallowed  gold  ;  the 
Jews  were  driven  into  their  synagogue,  and  there  burnt ;  a 
massacre  of  nearly  70,000  persons  took  place  ;   and  the  pope's 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  MILITANT  OF  ISLAM  221 

legate  was  seen  partaking  in  the  triumph  !  "  ^  When  Saladin 
recaptured  the  city,  he  released  all  Christians,  gave  them  money 
and  food,  and  allowed  them  to  depart  with  a  safe-conduct. ^ 

Islam  "  grasped  the  sword  "  in  self-defence  ;  Christianity 
grasped  it  in  order  to  stifle  freedom  of  thought  and  liberty  of 
belief.  With  the  conversion  of  Constantine,  Christianity  had 
become  the  dominant  religion  of  the  Western  world.  It  had 
thenceforth  nothing  to  fear  from  its  enemies  ;  but  from  the 
moment  it  obtained  the  mastery,  it  developed  its  true  character 
of  isolation  and  exclusiveness.  Wherever  Christianity  pre- 
vailed, no  other  religion  could  be  followed  without  molestation. 
The  Moslems,  on  the  other  hand,  required  from  others  a  simple 
guarantee  of  peace  and  amity,  tribute  in  return  for  protection, 
or  perfect  equality, — the  possession  of  equal  rights  and 
privileges, — on  condition  of  the  acceptance  of  Islam, 

1  Draper,  History  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  vol.  ii.  p.  22. 

2  For  a  full  account,  seeThe  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  p.  356. 


CHAPTER   V 
THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM 

IN  certain  stages  of  social  development,  polygamy,  or  more 
properly  speaking,  polygyny, — the  union  of  one  man  with 
several  women, — is  an  unavoidable  circumstance.  The 
frequent  tribal  wars  and  the  consequent  decimation  of  the  male 
population,  the  numerical  superiority  of  women,  combined 
with  the  absolute  power  possessed  by  the  chiefs,  originated 
the  custom  which,  in  our  advanced  times,  is  justly  regarded  as 
an  unendurable  evil. 

Among  all  Eastern  nations  of  antiquity,  polygamy  was  a 
recognised  institution.  Its  practice  by  royalty,  which  every- 
where bore  the  insignia  of  divinity,  sanctified  its  observance 
to  the  people.  Among  the  Hindus,  polygamy,  in  both  its 
aspects,  prevailed  from  the  earliest  times.  There  was, 
apparently,  as  among  the  ancient  Medes,  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Persians,  no  restriction  as  to  the  number  of 
wives  a  man  might  have.  A  high  caste  Brahman,  even  in 
modern  times,  is  privileged  to  marr^^  as  many  wives  as  he 
chooses.  Polygamy  existed  among  the  Israelites  before  the 
time  of  Moses,  who  continued  the  institution  without  imposing 
any  limit  on  the  number  of  marriages  which  a  Hebrew  husband 
might  contract.  In  later  times,  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem 
restricted  the  number  by  the  abihty  of  the  husband  to  main- 
tain the  wives  properly  ;  and  though  the  Rabbins  counselled 
that  a  man  should  not  take  more  than  four  wives,  the  Karaites 

1  "  Paradise  is  at  the  foot  of  the  mother  ;  "  the  Prophet. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  223 

differed  from  them,  and  did  not  recognise  the  vaHdity  of  any 
hmitation. 

To  the  Persians,  rehgion  offered  a  premium  on  the  plurality 
of  wives.  ^ 

Among  the  Syro-Phoenician  races,  whom  the  Israehtes  dis- 
placed, conquered,  or  destroyed,  polygamy  was  degraded  into 
bestiality.  2 

Among  the  Thracians,  Lydians,  and  the  Pelasgian  races 
settled  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  the 
custom  of  plurality  of  marriages  prevailed  to  an  inordinate 
extent,  and  dwarfs  all  comparison  with  the  practice  prevailing 
elsewhere.^ 

Among  the  Athenians,  the  most  civiHsed  and  most  cultured 
of  all  the  nations  of  antiquity,  the  wife  was  a  mere  chattel 
marketable  and  transferable  to  others,  and  a  subject  of  testa- 
mentary disposition.  She  was  regarded  in  the  light  of  an  evil, 
indispensable  for  the  ordering  of  a  household  and  procreation 
of  children.  An  Athenian  was  allowed  to  have  any  number  of 
wives  ;  and  Demosthenes  gloried  in  the  possession  by  his 
people  of  three  classes  of  women,  two  of  which  furnished  the 
legal  and  semi-legal  wives.* 

Among  the  Spartans,  though  the  men  were  not  allowed, 
unless  under  especial  circumstances,  to  have  more  than  one 
wife,  the  women  could  have,  and  almost  always  had,  more 
than  one  husband.^ 

The  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  the  Roman  State 
was  originally  constituted  probably  prevented  the  introduction 
of  legal  polygamy  at  the  commencement  of  its  existence. 
Whatever  the  historical  truth  of  the  Rape  of  the  Sabines,  the 
very  existence  of  the  tradition  testifies  to  the  causes  which 
helped  to  form  the  primitive  laws  of  the  Romans  on  the  subject 
of  matrimony.  In  the  surrounding  states  generally,  and 
especially  among  the  Etruscans,  plurality  of  marriage  was  a 
privileged  custom.     The  contact,  for  centuries,  with  the  other 

^  Dollinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  pp.  405,  406.  ^  Lev.  xviii.  24. 

"  Encyclopedie  Universelle,  art.  "  Mariage  "  ;  Dollinger,  The  Gentile  and  the 
Jew,  vol.  ii.  p.  233. 

^  Dollinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  vol.  ii.  pp.  233-238. 

'  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  vol.  vi.  p.  136. 


224  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

nations  of  Ital}^  the  wars  and  conquests  of  ages,  combined 
with  the  luxurious  habits  which  success  engendered,  at  last 
resulted  in  making  the  sanctity  of  marriage  a  mere  by-word 
amongst  the  Romans.  Polygamy  was  not  indeed  legalised, 
but  "  after  the  Punic  triumphs  the  matrons  of  Rome  aspired 
to  the  common  benefits  of  a  free  and  opulent  republic,  and 
their  wishes  were  gratified  by  the  indulgence  of  fathers  and 
lovers."  ^  Marriage  soon  became  a  simple  practice  of  pro- 
miscuous concubinage.  Concubinage  recognised  by  the  laws 
of  the  State  acquired  the  force  of  a  privileged  institution.  The 
freedom  of  women,  the  looseness  of  the  tie  which  bound  them 
to  men,  the  frequency  with  which  wives  were  changed  or 
transferred,  betoken  in  fact  the  prevalence  of  polygamy,  only 
under  a  different  name. 

In  the  meantime,  the  doctrines  of  primitive  Christianity 
preached  on  the  shores  of  Galilee  began  to  irradiate  the  whole 
Roman  world.  The  influence  of  the  Essenes,  which  is  reflected 
visibly  in  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  combined  with  an  earnest 
anticipation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  had  led  the  Prophet 
of  Nazareth  to  depreciate  matrimony  in  general,  although  he 
never  interdicted  or  expressly  forbade  its  practice  in  any 
shape. 

Polygamy  flourished  in  a  more  or  less  pronounced  form 
until  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Justinian.  But  the  prohibition 
contained  in  the  civil  law  effected  no  change  in  the  moral  ideas 
of  the  people,  and  polygamy  continued  to  be  practised  until 
condemned  by  the  opinion  of  modern  society.  The  wives, 
with  the  exception  of  the  one  first  married,  laboured  under 
severe  disabilities.  Without  rights,  without  any  of  the  safe- 
guards which  the  law  threw  around  the  favoured  first  one,  they 
were  the  slaves  of  every  caprice  and  whim  of  their  husbands. 
Their  children  were  stigmatised  as  bastards,  precluded  from 
all  share  in  the  inheritance  of  their  father,  and  treated  as 
outcasts  from  society. 

Morganatic  and  left-handed  marriages  were  not  confined  to 
the  aristocracy.  Even  the  clergy,  frequently  forgetting  their 
vows  of  celibacy,  contracted  more  than  one  legal  or  illegal 
union.     History  proves  conclusively  that,  until  very  recent 

1  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  vol.  ii.  p.  206. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  225 

times,  polygamy  was  not  considered  so  reprehensible  as  it  is 
now.  St.  Augustine  ^  himself  seems  to  have  observed  in  it  no 
intrinsic  immorality  or  sinfulness,  and  declared  that  polygamy 
was  not  a  crime  where  it  was  the  legal  institution  of  a  country. 
The  German  reformers,  as  Hallam  points  out,  even  so  late  as 
the  sixteenth  century,  admitted  the  validity  of  a  second  or  a 
third  marriage  contemporaneously  with  the  first,  in  default  of 
issue  and  other  similar  causes. 

Some  scholars,  whilst  admitting  that  there  is  no  intrinsic 
immorality  in  a  plurality  of  wives,  and  that  Jesus  did  not 
absolutely  or  expressly  forbid  the  custom,  hold  that  the  present 
monogamous  practice,  in  one  sense  general  throughout  Europe, 
arose  from  the  engrafting  of  either  Germanic  or  Hellenic- 
Roman  notions  on  Christianity.  ^  The  latter  view  is  distinctly 
opposed  to  fact  and  history  and  deserves  no  credit.  As  regards 
the  Germans,  the  proof  of  their  monogamous  habits  and  customs 
rests  upon  the  uncorroborated  testimony  of  one  or  two  Romans, 
of  all  men  the  most  untrustworthy  witnesses  to  facts  when  it 
was  to  their  interest  to  suppress  them.  Besides,  we  must 
remember  the  object  with  which  Tacitus  wrote  his  Manners  of 
the  Germans.  It  was  a  distinct  attack  upon  the  licentiousness 
of  his  own  people,  and,  by  contrasting  the  laxity  of  the  Romans 
with  the  imaginary  virtues  of  barbarians,  was  intended  to 
introduce  better  ideas  into  Rome.  Again,  supposing  that 
Tacitus  is  right,  to  what  cause  should  we  ascribe  the  poly- 
gamous habits  of  the  higher  classes  of  the  Germans,  even  up 
to  the  nineteenth  century  ?  ^ 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  custom  of  the  Romans  in 
early  times,  it  is  evident  that  in  the  latter  days  of  the  republic 
and  the  commencement  of  the  empire,  polygamy  must  have 
been  accepted  as  an  institution,  or,  at  least,  not  regarded  as 
illegal.  Its  existence  is  assumed,  and  its  practice  recognised, 
by  the  edict  which  interfered  with  its  universality.  How  far 
the  Praetorian  Edict  succeeded  in  remedying  the  evil,  or  divert- 
ing the  current  of  public  opinion,  appears  from  the  rescript  of 

^  St.  Augustine,  lib.  ii.  cont.  Faust,  ch.  xlvii. 

*M.  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire  appears  to  hold  the  opinion  that  monogamy 
was  engrafted  upon  Christianity  from  Hellenic  and  Roman  sources, 
'  Comp.  EncycJopidie  Universelle,  art.  Mariage. 
S.I.  p 


226  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

the  Emperors  Honorius  and  Arcadius  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  the  practice  of  Constantine  and  his  son, 
both  of  whom  had  several  wives.  The  Emperor  Valentinian 
II.,  by  an  edict,  allowed  all  the  subjects  of  the  empire,  if  they 
pleased,  to  marry  several  wives  ;  nor  does  it  appear  from  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  those  times  that  the  bishops  and  the 
heads  of  the  Christian  Churches  made  any  objection  to  this 
law.^  Far  from  it,  all  the  succeeding  emperors  practised 
polygamy,  and  the  people  generally  were  not  remiss  in  following 
their  example. 

This  state  of  the  laws  continued  until  the  time  of  Justinian, 
when  the  concentrated  wisdom  and  experience  of  thirteen 
centuries  of  progress  and  development  in  the  arts  of  life  resulted 
in  the  proclamation  of  the  laws  which  have  shed  a  factitious 
lustre  on  his  infamous  reign.  But  these  laws  owed  httle  to 
Christianity,  at  least  directly.  The  greatest  adviser  of 
Justinian  was  an  atheist  and  a  pagan.  Even  the  prohibition 
of  polygamy  by  Justinian  failed  to  check  the  tendency  of  the 
age.  The  law  represented  the  advancement  of  thought  ;  its 
influence  was  confined  to  a  few  thinkers,  but  to  the  mass  it 
was  a  perfectly  dead  letter. 

In  the  western  parts  of  Europe,  the  tremendous  upheaval  of 
the  barbarians,  the  intermingling  of  their  moral  ideas  with 
those  of  the  people  among  whom  they  settled,  tended  to 
degrade  the  relations  between  man  and  wife.  Some  of  the 
barbaric  codes  attempted  to  deal  with  polygamy, ^  but  example 
was  stronger  than  precept,  and  the  monarchs,  setting  the 
fashion  of  plurality  of  wives,  were  quickly  imitated  by  the 
people.^  Even  the  clergy,  in  spite  of  the  recommendation  to 
perpetual  ceHbacy  held  out  to  them  by  the  Church,  availed 
themselves  of  the  custom  of  keeping  several  left-handed  wives 
by  a  simple  licence  obtained  from  the  bishop  or  the  head  of 
their  diocese.* 

^  Comp.  Encyclopedic  Universelle,  art.  Manage  and  Davenport,  Apology 
for  Mahomet. 

2  Like  the  laws  of  Theodoric.  But  they  were  based  on  advanced  Byzantine 
notions. 

^  For  polygamy  among  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  sovereigns,  see 
The  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  p.  626. 

*  Comp.  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England,  vol.  i.  p.  87,  and  note  ; 
Middle  Ages,  p.  353  (i  vol.  ed.). 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  227 

The  greatest  and  most  reprehensible  mistake  committed  by 
Christian  writers  is  to  suppose  that  Mohammed  either  adopted 
or  legahsed  polygamy.  The  old  idea  of  his  having  introduced 
it,  a  sign  only  of  the  ignorance  of  those  who  entertained  that 
notion,  is  by  this  time  exploded  ;  but  the  opinion  that  he 
adopted  and  legalised  the  custom  is  still  maintained  by  the 
common  masses,  as  well  as  by  many  of  the  learned  in  ChristLU- 
dom.     No  belief  can  be  more  false. 

Mohammed  found  polygamy  practised,  not  only  among  his 
own  people,  but  amongst  the  people  of  the  neighbouring 
countries,  where  it  assumed  some  of  its  most  degrading  aspects. 
The  laws  of  the  Christian  empire  had  indeed  tried  to  correct 
the  evil,  but  without  avail.  Polygamy  continued  to  flourish 
unchecked,  and  the  wretched  women,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first  wife,  selected  according  to  priority  of  time,  laboured 
under  severe  disabilities. 

The  corruptness  of  morals  in  Persia  about  the  time  of  the 
Prophet  was  deplorable.  There  was  no  recognised  law  of 
marriage,  or,  if  any  existed,  it  was  completely  ignored.  In  the 
absence  of  any  fixed  rule  in  the  Zend-Avesta  as  to  the  number 
of  wives  a  man  might  possess,  the  Persians  indulged  in  a 
multitude  of  regular  matrimonial  connections,  besides  having 
a  number  of  concubines.^ 

Among  the  ancient  Arabs  and  the  Jews  there  existed, 
besides  the  system  of  plurality  of  wives,  the  custom  of  entering 
into  conditional,  as  well  as  temporary  contracts  of  marriage. 
These  loose  notions  of  morality  exercised  a  disastrous  influence 
on  the  constitution  of  society  within  the  peninsula. 

The  reforms  instituted  by  Mohammed  effected  a  vast  and 
marked  improvement  in  the  position  of  women.  Both  among 
the  Jews  and  the  non-nomadic  Arabs  the  condition  of  women 
was  degraded  in  the  extreme.  The  Hebrew  maiden,  even  in 
her  father's  house,  stood  in  the  position  of  a  servant  ;  her 
father  could  sell  her  if  a  minor.  In  case  of  his  death,  the  sons 
could  dispose  of  her  at  their  will  and  pleasure.  The  daughter 
inherited  nothing,  except  when  there  were  no  male  heirs.  ^ 
Among  the  settled  pagan  Arabs,  who  were  mostly  influenced 

^  Dbllinger,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  vol.  i.  p.  406. 
2  Num.  XXX.  17. 


228  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

by  the  corrupt  and  effete  civilisation  of  the  neighbouring 
empires,  a  woman  was  considered  a  mere  chattel ;  she  formed 
an  integral  part  of  the  estate  of  her  husband  or  her  father  ; 
and  the  widows  of  a  man  descended  to  his  son  or  sons  by  right 
of  inheritance,  as  any  other  portion  of  his  patrimony.  Hence 
the  frequent  unions  between  step-sons  and  step-mothers  which, 
when  subsequently  forbidden  by  Islam,  were  branded  under 
the  name  of  Nikdh  ul-Mekt  ("  shameful  or  odious  marriages  "). 
Even  polyandry  was  practised  by  the  half- Jewish,  half-Sabsean 
tribes  of  Yemen. ^ 

The  pre-Islamite  Arabs  carried  their  aversion  to  women  so 
far  as  to  destroy,  by  burying  alive,  many  of  their  female 
children.  This  fearful  custom,  which  was  most  prevalent 
among  the  tribes  of  Koreish  and  Kindah,  was  denounced  in 
burning  terms  by  Mohammed  and  was  prohibited  under  severe 
penalties,  along  with  the  inhuman  practice,  which  they,  in 
common  with  other  nations  of  antiquity,  observed,  of  sacri- 
ficing children  to  their  gods. 

In  both  the  empires,  the  Persian  and  the  Byzantine,  women 
occupied  a  very  low  position  in  the  social  scale.  Fanatical 
enthusiasts,  whom  Christendom  in  later  times  canonised  as 
saints,  preached  against  them  and  denounced  their  enormities, 
forgetting  that  the  evils  they  preceived  in  women  were  the 
reflections  of  their  own  jaundiced  minds.  It  was  at  this  time, 
when  the  social  fabric  was  f alhng  to  pieces  on  all  sides,  when  all 
that  had  hitherto  kept  it  together  was  giving  way,  when  the  j 
cry  had  gone  forth  that  all  the  older  systems  had  been  weighed 
in  the  scale  of  experience  and  found  wanting,  that  Mohammed 
introduced  his  reforms. 

The  Prophet  of  Islam  enforced  as  one  of  the  essential  teach- 
ings of  his  creed,  "  respect  for  women."  And  his  followers,  in 
their  love  and  reverence  for  his  celebrated  daughter,  proclaimed 
her  "  the  Lady  of  Paradise,"  as  the  representative  of  her  sex. 
"  Our  Lady  of  Light  "  ^  is  the  embodiment  of  all  that  is  divine 
in  womanhood,— of  all  that  is  pure  and  true  and  holy  in  her 
sex, — the  noblest  ideal  of  human  conception.  And  she  hasi 
been  followed   by   a   long  succession   of  women,   who   have 

1  Lenormant,  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  ii.  p.  318. 

2  Khdt4n-i-jinnat,  Fdtima't-az-zahrd. 


j 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  229 

consecrated  their  sex  by  their  virtues.     Who  has  not  heard  of 
the  saintly  Rabi'a  and  a  thousand  others  her  equals  ? 

In  the  laws  which  the  Arabian  Prophet  promulgated  he 
strictly  prohibited  the  custom  of  conditional  marriages,  and 
though  at  first  temporary  marriages  were  tacitly  allowed,  in 
the  third  year  of  the  Hegira  even  these  were  forbidden. ^ 
Mohammed  secured  to  women,  in  his  system,  rights  which 
they  had  not  before  possessed  ;  he  allowed  them  privileges  the 
value  of  which  will  be  more  fully  appreciated  as  time  advances. 
He  placed  them  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality  with  men 
in  the  exercise  of  all  legal  powers  and  functions.  He  restrained 
polygamy  by  limiting  the  maximum  number  of  contempor- 
aneous marriages,  and  by  making  absolute  equity  towards  all 
obligatory  on  the  man.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  clause 
in  the  Koran  which  contains  the  permission  to  contract  four 
contemporaneous  marriages,  is  immediately  followed  by  a 
sentence  which  cuts  down  the  significance  of  the  preceding 
passage  to  its  normal  and  legitimate  dimensions.  The  passage 
runs  thus,  "  You  may  marry  two,  three,  or  four  wives,  but  not 
more."  The  subsequent  lines  declare,  "  but  if  you  cannot  deal 
equitably  and  justly  with  all,  you  shall  marry  only  one."  The 
extreme  importance  of  this  proviso,  bearing  especially  in  mind 
the  meaning  which  is  attached  to  the  word  "  equity  "  {'ad I) 
in  the  Koranic  teachings,  has  not  been  lost  sight  of  by  the 
great  thinkers  of  the  Moslem  world.  'Adl  signifies  not  merely 
equality  of  treatment  in  the  matter  of  lodgment,  clothing  and 
other  domestic  requisites,  but  also  complete  equity  in  love, 
affection  and  esteem.  As  absolute  justice  in  matters  of  feehng 
is  impossible,  the  Koranic  prescription  amounted  in  reahty  to 
a  prohibition.  This  view  was  propounded  as  early  as  the  third 
century  of  the  Hegira.  2  In  the  reign  of  al-Mamun,  the  first 
Mu'tazilite   doctors  taught  that  the  developed  Koranic  laws 

^  A  section  of  the  Shiahs  still  regard  temporary  marriages  as  lawful.  J3ut 
with  all  deference  to  the  MujtcLhids,  who  have  expounded  that  view,  I  cannot 
help  considering  that  it  was  put  forward  to  suit  the  tastes  of  the  times,  or  of 
the  sovereigns  under  whom  these  lawyers  flourished.  In  many  of  their 
doctrines  one  cannot  fail  to  perceive  the  influence  of  personal  inclinations. 

*  The  Radd  ul-Miihtar  distinctly  says  "  some  doctors  [the  Mu'tazila]  hold 
that  'adl  includes  equality  in  love  and  affection,  but  our  masters  differ  from 
this  view  and  confine  it  to  equal  treatment  in  the  matter  of  nafhah,  which 
in  the  language  of  law,  signifies  food,  clothing  and  lodgment." 


230  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

inculcated  monogamy.  And  though  the  cruel  persecution  of 
the  mad  bigot,  Mutawakkil,  prevented  the  general  diffusion  of 
their  teachings,  the  conviction  is  gradually  forcing  itself  on  all 
sides,  in  all  advanced  Moslem  communities,  that  polygamy  is 
as  much  opposed  to  the  teachings  of  Mohammed  as  it  is  to  the 
general  progress  of  civilised  society  and  true  culture.^ 

The  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  existence  of  poly- 
gamy depends  on  circumstances.  Certain  times,  certain 
conditions  of  society,  make  its  practice  absolutely  needful,  for 
the  preservation  of  women  from  starvation  or  utter  destitution. 
If  reports  and  statistics  speak  true,  the  greatest  proportion  of 
the  mass  of  immorality  prevalent  in  the  centres  of  civilisation 
in  the  West  arises  from  absolute  destitution.  Abbe  Hue  and 
Lady  Duff  Gordon  have  both  remarked  that  in  the  generahty 
of  cases  sheer  force  of  circumstances  drives  people  to  polygamy 
in  the  East. 

With  the  progress  of  thought,  with  the  ever-changing  con- 
ditions of  this  world,  the  necessity  for  polygamy  disappears, 
and  its  practice  is  tacitly  abandoned  or  expressly  forbidden. 
And  hence  it  is,  that  in  those  Moslem  countries  where  the 
circumstances  which  made  its  existence  at  first  necessary  are 
disappearing,  plurality  of  wives  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  an 
evil,  and  as  an  institution  opposed  to  the  teachings  of  the 
Prophet  ;  while  in  those  countries  where  the  conditions  of 
society  are  different,  where  the  means  which,  in  advanced 
communities,  enable  women  to  help  themselves  are  absent  or 
wanting,  polygamy  must  necessarily  continue  to  exist.  Perhaps 
the  objection  may  be  raised,  that  as  the  freedom  of  construction 
leaves  room  for  casuistical  distinctions,  the  total  extinction  of 
polygamy  will  be  a  task  of  considerable  difftculty.  We  admit 
the  force  of  this  objection,  which  deserves  the  serious  con- 
sideration of  all  Moslems  desirous  of  freeing  the  Islamic 
teachings  from  the  blame  which  has  hitherto  been  attached  to 
them,  and  of  moving  with  advancing  civilisation.  But  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  elasticity  of  laws  is  the  greatest  test 
of  their  beneficence  and  usefulness.  And  this  is  the  merit  of 
the  Koranic  provision.     It  is  adapted  alike  for  the  acceptance 

^  Compare  the  remarks  on  this  subject  of  Moulvi  Chiragh  Ah  in  his  able 
work  called  Are  Reforms  possible  in  Mohammedan  States? 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  231 

of  the  most  cultured  society  and  the  requirements  of  the  least 
civilised.  It  ignores  not  the  needs  of  progressive  humanity, 
nor  forgets  that  there  are  races  and  communities  on  the  earth 
among  whom  monogamy  may  prove  a  dire  evil.  The  task  of 
abolishing  polygamy,  however,  is  not  so  difficult  as  is  imagined. 
The  blight  that  has  fallen  on  the  Moslem  nations  is  due  to  the 
patristic  doctrine  which  has  prohibited  the  exercise  of  indi- 
vidual judgment  {Ijtihdd).  The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  an 
appeal  to  the  Teacher's  own  words  will  settle  the  question 
whether  the  Moslems  will  follow  Mohammed  or  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  who  have  misused  the  Master's  name  to  satisfy 
their  own  whimsicalities,  or  the  capricious  dictates  of  Cahphs 
and  Sultans,  whose  obsequious  servants  they  were.  Europe 
has  gone  through  the  same  process  herself,  and  instead  of 
hurUng  anathemas  at  the  Church  of  Mohammed,  ought  to 
watch,  with  patience  and  sympathy,  the  efforts  of  regenerated 
Islam  to  free  itself  from  patristic  bondage.  When  once  the 
freedom  from  the  enthralment  of  old  ideas  is  achieved,  it  will 
be  easy  for  the  jurists  of  each  particular  Moslem  State  to 
abolish,  by  an  authoritative  dictum,  polygamy  within  that 
State.  But  such  a  consummation  can  only  result  from  a 
general  progress  in  the  conception  of  facts,  and  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  Prophet's  teachings.  Polygamy  is  disappearing, 
or  will  soon  disappear,  under  the  new  light  in  which  his  words 
are  being  studied. 

As  remarked  already,  the  compatibility  of  Mohammed's 
system  with  every  stage  of  progress  shows  their  Founder's 
wisdom.  Among  unadvanced  communities,  polygamy,  hedged 
by  all  the  safeguards  imposed  by  the  Prophet,  is  by  no  means 
an  evil  to  be  deplored.  At  least  it  is  preferable  to  those 
polyandrous  customs  and  habits  and  modes  of  hfe  which 
betoken  an  utter  abandonment  of  all  moral  self-restraint.  As 
culture  advances,  the  mischiefs  resulting  from  pol^^gamy  are 
better  appreciated,  and  the  meaning  of  the  prohibition  better 
comprehended.  We  are  by  no  means  prepared  to  say  that  the 
Musulmans  of  India  have  benefited  greatly  by  their  inter- 
mixture with  the  Brahmanical  races,  among  whom  prostitution 
was  a  legalised  custom.  Their  moral  ideas  have  become  lax  ; 
the   conception   of   human   dignity   and   spiritual   purity   has 


232  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

become  degraded  ;  the  class  of  hetairai  has  become  as  popular 
among  them  as  among  their  non-Moslem  neighbours.  And  yet 
there  are  signs  visible  which  bid  us  hope  that  God's  light,  which 
lit  up  Arabia  in  the  seventh  century,  will  fall  on  their  hearts  and 
bring  them  out  of  the  darkness  in  which  they  are  now  plunged. 
The  Mu'tazila  is,  by  conviction,  a  strict  monogamist ;  according 
to  him  the  law  forbids  a  second  union  during  the  subsistence 
of  a  prior  contract.  In  other  words,  a  Mu'tazila  marriage 
fulfils  in  every  respect  the  requirements  of  an  essentially 
monogamous  marriage  as  a  "  voluntary  union  for  life  of  one 
man  and  one  woman  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others." 

Even  among  the  archaic  sects,  a  large  and  influential  body 
hold  polygamy  to  be  unlawful,  the  circumstances  which 
rendered  it  permissible  in  primitive  times  having  either  passed 
away  or  not  existing  in  the  present  day. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  feeling  against  polygamy  is  becoming 
a  strong  social,  if  not  a  moral,  conviction,  and  many  extraneous 
circumstances  in  combination  with  this  growing  feeling,  are 
tending  to  root  out  the  custom  from  among  the  Indian  Musul- 
mans.  It  has  been  customary  among  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity to  insert  in  the  marriage-deed  a  clause,  by  which  the 
intending  husband  formally  renounces  his  supposed  right  to 
contract  a  second  union  during  the  continuance  of  the  first 
marriage.  Among  the  Indian  Musulmans  ninety-five  men  out 
of  every  hundred  are  at  the  present  moment,  either  by 
conviction  or  necessity,  monogamists.  Among  the  educated 
classes,  versed  in  the  history  of  their  ancestors,  and  able  to 
compare  it  with  the  records  of  other  nations,  the  custom  is 
regarded  with  disapprobation.  In  Persia,  only  a  small  fraction 
of  the  population  enjoy  the  questionable  luxury  of  plurality 
of  wives. ^  It  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that,  before  long, 
a  general  synod  of  Moslem  doctors  will  authoritatively 
declare  that  polygamy,  like  slavery,  is  abhorrent  to  the  laws 
of  Islam. 

We  now  turn  to  the  subject  of  Mohammed's  marriages, 
which  to  many  minds  not  cognisant  of  the  facts,  or  not  honest 
enough  to  appreciate  them,  seem  to  offer  a  fair  ground  of 
reproach     against     the     Prophet     of     Islam.     His     Christian 

^  Only  two  per  cent,  according  to  Col.  Macgregor. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  233 

assailants  maintain  that  in  his  own  person  by  frequent 
marriages  he  assumed  a  privilege  not  granted  by  the  laws,  and 
that  he  displayed  in  this  manner  a  weakness  of  character  little 
compatible  with  the  office  of  Prophet.  Truer  knowledge  of 
history,  and  a  more  correct  appreciation  of  facts,  instead  of 
proving  him  to  be  a  self-indulgent  libertine,  would  conclusively 
establish  that  the  man,  poor  and  without  resource  himself,  when 
he  undertook  the  burden  of  supporting  the  women  whom  he 
married  in  strict  accordance  with  the  old  patriarchal  institution, 
was  undergoing  a  self-sacrifice  of  no  light  a  character.  And 
we  beheve  that  a  thorough  analysis  of  motives  from  the  stand- 
point of  humanity  will  demonstrate  the  falsehood  and  un- 
charitableness  of  the  charges  levelled  at  "  the  Great  Arabian." 
When  Mohammed  was  only  twenty-five  years  of  age,  in  the 
prime  of  life,  he  married  Khadija,  much  his  senior  in  years. 
For  twenty-five  years  his  life  with  her  was  an  uninterrupted 
sunshine  of  faithfulness  and  happiness.  Through  every 
contumely  and  outrage  heaped  on  him  by  the  idolaters,  through 
every  persecution,  Khadija  was  his  sole  companion  and  helper. 
At  the  time  of  Khadija's  death  Mohammed  was  in  the  fifty-first 
year  of  his  age.  His  enemies  cannot  deny,  but  are  forced  to 
admit,  that  during  the  whole  of  this  long  period  they  find  not 
a  single  flaw  in  his  moral  character.  During  the  lifetime  of 
Khadija,  the  Prophet  married  no  other  wife,  notwithstanding 
that  public  opinion  among  his  people  would  have  allowed  him 
to  do  so  had  he  chosen . 

Several  months  after  Khadija's  death  and  on  his  return, 
helpless  and  persecuted,  from  Tayef,  he  married  Sauda,  the 
widow  of  one  Sakran,  who  had  embraced  Islam,  and  had  been 
forced  to  fly  into  Abyssinia  to  escape  the  persecution  of  the 
idolaters.  Sakran  had  died  in  exile,  and  left  his  wife  utterly 
destitute.  According  to  the  customs  of  the  country,  marriage 
was  the  only  means  by  which  the  Teacher  could  protect  and 
help  the  widow  of  his  faithful  disciple.  Every  principle  of 
generosity  and  humanity  would  impel  Mohammed  to  offer  her 
his  hand.  Her  husband  had  given  his  life  in  the  cause  of  the 
new  religion  ;  he  had  left  home  and  country  for  the  sake  of  his 
faith  ;  his  wife  had  shared  his  exile,  and  now  had  returned  to 
Mecca  destitute.     As   the  only  means  of  assisting  the  poor 


234  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  il. 

woman,  Mohammed,  though  straitened  for  the  very  means  of 
daily  subsistence,  married  Sauda. 

Abdullah,  the  son  of  Osman  Abu  Kuhafa,  known  afterwards 
in  history  as  Abu  Bakr,  was  one  of  the  most  devoted  followers 
of  Mohammed.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  converts  to  the 
faith  of  the  Prophet  ;  and  in  his  sincere,  earnest  and  unvary- 
ing attachment  to  Mohammed  he  might  almost  be  compared 
with  AH. 

Abu  Bakr,  as  by  anticipation  we  may  well  call  him,  had  a 
little  daughter  named  Ayesha,  and  it  was  the  desire  of  his  life 
to  cement  the  attachment  which  existed  between  himself  and 
the  Prophet,  who  had  led  him  out  from  the  darkness  of  scep- 
ticism, by  giving  Mohammed  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The 
child  was  only  seven  years  of  age,  but  the  manners  of  the 
country  recognised  such  alliances.  At  the  earnest  solicitation 
of  the  disciple,  the  little  maiden  became  the  wife  of  the 
Prophet. 

Some  time  after  the  arrival  of  the  fugitives  at  Medina  there 
occurred  an  incident  which  throws  considerable  light  on  the 
conditions  of  life  among  the  Arabs  of  the  time.  Those  who 
know  the  peculiarities  of  the  Arab  character — "  pride, 
pugnacity,  a  peculiar  point  of  honour,  and  a  vindictiveness  of 
wonderful  force  and  patience  " — will  be  able  to  appreciate  the 
full  bearing  of  the  story.  Even  now  "  words  often  pass  lightly 
between  individuals,"  says  Burton,  "  which  suffice  to  cause  a 
blood-feud  amongst  Bedouins."  Omar  Ibn  ul-Khattab,  who 
afterwards  became  the  second  Caliph  of  Islam,  had  a  daughter 
of  the  name  of  Hafsa.  This  good  lady  had  lost  her  husband 
at  the  battle  of  Badr,  and  being  blessed  with  a  temper  as  fiery 
as  that  of  her  father,  had  remained  ever  since  without  a  husband. 
The  disciples  bent  upon  matrimony  fought  shy  of  her.  It  was 
almost  a  reflection  on  the  father  ;  and  Omar,  in  order  to  get 
rid  of  the  scandal,  offered  his  daughter's  hand  to  Abu  Bakr, 
and,  upon  his  declining  the  honour,  to  Osman.  He  also  met 
the  offer  with  a  refusal.  This  was  little  less  than  a  direct 
insult,  and  Omar  proceeded  in  a  towering  rage  to  Mohammed 
to  lay  his  complaint  before  the  Prophet.  The  point  of  honour 
must,  anyhow,  be  settled  in  his  favour.  But  neither  Abu 
Bakr   nor    Osman    would   undertake    the   burden   of   Hafsa's 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  235 

temper  : — a  dispute,  ludicrous  in  its  origin  from  our  point  of 
view,  but  sufficient!}^  serious  then  to  throw  into  commotion 
the  small  body  of  the  Faithful.  In  this  extremity  the  chief  of 
the  Moslems  appeased  the  enraged  father  by  marrying  the 
daughter.  And  public  opinion  not  only  approved,  but  was 
jubilant  over  it.^ 

Hind  Umm  Salma,  Umm  Habiba,  and  Zainab  Umm 
ul-Masakin,2  three  other  wives  of  the  Prophet,  had  also  been 
widows,  whom  the  animosity  of  the  idolaters  had  bereft  of 
their  natural  protectors,  and  whom  their  relations  were 
either  unable  or  unwilling  to  support. 

Mohammed  had  married  his  devoted  friend  and  freedman, 
Zaid,  to  a  high-born  lady  of  the  name  of  Zainab,  descended 
from  two  of  the  noblest  families  of  Arabia.  Proud  of  her 
birth,  and  perhaps  also  of  her  beauty,  her  marriage  with  a 
freedman  rankled  in  her  breast.  Mutual  aversion  at  last 
culminated  in  disgust.  Probably  this  disgust  on  the  husband's 
part  was  enhanced  by  the  frequent  repetition,  in  a  manner 
which  women  only  know  how  to  adopt,  of  a  few  words  which 
had  fallen  from  the  lips  of  Mohammed  on  once  seeing  Zainab. 
He  had  occasion  to  visit  the  house  of  Zaid,  and  upon  seeing 
Zainab's  unveiled  face,  had  exclaimed,  as  a  Moslem  would 
say  at  the  present  day  when  admiring  a  beautiful  picture  or 
statue,  "  Praise  be  to  God,  the  ruler  of  hearts  !  " 

The    words,    uttered    in    natural    admiration,    were    often 


^  The  story  told  by  Muir,  Sprcnger,  and  Osborn,  with  some  amount  of 
gloating,  of  the  domestic  squabble  between  Hafsa  and  JMohammed,  con- 
cerning Mary,  the  Coptic  girl  presented  to  the  Prophet's  household  by  the 
Negus,  is  absolutely  false  and  malicious.  A  tradition,  which  is  repudiated 
by  all  the  respectable  commentators  of  the  Koran,  and  which  must  have 
been  invented  in  the  time  of  some  Ommeyyade  or  Abbasside  sensualist, 
founded  on  the  weakest  authority,  has  been  seized  with  avidity  by  these 
critics  for  the  vilification  of  the  Prophet.  The  vei'se  in  the  Koran  which  has 
been  supposed  to  refer  to  this  story,  refers,  in  truth,  to  a  wholly  different 
circumstance.  Mohammed,  in  his  boyhood,  when  he  tended  the  flocks  of  his 
uncle,  had  acquired  a  fondness  for  honey,  which  was  often  supplied  by  Zainab. 
Hafsa  and  Ayesha  set  to  work  to  make  him  give  up  honey,  and  they  succeeded 
in  inducing  him  to  vow  he  would  never  touch  it.  But  after  he  had  made  the 
vow  to  her  came  the  thought  that  he  was  making  something  unlawful  in 
which  there  was  nothing  unlawful,  simply  to  please  his  wives.  His  conscience 
smote  him  as  to  his  weakness,  and  then  came  the  verse,  "  O  Prophet,  why 
boldest  thou  that  to  be  prohibited  which  God  has  made  lawful,  seeking  to 
please  thy  wives  ?  " — (Zamakh?hari.) 

*  "  Afother  of  the  poor,"  so  called  from  her  charity  and  benevolence. 


236  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

repeated  by  Zainab  to  her  husband  to  show  how  even  the 
Prophet  praised  her  beauty,  and  naturally  added  to  his 
displeasure.  At  last  he  came  to  the  decision  not  to  live  any 
longer  with  her,  and  with  this  determination  he  went  to  the 
Prophet  and  expressed  his  intention  of  being  divorced.  "  Why," 
demanded  Mohammed,  "  hast  thou  found  any  fault  in  her  ?  " 
"  No,"  replied  Zaid,  "  but  I  can  no  longer  live  with  her."  The 
Prophet  then  peremptorily  said,  "  Go  and  guard  thy  wife  ; 
treat  her  well  and  fear  God,  for  God  has  said  '  Take  care  of 
your  wives,  and  fear  the  Lord  !  '  "  But  Zaid  was  not  moved 
from  his  purpose,  and  in  spite  of  the  command  of  the  Prophet 
he  divorced  Zainab.  Mohammed  was  grieved  at  the  conduct 
of  Zaid,  more  especially  as  it  was  he  who  had  arranged  the 
marriage  of  these  two  uncongenial  spirits. 

After  Zainab  had  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  divorce  from 
Zaid,  she  commenced  importuning  Mohammed  to  marry  her, 
and  was  not  satisfied  until  she  had  won  for  herself  the  honour 
of  being  one  of  the  wives  of  the  Prophet. ^ 

Another  wife  of  Mohammed  was  called  Juwairiya.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Harith,  the  chief  of  the  Bani  Mustahk,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  by  a  Moslem  in  an  expedition  undertaken  to 
repress  their  revolt.  She  had  made  an  agreement  with  her 
captor  to  purchase  her  freedom  for  a  stipulated  sum.  She 
petitioned  Mohammed  for  the  amount,  which  he  immediately 
gave  her.  In  recognition  of  this  kindness,  and  in  gratitude  for 
her  liberty,  she  offered  her  hand  to  Mohammed,  and  they  were 
married.  As  soon  as  the  Moslems  heard  of  this  alliance,  they 
said  amongst  themselves  the  Banu  Mustalik  are  now  con- 
nections of  the  Prophet,  and  we  must  treat  them  as  such. 
Each  victor  thereupon  hastened  to  release  the  captives  he 
had  made  in  the  expedition,   and  a  hundred  families,  thus 

^  Tabari  (Zotenberg's  translation),  vol.  iii.  p.  58.  This  marriage  created  a 
sensation  amongst  the  idolaters,  who,  whilst  marrying  their  step-mothers  and 
mothers-in-law,  looked  upon  the  marriage  of  the  divorced  wife  of  an  adopted 
son  (as  Zaid  at  one  time  was  regarded  by  Mohammed)  by  the  adoptive  father 
as  culpable.  To  disabuse  the  people  of  the  notion  that  adoption  creates  any 
such  tie  as  real  consanguinity,  some  verses  of  chap,  xxxiii.  were  delivered, 
which  destroyed  the  pagan  custom  of  forbidding  or  making  sacred  the  person 
of  a  wife  or  husband,  or  intended  wife  or  husband,  by  merely  calling  her 
mother,  sister,  father,  or  brother — much  less  by  her  or  him  being  first  allied 
to  an  adopted  son  or  daughter.  One  of  the  greatest  tests  of  the  Prophet's 
purity  is  that  Zaid  never  swerved  from  his  devotion  to  his  master. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  237 

regaining  their  liberty,  blessed  the  marriage  of  Juwairiya  with 
Mohammed.^ 

Safiya,  a  Jewess,  had  also  been  taken  prisoner  by  a  Moslem 
in  the  expedition  against  Khaibar.  Her,  too,  Mohammed 
generously  liberated,  and  elevated  to  the  position  of  his  wife 
at  her  request. 

Maimuna,  whom  Mohammed  married  in  Mecca,  was  his 
kinswoman,  and  was  already  above  fifty.  Her  marriage  with 
Mohammed,  besides  providing  for  a  poor  relation  the  means  of 
support,  gained  over  to  the  cause  of  Islam  two  famous  men, 
Ibn-Abbas  and  Khalid  bin-Wahd,  the  leader  of  the  Koreish 
cavalry  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ohod,  and  in  later  times  the 
conqueror  of  the  Greeks. 

Such  was  the  nature  of  the  marriages  of  Mohammed.  Some 
of  them  may  possibly  have  arisen  from  a  desire  for  male  off- 
spring, for  he  was  not  a  god,  and  may  have  felt  the  natural 
wish  to  leave  sons  behind  him.  He  may  have  wished  also 
to  escape  from  the  nickname  which  the  bitterness  of  his 
enemies  attached  to  him.^  But  taking  the  facts  as  they 
stand,  we  see  that  even  these  marriages  tended  in  their  results 
to  unite  the  warring  tribes,  and  bring  them  into  some  degree 
of  harmony. 

The  practice  of  Thar  (vendetta)  prevailed  among  the  heathen 
Arabs  ;  blood-feuds  decimated  tribes.  There  was  not  a  family 
without  its  blood-feud,  in  which  the  men  were  frequently 
murdered,  and  the  women  and  children  reduced  to  slavery. 
Moses  had  found  the  practice  of  Thar  existing  among  his  people 
(as  it  exists  among  all  people  in  a  certain  stage  of  development)  ; 
but  faihng  to  abolish  it,  had  legalised  it  by  the  institution  of 
sanctuaries.  Mohammed,  with  a  deeper  conception  of  the 
remedies  to  be  apphed,  connected  various  rival  families  and 

*  Ibn-Hisham,  p.  729. 

*  With  savage  bitterness  the  enemies  of  the  Prophet  apphed  to  him  the 
nickname  of  al-ahtar  on  the  death  of  his  last  son.  This  word  htcrally  means 
"  one  whose  tail  has  been  cut  off."  Among  the  ancient  Arabs,  as  among  the 
Hindoos,  a  male  issue  was  regarded  as  the  continuation  of  the  blessings  of  the 
gods  ;  and  the  man  who  left  no  male  issue  behind  was  looked  upon  as  pecu- 
liarly unfortunate.  Hence  the  bitter  word  applied  to  the  Prophet  ;  Koran, 
chap,  cviii.  (see  the  Kashshdf).  Hence,  also,  the  idolatrous  Arabs  used  to 
bury  alive  their  female  offspring,  which  Mohanmied  denounced  and  repre- 
hended in  burning  terms  ;   comp.  Koran  xvii.  34,  etc. 


238  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

powerful  tribes  to  each  other  and  to  himself  by  marriage  ties. 
Towards  the  close  of  his  mission,  standing  on  the  Mount  of 
Arafat,  he  proclaimed  that  from  that  time  all  blood-feuds 
should  cease. 

The  malevolence  of  unfair  and  uncandid  enemies  has  distorted 
the  motives  which,  under  the  sanction  of  the  great  patriarchs 
of  ancient  times,  led  Mohammed  to  have  a  plurality  of  wives, 
and  so  provide  helpless  or  widowed  women  with  subsistence 
in  the  lack  of  all  other  means.  By  taking  them  into  his  family, 
Mohammed  provided  for  them  in  the  only  way  which  the 
circumstances  of  the  age  and  the  people  rendered  possible. 

People  in  the  West  are  apt  to  regard  polygamy  as  intrinsically 
evil,  and  its  practice  not  only  illegal,  but  the  result  of  licentious- 
ness and  immorahty.  They  forget  that  all  such  institutions 
are  the  offspring  of  the  circumstances  and  necessities  of  the 
times.  They  forget  that  the  great  patriarchs  of  the  Hebraic 
race,  who  are  regarded  by  the  followers  of  all  Semitic  creeds  as 
exemplars  of  moral  grandeur,  practised  polygamy  to  an  extent 
which,  to  our  modern  ideas,  seems  the  culmination  of  legalised 
immorality.  We  cannot  perhap)s  allow  their  practice  or  con- 
duct to  pass  unquestioned,  in  spite  of  the  sanctity  which  time- 
honoured  legend  has  cast  around  them.  But  in  the  case  of  the 
Prophet  of  Arabia,  it  is  essential  we  should  bear  in  mind  the 
historic  value  and  significance  of  the  acts. 

Probably  it  will  be  said  that  no  necessity  should  have  induced 
the  Prophet  either  to  practise  or  to  allow  such  an  evil  custom 
as  polygamy,  and  that  he  ought  to  have  forbidden  it  absolutely, 
Jesus  having  overlooked  it.  But  this  custom,  like  many  others, 
is  not  absolutely  evil.  Evil  is  a  relative  term.  An  act  or 
usage  may  be  primarily  quite  in  accordance  with  the  moral 
conceptions  of  societies  and  individuals  ;  but  progress  of  ideas 
and  changes  in  the  condition  of  a  people  may  make  it  evil  in 
its  tendency,  and,  in  process  of  time,  it  may  be  made  by  the 
State,  illegal.  That  ideas  are  progressive  is  a  truism  ;  but  that 
usages  and  customs  depend  on  the  progress  of  ideas,  and  are 
good  or  evil  according  to  circumstances,  or  as  they  are  or  are 
not  in  accordance  with  conscience, — "  the  spirit  of  the  time  " 
— is  a  fact  much  ignored  by  superficial  thinkers. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  the  history  of  early 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  239 

Christianity  is  its  depreciation  of  marriage.  Matrimony  was 
regarded  as  a  condition  of  inferiority,  and  the  birth  ot  children 
an  evil.  Monasticism  had  withdrawn  from  the  world  the  most 
vigorous  minds  ;  the  lay-clergy  were  either  not  allowed  to 
marry,  or  to  marry  but  once.  This  morbid  feature  was  partly 
due  to  the  example  of  the  Master,  and  partly  the  resultant  of 
a  variety  of  circumstances  which  pressed  upon  the  early 
Christian  organisation. 

The  Nazarene  Prophet's  intimate  connection  with  the 
Essene  ascetics,  his  vivid  anticipation  of  the  immediate  advent 
of  a  kingdom  of  God,  where  all  social  relations  would  be  at  an 
end,  and  the  early  cessation  of  his  ministry,  all  explain  his 
depreciation  of  matrimony,  and  we  may  add,  perhaps,  his  never 
entering  the  married  state.  His  association  with  the  Baptist, 
himself  an  Essene,  throws  light  upon  the  history  of  a  short  but 
most  pathetic  life.  The  strong  and  inexplicable  antipathy  of 
Paul  towards  the  female  sex,  joined  to  the  words  of  the  Master, 
strengthened  in  the  Church  the  Essenic  conception  that  the 
union  of  man  and  woman  in  the  holiest  of  ties  was  an  act  of 
sinfulness,  an  evil  to  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  Marriage 
was  regarded  as  having  for  its  sole  object  the  procreation  of 
children  and  the  gratification  of  "  man's  carnal  lusts,"  and  the 
marriage  services  of  most  of  the  Christian  Churches  bear  to 
this  day  the  impress  of  this  primitive  notion.  It  was  under 
these  influences,  the  idea  engrafted  itself  upon  Christianity, 
which  still  retains  its  hold  where  not  displaced  by  humanitarian 
science,  that  a  person  who  has  never  married  is  a  far  superior 
being  to  one  who  has  contaminated  himself  by  marriage.  The 
ash-covered  Yogis  of  India,  the  matted-locked  ascetics  of  the 
East  generally,  the  priests  of  Buddha,  were  celibates.  Accord- 
ing to  them,  "  knowledge  was  unattainable  without  sundering 
all  the  loving  ties  of  home  and  family,  and  infinity  impossible 
of  realisation  without  leading  a  life  of  singleness."  Celibacy 
passed  into  Christianity  through  many  hands  from  Eastern 
Gnosticism  and  Asceticism.  The  "  sinlessness  "  of  Jesus  has 
been  regarded  by  some  as  a  proof  of  his  divinity,  by  others  as 
an  indication  of  his  immeasurable  superiority  over  the  rest  of 
the  teachers  of  the  world.  To  our  mind,  the  comparison  or 
contrast    which   is   so   falsely   instituted   between   Jesus    and 


240  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

j 
Mohammed  appears  wholly  misconceived,  and  founded  uponi 
a  wrong  estimate  of  moral  ideals.  If  never  marrying  con-j 
stitutes  a  man  an  ideal  being,  then  all  the  ascetics,  the  hermits, 
the  dervishes  are  perfect.  A  perfect  life  would  then  imply  a 
total  abandonment  of  ah  domestic  relations.  Surely  this  view 
would  be  a  perversion  of  nature,  and  end  in  disastrous  con- 
sequences to  humanity.  But  if  it  be  not  so,  then  why  this 
disparagement  of  the  Prophet,  who  fulfilled  the  work  of  Jesus  ?! 
Is  it  because  he  married  more  wives  than  one  ?  We  have 
shown  what  these  marriages  meant  ;  we  have  at  least  en- 
deavoured to  show  that  in  those  very  deeds  which  have  been 
used  to  calumniate  him,  he  was  undergoing  a  sacrifice. 

But  let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  his  marriages  from  an  abstract 
point  of  view.  Why  did  Moses  marry  more  than  one  wife  ? 
Was  he  a  moral,  or  a  sensual  man  for  doing  so  ?  Why  did 
David,  "  the  man  after  God's  heart,"  indulge  in  unlimited 
polygamy  ?  The  answer  is  plain — each  age  has  its  own  stan- 
dard. What  is  suited  for  one  time  is  not  suited  for  the  other, 
and  we  must  not  judge  of  the  past  by  the  standard  of  the 
present.  Our  ideals  do  not  lose  their  greatness  or  their; 
sublimity  by  having  acted  truthfully  and  honestly  up  to  the;^ 
standard  of  their  age.  Would  we  be  justified  in  calling  Jesus' 
a  vain,  ambitious,  unpractical  dreamer,  or  Moses  and  David 
sanguinary  sensualists,  because  the  mind  of  one  was  filled  with 
vague  imaginings  of  expected  sovereignty,  and  the  lives  of  the 
others  were  so  objectionable  from  the  twentieth  centurj^; 
point  of  view  ?  In  both  cases  we  would  be  entirely  wrong  ; 
the  aspirations  of  the  one,  the  a.chievements  of  the  others,  were 
all  historical  facts,  in  accord  with  their  times.  It  is  the  truest 
mark  of  the  Prophet  that,  in  his  most  exalted  mood,  he  does 
not  lose  sight  of  the  living  in  his  anticipation  of  the  yet  unborn. 
In  his  person  he  represents  the  growth  and  development  oJ 
humanity.  Neither  Jesus  nor  Mohammed  could  at  once  efface 
existing  society,  or  obliterate  all  national  and  political  institu- 
tions. Like  Jesus,  Mohammed  contented  himself,  except 
where  ordinances  were  necessary,  to  meet  the  requirements  o: 
the  moment,  "  with  planting  principles  in  the  hearts  of  his 
followers  which  would,  when  the  time  was  ripe  for  it,  worl 
out  their  abohtion," 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  241 

As  regards  the  statement  that  Mohammed  assumed  to 
himself  a  privilege  which  he  denied  to  his  followers,  only  thus 
much  need  be  said,  that  it  is  founded  on  a  misconception 
resulting  from  ignorance.  The  limitation  on  polygamy  was 
enunciated  at  Medina  some  years  after  the  exile  ;  and  the 
provision  regarding  himself,  instead  of  being  a  privilege 
assumed  by  a  libertine,  was  a  burden  consciously  imposed  on 
a  self-conscious,  self-examining  soul.  All  his  marriages  were 
contracted  before  the  revelation  came  restricting  polygamy  ; 
and  with  that  came  the  other  which  took  away  from  him  all 
privileges.  Whilst  his  followers  were  free  (subject  to  the 
conditions  imposed  by  the  law),  to  marry  to  the  limit  of  four, 
and  by  the  use  of  the  power  of  divorce,  which,  in  spite  of  the 
Prophet's  denunciations,  they  still  exercised,  could  ^nter  into 
fresh  alliances,  he  could  neither  put  away  any  of  his  wives, 
whose  support  he  had  undertaken,  nor  could  he  marry  any 
other.  Was  this  the  assumption  of  a  "  privilege  "  ;  or  was  it 
not  a  humane  provision  for  those  already  allied  to  him — ^and  to 
himself,  a  revelation  of  perfect  self-abnegation  in  his  prophetic 
task  ? 

The  subject  of  divorce  has  proved  a  fruitful  source  of  mis- 
conception and  controversy  ;  but  there  can  be  no  question  that 
the  Koranic  laws  concerning  the  treatment  of  women  in  divorce 
are  of  "  better  humanity  and  regard  for  justice  than  those  of 
any  other  scripture." 

Among  all  the  nations  of  antiquity,  the  power  of  divorce  has 
been  regarded  as  a  necessary  corollary  to  'the  law  of  marriage  ; 
but  this  right,  with  a  few  exceptions,  was  exclusively  reserved 
for  the  benefit  of  the  stronger  sex  ;  the  wife  was  under  no 
circumstance  entitled  to  claim  a  divorce. 

The  progress  of  civilisation  and  the  advancement  of  ideas 
led  to  a  partial  amelioration  in  the  condition  of  women.  They, 
too,  acquired  a  qualified  right  of  divorce,  which  they  were  never 
backward  in  exercising  freely,  until  the  facility  with  which 
marriages  were  contracted  and  dissolved  under  the  Roman 
emperors  passed  into  a  bye-word. 

Under  the  ancient  Hebraic  Law,  a  husband  could  divorce 
his  wife  for  any  cause  which  made  her  disagreeable  to  him,  and 
there  were  few  or  no  checks  to  an  arbitrary  and  capricious  use 

S.I.  Q 


242  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

of  his  power.  Women  were  not  allowed  to  demand  a  divorce 
from  their  husbands  for  any  reason  whatsoever. ^ 

In  later  times,  the  Sham^maites,  to  some  extent,  modified  the 
custom  of  divorce  by  imposing  certain  restrictions  on  its 
exercise,  but  the  school  of  Hillel  upheld  the  law  in  its  primitive 
strictness. 

At  the  time  of  the  Prophet's  appearance,  the  Hillehte 
doctrines  were  chiefly  in  force  among  the  Jewish  tribes  of 
Arabia,  and  repudiations  by  the  husbands  were  as  common 
among  them  as  among  the  pagan  Arabs. 

Among  the  Athenians  the  husband's  right  to  repudiate  the 
wife  was  as  unrestricted  as  among  the  ancient  Israelites. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  legahty  of  the  practice  of  divorce 
was  recognised  from  the  earliest  times.  The  laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  admitted  divorce.  And  if  the  Romans,  as  is 
stated  by  their  admirers,  did  not  take  advantage  of  this  law 
until  five  hundred  years  after  the  foundation  of  their  city,  it 
was  not  because  they  were  more  exemplary  than  other  nations, 
but  because  the  husband  possessed  the  power  of  summarily 
putting  his  wife  to  death  for  acts  like  poisoning,  drinking,  and 
the  substitution  of  a  spurious  child.  But  the  wife  had  no  right 
to  sue  for  a  divorce  ;  ^  and  if  she  solicited  separation,  her 
temerity  made  her  liable  to  punishment.  But  in  the  later 
Republic,  the  frequency  of  divorce  was  at  once  the  sign,  the 
cause,  and  the  consequence  of  the  rapid  depravation  of 
morals. 

We  have  selected  the  two  most  prominent  nations  of  antiquity 
whose  modes  of  thought  have  acted  powerfully  on  modern  ways 
of  thinking  and  modern  life  and  manners.  The  laws  of  the 
Romans  regarding  divorce  were  marked  by  a  progressive  spirit, 
tending  to  the  melioration  of  the  condition  of  women,  and  to 
their  elevation  to  an  equality  with  men.  This  was  the  result 
of  the  advancement  of  human  ideas,  as  much  as  of  any 
extraneous  cause. 

"  The  ambiguous  word  which  contains  the  precept  of  Jesus 
is  flexible  to  any  interpretation  that  the  wisdom  of  the  legislator 

1  Ex.  xxi.  2  ;    Deut.  xxi.  14,  xxiv.  i.     Compare  also  Dollinger,  The  Gentile 
and  the  Jew,  vol.  ii.  pp.  339,  340  ;   and  Selden's  Uxor  Hebraica,  in  loco. 
*  Dollinper,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  vol.  ii.  p.  255. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  243 

can  demand."  ^  We  may  well  suppose  that  at  the  time  Jesus 
uttered  the  words,  "  What  God  has  joined,  let  not  man  put 
asunder,"  he  had  no  other  idea  than  that  of  stemming  the 
torrent  of  moral  depravity,  and  he  did  not  stop  to  consider  the 
ultimate  tendency  of  his  words.  The  subsequent  rule,  which 
makes  fornication  ^  (using  the  translated  word)  the  only  ground 
of  valid  divorce,  shows  abundantly  that  Jesus  was  alive  to  the 
emergency.^  But  the  "  wisdom  "  of  subsequent  legislators 
has  not  confined  itself  to  a  bhnd  adherence  to  a  rule  laid  down 
probably  to  suit  the  requirement  of  an  embryonic  community, 
and  dehvered  verbally.  The  rule  may  be  regarded  as  incul- 
cating a  noble  sentiment  ;  but  that  it  should  be  considered  as 
the  typical  law  of  divorce  is  sufficiently  controverted  by  the 
multitudinous  provisions  of  successive  ages  in  Christian 
countries. 

Among  the  Arabs,  the  power  of  divorce  possessed  by  the 
husband  was  unlimited.  They  recognised  no  rule  of  humanity 
or  justice  in  the  treatment  of  their  wives.  Mohammed  looked 
upon  the  custom  of  divorce  with  extreme  disapproval,  and 
regarded  its  practice  as  calculated  to  undermine  the  founda- 
tions of  society.^  He  repeatedly  declared  that  nothing  pleased 
God  more  than  the  emancipation  of  slaves,  and  nothing  more 
displeased  Him  than  divorce.  It  was  impossible,  however, 
under  the  existing  conditions  of  society  to  abolish  the  custom 
entirely.  He  was  to  mould  the  mind  of  an  uncultured  and 
semi-barbarous  community  to  a  higher  development  so  that 
in  the  fulness  of  time  his  spiritual  lessons  might  blossom  in  the 
hearts  of  mankind.     The  custom  was  not  an  unmixed  evil  ; 

1  Gihhon   Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  vol.  iv.  (2nd  Ed.)  p.  209. 

niatt.  j&iKg.       lli.f 

3  Two  of  the  Christian  Gospels  make  no  mention  of  the  reason  for  which 
Jesus  allowed  his  followers  "  to  put  away  "  their  wives  (Mark  x.  11  and  Luke 
xvi.  18).  If  the  traditions  recorded  by  these  two  Gospels  be  considered  of 
higher  authority  than  those  passing  undei  the  name  of  Matthew,  then  our 
contention  is  that  Jesus,  whilst  preaching  noble  sentiments,  and  inculcating 
high  principles  of  morality,  did  not  intend  his  words  .should  be  considered  as 
an  immutable  and  positive  law,  nor  had  he  any  other  idea  than  that  of  stem- 
ming the  rising  tide  of  immorality  and  irreligion.  Selden  thinks  that  by  an 
evasive  answer,  Jesus  wanted  to  avoid  giving  offence  either  to  the  school  of 
Shammai  or  that  of  Hillel,  Uxor  Hehraica,  I.  iii  c.  18-22,  28,  31.  Compare 
Gibbon's  valuable  note  on  the  interpretation  of  the  Greek  word  ■n-opvela, 
rendered  "  fornication  "  in  the  English  version,  vol.  iv.  (2nd  Ed.)  p.  209. 

■*  Koran,  sura  ii.  226, 


244  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

and  accordingly  he  allowed  the  exercise  of  the  power  of  divorce 
to  husbands  under  certain  conditions.  He  permitted  to  ' 
divorced  parties  three  distinct  and  separate  periods  within 
which  they  might  endeavour  to  become  reconciled  and  resume 
their  conjugal  relationship  ;  but  should  all  attempts  at  recon- 
ciliation prove  unsuccessful,  then  the  third  period  in  which 
the  final  separation  was  declared  to  have  arrived,  supervened. 
In  case  of  conjugal  disputes,  he  advised  settlement  by  means 
of  arbiters  chosen  by  the  two  disputants. 

M.  Sedillot,  than  whom  no  Western  writer  has  analysed  the  ' 
laws  of  Mohammed  better,  has  the  following  passage  on  the  ; 
subject  : 

"Divorce  was  permitted,  but  subject  to  formalities  which, 
allowed  (and,  we  will  add,  recommended),  a  revocation  of  a! 
hurried  or  not  well-considered  resolution.  Three  successive  \ 
declarations,  at  a  month's  interval,  were  necessary  in  order  to  j 
make  it  irrevocable."  ^  i 

The  reforms  of  Mohammed  marked  a  new  departure  in  the,' 
history  of  Eastern  legislation.     He  restrained  the  power  of; 
divorce  possessed  by  the  husbands  ;  he  gave  to  the  women  the  I 
right  of  obtaining  a  separation  on  reasonable  grounds  ;    andj 
towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  went  so  far  as  practically  toi 
forbid  its  exercise  by  the  men  without  the  intervention  of 
arbiters  or  a  judge.     He  pronounced  "  taldk  to  be  the  most 
detestable  before  God  of  all  permitted  things,"  for  it  prevented, 
conjugal  happiness  and  interfered  with  the  proper  bringing  up 
of  children.     The  permission,  therefore,  in  the  Koran  though 
it  gave  a  certain  countenance  to  the  old  customs,  has  to  be  read'' 
with  the  light  of  the  Lawgiver's  own  enunciations.     When  it'  • 
is  borne  in  mind  how  intimately  law  and  religion  are  connected' 
in  the  Islamic  system,  it  will  be  easy  to  understand  the  bearing 
of  his  words  on  the  institution  of  divorce. 

Naturally,  great  divergence  exists  among  the  various  schools) 
regarding  the  exercise  of  the  power  of  divorce  by  the  husband* 
of  his  own  motion  and  without  the  intervention  of  the  judge :| 
A  large  and  influential  body  of  jurists  regard  taldk  emanating' 
from  the  husband  as  really  prohibited,  except  for  necessity 
such  as  the  adultery  of  the  wife.  Another  section,  consisting 
1  Sedillot,  Histoire  des  Arabes,  vol.  i.  p.  85. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  245 

chiefly  of  the  Mu'tazilas/  consider  taldk  as  not  permissible  or 
lawful  without  the  sanction  of  the  Hakim  ush-shara'.  They 
hold  that  any  such  case  as  may  justify  separation  and  remove 
taldk  from  the  category  of  heing  forbidden,  should  be  tested  by 
an  unbiased  judge  ;  and,  in  support  of  their  doctrine,  they 
refer  to  the  words  of  the  Prophet  already  cited,  and  to  his 
direction  that  in  case  of  disputes  between  the  married  parties, 
arbiters  should  be  appointed  for  the  settlement  of  their 
differences. 

The  Hanafis,  the  Malikis,  the  Shafe'is  and  the  bulk  of  the 
Shiahs  hold  taldk  to  be  permitted,  though  they  regard  the 
exercise  of  the  power  without  any  cause  to  be  unlawful. 

The  Radd  ul-Muhtdr,  after  stating  the  arguments  against  the 
proposition  that  taldk  is  unlawful,  proceeds  to  say,  "  no  doubt, 
it  is  forbidden,  but  it  becomes  muhdh  (permitted)  for  certain 
outside  reasons,  and  this  is  the  meaning  of  those  jurists  who 
hold  that  it  is  really  forbidden." 

Although  "  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  "  have  taken  up  the 
temporary  permission  as  the  positive  rule,  and  ignored  many 
of  the  principles  of  equity  inculcated  by  the  Master,  the  rules 
laid  down  by  the  legists  are  far  more  humane  and  just  towards 
women  than  those  of  the  most  perfect  Roman  law  developed 
in  the  bosom  of  the  Church. ^  According  to  the  legists,  the 
wife  also  is  entitled  to  demand  a  separation  on  the  ground  of 
ill-usage,  want  of  proper  maintenance,  and  various  other 
causes  ;  but  unless  she  showed  very  good  and  solid  grounds  for 
demanding  the  separation,  she  lost  her  "  settlement  "  or 
dowry.  In  every  case,  when  the  divorce  originated  with  the 
husband  (except  in  cases  of  open  infidehty),  he  had  to  give  up 
to  her  everything  he  settled  upon  her  at  her  marriage.^ 

1  See  post.  « INIilman's  Latin  Christianity,  vol,  i.  pp.  368,  369. 

'  M.  Sedillot  also  speaks  of  the  condition  which  (according  to  the  Sunnite 
doctrines)  requires  that  in  such  cases  of  complete  separation,  prior  to  the 
husband  and  wife  coming  together  again,  the  latter  should  marry  another 
and  be  divorced  anew, — as  a  very  wise  measure  which  rendered  separation 
more  rare.  Muir  censures  Mohammed  for  making  such  a  condition  necessary 
(vol.  iii.  p.  306).  He  ignores,  that,  among  a  proud,  jealous,  and  sensitive  race 
hke  the  Arabs,  such  a  condition  was  one  of  the  strongest  antidotes  for  the 
evil.  The  very  proverb  he  quotes  ought  to  have  shown  the  disgrace  which 
was  attached  to  the  man  who  would  make  his  wife  go  through  such  "  a  dis- 
gusting ordeal."  I  am  afraid,  in  his  dislike  towards  Mohammed,  Sir  W. 
Muir  forgot   that   this   condition   was   intended   as   a   check   on   that   other 


246  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

The  frequent  admonitions  in  the  Koran  against  separations, 
the  repeated  recommendation  to  heal  quarrels  by  private 
reconciliation,  show  the  extreme  sacredness  of  the  marriage; 
tie  in  the  eyes  of  the  Arab  Legislator  :  ' 

"  If  a  woman  fear  ill-usage  or  aversion  from  her  husband,  it^ 
shall  not  be  blameable  in  them  ^  if  they  agree  with  mutual 
agreement,  for  reconciliation  (or  agreement)  is  best.  (Men's) 
souls  are  prone  to  avarice  ;  but  if  ye  act  kindly  and  deal! 
piously,  verily  God  is  well  acquainted  with  what  ye  do.  And' 
ye  will  not  have  it  at  all  in  your  power  to  treat  your  wives  alike] 
with  equity,  even  though  you  fain  wanted  to  do  so  ;  ^  yet  yield 
not  to  your  inclinations  ever  so  much  as  to  leave  her  in  sus-; 
pense  ;  and  if  ye  agree  and  act  piously,  then,  verily,  God  is! 
forgiving  and  merciful."  ^  ■ 

And,  again,  in  a  preceding  verse,  it  is  declared  : 

"  And  if  ye  fear  a  breach  between  them  (man  and  wife), 
then  send  a  judge  chosen  from  his  family  and  a  judge  chosen; 
from  her  family  ;  if  they  desire  a  reconciliation,  God  will  cause! 
them  to  agree  ;   verily,  God  is  knowing  and  apprised  of  all."  *  { 

The  sanctity  attached  to  the  institution  of  marriage  in  the! 
Islamic  system  has  either  not  been  apprehended  or  sufficiently, 
appreciated  by  outsiders.  "  Marriage,"  says  the  Ashbdh  w'an-\ 
Nazdir,    "is   an   institution   ordained   for   the   protection   oil 

"  revolting  "  practice  rife  both  among  the  Jews  and  the  heathen  Arabs,  and 
by  example  also  among  the  Christians,  of  repudiating  a  wife  on  every  slighl; 
occasion,  at  every  outburst  of  senseless  passion  or  caprice.  This  check  wasj 
intended  to  control  one  of  the  most  sensitive  nations  of  the  earth,  by  acting^ 
on  the  strongest  feeling  of  their  nature,  the  sense  of  honour  (compare  Sale; 
Preliminary  Discourse,  p.  134).  Sir  W.  Muir  also  forgot  that  many  of  th«l 
Shiite  doctors  do  not  recognise  the  obligation  or  validity  of  the  wife's  beinj; 
married  to  a  third  person,  prior  to  her  being  taken  back  (compare  jNIalcolmj 
History  of  Persia,  vol.  ii.  p.  241,  and  the  Mabsiit,  in  loco).  •, 

For  my  part,  I  believe  in  the  correctness  of  the  construction,  namely,  tha1i 
the  verse  which  says,  "  When  ye  divorce  women,  and  the  time  for  sending 
them  away  is  come,  send  them  away  with  generosity  ;  but  retain  them  nc 
by  constraint  so  as  to  be  unjust  towards  them  "  abrogates  the  preceding  verse 
which  requires  the  intervention  of  a  third  person. 

^  The  Arabic  expression  implies  "  it  will  be  commendable,"  etc.  ' 

^  This  furnishes  another  argument  against  those  Mohammedans  who  hole' 
that  the  developed  laws  of  Islam  allow  plurality  of  wives.  It  being  declarec 
that  "  equity  "  is  beyond  human  power  to  observe,  we  must  naturally  infe 
that  the  Legislator  had  in  view  the  merging  of  the  lower  in  the  higher  prin 
ciple,  and  the  abolition  of  a  custom  which  though  necessary  in  some  state  o 
society,  is  opposed  to  the  later  development  of  thought  and  morals. 

'  Koran,  sura  iv.  128,  129.  ■•  Koran,  sura  iv.  35. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  247 

society,  and  in  order  that  human  beings  may  guard  themselves 
from  foulness  and  unchastity."  "  Marriage  is  a  sacrament, 
insomuch  that  in  this  world  it  is  an  act  of  'ibddat  or  worship, 
for  it  preserves  mankind  free  from  pollution."  ..."  It  is 
instituted  by  divine  command  among  members  of  the  human 
species."  "  Marriage  when  treated  as  a  contract  is  a  per- 
manent relationship  based  on  mutual  consent  on  the  part  of 
a  man  and  a  woman  between  whom  there  is  no  bar  to  a  lawful 
imion." 

It  has  been  frequently  said  that  Mohammed  allowed  his 
followers,  besides  the  four  legitimate  wives,  to  take  to  them- 
selves any  number  of  female  slaves.  A  simple  statement  of 
the  regulation  on  this  point  will  show  at  once  how  opposed  this 
notion  is  to  the  true  precepts  of  Islam.  "  Whoso  among  you 
hath  not  the  means  to  marry  a  free  believing  woman,  then  let 
him  marry  such  of  your  maid-servants  whom  your  right  hands 
possess  and  who  are  believers.  This  is  allowed  unto  him 
among  you  who  is  afraid  of  committing  sin  ;  but  if  ye  abstain 
from  allying  yourself  with  slaves,  it  will  be  better  for  you." 

On  this  slender  basis,  and  perhaps  on  some  temporary  and 
accidental  circumstances  connected  with  the  early  rise  of  the 
Moslem  commonwealth,  have  our  legists  based  the  usage  of 
holding  [jdrias)  female  slaves.  And  this,  though  opposed  to 
the  spirit  of  the  Master's  precepts,  has  given  rise  to  some  of 
the  strongest  animadversions  of  rival  religionists. 

Concubinage,  the  union  of  people  standing  to  each  other  in 
the  relation  of  master  and  slave,  without  the  sanction  of 
matrimony,  existed  among  the  Arabs,  the  Jews,  the  Christians, 
and  all  the  neighbouring  nations.  The  Prophet  did  not  in  the 
beginning  denounce  the  custom,  but  towards  the  end  of  his 
career  he  expressly  forbade  it. 

"  And  you  are  permitted  to  marry  virtuous  women  who  are 
believers,  and  virtuous  women  of  those  who  have  been  given 
the  Scriptures  before  you,  when  you  have  provided  them  their 
portions,  living  chastely  with  them  without  fornication,  and  not 
taking  concubines."  ^ 

Compare  the  spirit  of  the  hrst  part  of  this  commandment 
with    the    exclusiveness    of    Christian    ecclesiasticism,    which 

^  Sura  V.  5. 


248  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  11. 

refused  to  recognise  as  valid  or  lawful  the  union  of  a  Christian 
with  a  non-Christian.  The  stake  frequently  was  the  lot  of  the 
"  infidel  "  who  indulged  in  the  temerity  of  marrying  a 
Christian.  Mohammed's  rule  was  a  distinct  advance  in 
humanity. 

The  prohibition  directed  against  Moslem  women  entering 
into  marriage  with  non-Moslems,  which  has  furnished  a  handle 
for  attacks,  was  founded  upon  reasons  of  policy  and  the  neces- 
sities of  the  early  commonwealth. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  several  institutions  which  the 
Musulmans  borrowed  from  the  pre-Islamic  period,  "  the  Days 
of  Ignorance,"  and  which  exist  simply  as  so  many  survivals  of 
an  older  growth,  have  had  the  tendency  to  retard  the  advance- 
ment of  Mohammedan  nations.  Among  them  the  system  of 
the  seclusion  of  women  is  one.  It  had  been  in  practice  among 
most  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
gynaikonitis  was  a  familiar  institution  among  the  Athenians  ; 
and  the  inmates  of  an  Athenian  harem  were  as  jealousl}^  guaided 
from  the  public  gaze  as  the  members  of  a  Persian  household 
then,  or  of  an  Indian  household  now.  The  gynaikonomoi,  like 
their  Oriental  counterpart,  were  the  faithful  warders  of  female 
privacy,  and  rigorously  watched  over  the  ladies  of  Athens. 
The  seclusion  of  women  naturally  gave  birth  to  the  caste  of 
Hetairai,  various  members  of  whom  played  such  an  important 
part  in  Athenian  history.  Were  it  not  for  the  extraordinary 
and  almost  inexplicable  spectacle  presented  by  the  Byzantine 
empire  and  modern  Europe  and  America,  we  should  have  said 
that  in  every  society,  at  all  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilised 
life,  the  growth  of  the  unhappy  class  of  beings  whose  existence 
is  alike  a  reproach  to  humanity  and  a  disgrace  to  civilisation, 
was  due  to  the  withdrawal  of  women  from  the  legitimate 
exercise  of  their  ennobling,  purifying,  and  humanising  influence 
over  the  minds  of  men.  The  human  mind,  when  it  does  not 
perceive  the  pure,  hankers  after  the  impure.  The  Baby- 
lonians, the  Etruscans,  the  Athenians  and  the  pre-Islamite 
Meccans  furnish  the  best  exemplification  of  this  view  in  ancient 
times.  The  enormity  of  the  social  canker  eating  into  the  heart 
and  poisoning  the  life-blood  of  nations  in  modern  times  is 
due,  however,  to  the  spread  of  a  godless  materialism  covered 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  249 

with  a  thin  veneer  of  rehgion,  be  it  Christianity,  be  it  Moham- 
medanism, or  any  other  form  of  creed.  Mohammed  had,  in 
early  hfe,  observed  with  pain  and  sorrow  the  depravity 
prevailing  among  the  Meccans,  and  he  took  the  most  effective 
step  suited  to  the  age  and  the  people  to  stamp  out  the  evil. 
"  By  his  severe  laws  at  first,"  to  use  the  expressive  language 
of  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith,  "  and  by  the  strong  moral  sentiment 
aroused  by  these  laws  afterwards,  he  has  succeeded,  down  to 
this  very  day,  and  to  a  greater  extent  than  has  ever  been 
the  case  elsewhere,  in  freeing  all  Mohammedan  countries  " — 
where  they  are  not  overgrown  by  foreign  excrescences — "  from 
those  professional  outcasts  who  live  by  their  own  misery, 
and,  by  their  existence  as  a  recognised  class,  are  a  standing 
reproach  to  every  member  of  the  society  of  which  they  form 
a  part." 

The  system  of  female  seclusion  undoubtedly  possesses  many 
advantages  in  the  social  well-being  of  unsettled  and  uncultured 
communities  ;  and  even  in  countries,  where  the  diversity  of 
culture  and  moral  conceptions  is  great,  a  modified  form  of 
seclusion  is  not  absolutely  to  be  deprecated.  It  prevails  at 
the  present  moment,  in  forms  more  or  less  strict,  among 
nations  far  removed  from  Moslem  influences,  to  which  is 
ascribed  the  existence  of  the  custom  in  India  and  other  Oriental 
countries.  In  Corea,  female  seclusion  is  carried  to  the  height 
of  absurdity.  In  China  and  among  the  Spanish  colonies  of 
South  America,  which  are  not  within  the  immediate  ambit  of 
the  European  social  code,  the  Pitrdah  is  still  observed.  The 
Prophet  of  Islam  found  it  existing  among  the  Persians  and 
other  Oriental  communities  ;  he  perceived  its  advantages,  and 
it  is  possible  that,  in  view  of  the  widespread  laxity  of  morals 
among  all  classes  of  people,  he  recommended  to  the  women-folk 
the  observance  of  privacy.  But  to  suppose  that  he  ever 
intended  his  recommendation  should  assume  its  present 
inelastic  form,  or  that  he  ever  allowed  or  enjoined  the  seclusion 
of  women,  is  wholly  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  his  reforms.  The 
Koran  itself  affords  no  warrant  for  holding  that  the  seclusion 
of  women  is  a  part  of  the  new  gospel. 

"  0  Prophet  !  speak  to  thy  wives  and  to  thy  daughters,  and 
to  the  wives  of  the  Faithful,  that  they  let  their  wrappers  fall 


250  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

low.     Thus  will  they  more  easily  be  known,  and  they  will  not 
be  affronted.     God  is  indulgent,  merciful."  ^ 

"  And  speak  to  the  believing  women,  that  they  refrain  their^ 
looks  and  observe  continence  ;  and  that  they  display  not  their 
ornaments  except  those  which  are  external,  and  that  they 
draw  their  kerchiefs  over  their  bosoms."  ^ 

Directions  easy  to  understand  ^  in  the  midst  of  the  social  and 
moral  chaos  from  which  he  was  endeavouring,  under  God's  Guid- 
ance, to  evolve  order, — wise  and  beneficent  injunctions  having 
for  their  object  the  promotion  of  decency  among  women,  the 
improvement  of  their  dress  and  demeanour,  and  their  protec- 
tion from  insult.*  It  is  a  mistake,  therefore,  to  suppose  there 
is  anything  in  the  law  which  tends  to  the  perpetuation  of  the 
custom.  Considerable  light  is  thrown  on  the  Lawgiver's- 
recommendation  for  female  privacy,  by  the  remarkable  im-; 
munity  from  restraint  or  seclusion  which  the  members  of  his! 
family  always  enjoyed.  'Ayesha,  the  daughter  of  Abu  Bakr; 
who  was  married  to  Mohammed  on  Khadija's  death,  personall} 
conducted  the  insurrectionary  movement  against  Ah.  She; 
commanded  her  own  troops  at  the  famous  "  Battle  of  the! 
Camel."  Fatima,  the  daughter  of  the  Prophet,  often  tool?! 
part  in  the  discussions  regarding  the  succession  to  the  Cahphate,: 
The  grand-daughter  of  Mohammed,  Zainab  the  sister  of  Husain,, 
shielded  her  youthful  nephew  from  the  Ommeyyades  after  the 
butchery  of  Kerbela.  Her  indomitable  spirit  awed  equally  the 
ferocious  Obaidullah  ibn  Ziyad  and  the  pitiless  Yezid.  \ 

The  depravity  of  morals,  which  had  sapped  the  foundations! 

i 

1  Sura  xxxiii.  59.  *  Sura  xxiv.  31.  ' 

'  Those  who  have  travelled  in  Europeanised  Egypt  and  in  the  Levant  wil ' 
understand  how  necessary  these  directions  must  have  been  in  those  times.  ; 
•»  Hamilton,  the  translator  of  the  Hedaya,  in  his  preliminary  discourst 
dealing  with  the  Book  of  Abominations,  has  the  following  :  "  A  subject  whict 
involves  a  vast  variety  of  frivolous  matter,  and  must  be  considered  chief!} 
in  the  light  of  a  treatise  upon  propriety  and  decorum.  In  it  is  particularlj 
exhibited  the  scrupulous  attention  paid  to  female  modesty,  and  the  avoidance 
of  every  act  which  may  tend  to  violate  it,  even  in  thought.  It  is  remarkable 
however,  that  this  does  not  amount  to  that  absolute  seclusion  of  women 
supposed  by  some  writers.  In  fact,  this  seclusion  is  a  result  of  jealousy  01, 
pride,  and  not  of  any  legal  injunction,  as  appears  in  this  and  several  other 
parts  of  the  Hedaya.  Neither  is  it  a  custom  universally  prevalent  in  Moham 
medan  countries."  jNIarsden,  in  his  Travels,  says:  "The  Arab  settlers  ir 
Java  never  observed  the  custom,  and  the  Javanese  Mussulman  women  enjoy,: 
the  same  amount  of  freedom  as  their  Dutch  sisters."  i 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  251 

of  society  among  the  prc-Islamic  Arabs,  as  well  as  ainong  the 
Jews  and  the  Christians,  urgently  needed  some  correction. 
The  Prophet's  counsel  regarding  the  privacy  of  women  served 
undoubtedly  to  stem  the  tide  of  immorality,  and  to  prevent 
the  diffusion  among  his  followers  of  the  custom  of  disguised 
polyandry,  which  had  evidently,  until  then,  existed  among 
the  pagan  Arabs. 

According  to  von  Hammer,  "  the  hare  in  is  a  sanctuary  :  it 
is  prohibited  to  strangers,  not  because  women  are  considered 
unworthy  of  coniidence,  but  on  account  of  the  sacredness  with 
which  custom  and  manners  invest  them.  The  degree  of 
reverence  which  is  accorded  to  women  throughout  higher 
Asia  and  Europe  (among  Mohammedan  communities)  is  a 
matter  capable  of  the  clearest  demonstration." 

The  idealisation  of  womanhood  is  a  natural  characteristic  of 
all  the  highest  natures.  But  national  pride  and  religious 
bigotry  have  given  rise  to  two  divergent  theories  regarding 
the  social  exaltation  of  women  among  the  cultured  classes  in 
modern  Christendom.  The  one  attributes  it  to  Mariolatry,  the 
other  to  Mediaeval  chivalry,  alleged  to  be  the  offspring  of 
Teutonic  institutions.  Of  Christianity,  in  its  relation  to 
womankind,  the  less  said  the  better.  In  the  early  ages,  when 
the  religion  of  the  people,  high  and  low,  the  ignorant  and 
educated,  consisted  only  of  the  adoration  of  the  mother  of 
Jesus,  the  Church  of  Christ  had  placed  the  sex  under  a  ban. 
Father  after  father  had  written  upon  the  enormities  of  women, 
their  evil  tendencies,  their  inconceivable  malignity.  Tertulhan 
represented  the  general  feeling  in  a  book  in  which  he  described 
women  as  "  the  devil's  gateway,  the  unsealer  of  the  forbidden 
tree,  the  deserter  of  the  divine  law,  the  destroyer  of  God's 
image — man."  Another  authority  declared  with  a  revolting 
cynicism,  "  among  women  he  sought  for  chastity  but  found 
none."  Chrysostom,  who  is  recognised  as  a  saint  of  high 
merit,  "  interpreted  the  general  opinion  of  the  Fathers,"  says 
Lecky,  "  when  he  pronounced  women  to  be  a  necessary  evil, 
a  natural  temptation,  a  desirable  calamity,  a  domestic  peril, 
a  deadly  fascination,  a  painted  ill."  The  orthodox  Church 
excluded  women  from  the  exercise  of  all  religious  functions 
excepting  the  lowliest.     They  were  excluded  absolutely  from 


252  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

society  ;  they  were  prohibited  from  appearing  in  pubHc,  from 
going  to  feasts  or  banquets.  They  were  directed  to  remain  in 
seclusion,  to  observe  silence,  to  obey  their  husbands,  and  to 
apply  themselves  to  weaving  and  spinning  and  cooking.  If 
they  ever  went  out  they  were  to  be  clothed  from  head  to  foot. 
Such  was  the  position  of  women  in  Christianity  when  Mariolatry 
was  recognised  and  practised  by  all  classes.  In  later  times,  and 
in  the  gloomy  interval  which  elapsed  between  the  overthrow  of 
the  Western  empire  and  the  rise  of  modern  society  in  Europe, 
a  period  which  has  been  described  as  one  of  "  rapine,  falsehood, 
tyranny,  lust,  and  violence,"  Christianity,  by  introducing 
convents  and  nunneries,  served,  in  some  respects,  to  improve 
the  lot  of  women.  This  questionable  amelioration,  however, 
was  only  suited  for  an  age  when  the  abduction  of  women  was 
an  everyday  occurrence,  and  the  dissoluteness  of  morals  was 
such  as  to  defy  description.  But  the  convents  were  not  always 
the  haunts  of  virtue,  nor  the  inculcation  of  celibacy  the  surest 
safeguard  of  chastity.  The  Registnini  Visitationem,  or  the 
diary  of  the  pastoral  visits  of  Archbishop  Rigaud,  throws  a 
peculiar  light  upon  the  state  of  morality  and  the  position  of 
the  sex  during  the  most  glorious  epoch  of  the  Age  of  Faith. 
The  rise  of  Protestantism  made  no  difference  in  the  social 
conditions  or  in  the  conception  of  lawyers  regarding  the  status 
of  women.  Jesus  had  treated  woman  with  humanity  ;  his 
followers  excluded  her  from  justice. 

The  other  theory  to  which  we  have  adverted  is  in  vogue 
among  the  romanceurs  of  Europe.  They  have  represented  each 
historical  figure  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  be  a  Bayard  or  a  Crichton. 
The  age  of  chivalry  is  generally  supposed  to  extend  from  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  to  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century 
— a  period,  be  it  noted,  almost  synchronous  with  the  Saracenic 
domination  in  Spain.  But,  during  this  period,  in  spite  of  the 
halo  which  poetry  and  romance  have  cast  around  the  conditions 
of  society,  women  were  the  frequent  subjects  of  violence. 
Force  and  fraud  were  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
golden  age  of  Christian  chivalry.  Roland  and  Arthur  were 
myths  until  the  West  came  in  contact  with  the  civilisation 
and  culture  of  the  East.  Chivalry  was  not  the  product  of  the 
wilds  of  Scandinavia  or  of  the  gloomy  forests  of  Germany  ; — 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  253 

prophecy  and  chivalry  ahke  were  the  children  of  the  desert. 
From  the  desert  issued  Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mohammed  ;  from 
the  desert  issued  'Antar,  Hamza,  and  Ah. 

The  condition  of  women  among  the  Arabs  settled  in  the  cities 
and  villages,  who  had  adopted  the  loose  notions  of  morality 
prevalent  among  the  Syrians,  Persians,  and  Romans,  was,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  degraded  in  the  extreme.  Among 
some  of  the  nomads,  however,  they  enjoyed  great  freedom, 
and  exercised  much  influence  over  the  fortunes  of  their  tribes. 
"  They  were  not,  as  among  the  Greeks,"  says  Perron,  "  the 
creatures  of  misery."  They  accompanied  the  warriors  to 
battle,  and  inspired  them  to  heroism  ;  the  cavaliers  rushed  into 
the  fights  singing  the  praises  of  sister,  wife,  or  lady-love.  The 
guerdon  of  their  loves  was  the  highest  prize  of  their  prowess. 
Valour  and  generosity  were  the  greatest  virtues  of  the  men, 
and  chastity  that  of  the  women.  An  insult  offered  to  a  woman 
of  a  tribe  would  set  in  flame  the  desert  tribes  from  end  to  end  of 
the  peninsula.  The  "  Sacrilegious  Wars,"  which  lasted  for  forty 
years,  and  were  put  an  end  to  by  the  Prophet,  had  their  origin 
in  an  insult  offered  to  a  young  girl  at  one  of  the  fairs  of  Okaz, 

Mohammed  rendered  a  fitful  custom  into  a  permanent  creed, 
and  embodied  respect  for  women  in  his  revelations.  With 
many  directions,  which  reflect  the  rude  and  patriarchal 
simphcity  of  the  age,  his  regulations  breathe  a  more  chivalrous 
spirit  towards  the  sex  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  teachings  of 
the  older  masters.  Islam,  like  Christianity,  is  different  with 
different  individuals  and  in  different  ages,  but  on  the  whole, 
true  chivalry  is  more  intimately  associated  with  true  Islam 
than  with  any  other  form  of  positive  faith  or  social  institution. 

The  hero  of  Islam,  the  true  disciple  of  the  founder  of  the 
Hilf-id-Fuzid,  was  as  ready  with  lance  and  sword  to  do  battle 
with  God's  enemies  as  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the  weak  and 
oppressed.  Whether  on  the  plains  of  Irak  or  nearer  home, 
the  cry  of  distress  never  failed  to  bring  the  mailed  knight  to 
the  succour  of  the  helpless  and  suffering.  His  deeds  translated 
into  legends,  and  carried  from  the  tent  to  the  palace,  have 
served  to  influence  the  prowess  of  succeeding  ages.  The  caliph 
in  his  banqueting-hall  puts  down  the  half-tasted  bowl  on  being 
told  that  an  Arab  maiden,  carried  into  captivity  by  the  Romans, 


254  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

had  cried  out,  "  Why  does  not  Abd  ul-Mahk  come  to  my  help  ?  " 
— he  vows  that  no  wine  or  water  shall  wet  his  lips  until  he  has 
released  the  maiden  from  bondage.  Forthwith  he  marches  his 
troops  upon  the  Roman  caitiffs,  and  only  when  the  maiden  has 
attained  her  liberty  is  he  freed  from  his  vow.  A  Mogul  em- 
peror, ^  sore  pressed  by  relentless  foes,  is  marching  towards  the 
frontiers  when  he  receives  the  bracelet  of  an  alien  queen — the 
token  of  brotherhood  and  call  for  succour.  He  abandons  his 
own  necessities,  retraces  his  steps,  defeats  her  foes,  and  then 
resumes  his  march. 

Oelsner  calls  'Antar  "  the  father  of  chivalry."  AH  was  its 
beau-ideal — an  impersonation  of  gallantry,  of  bravery,  of 
generosity  ;  pure,  gentle,  and  learned,  "  without  fear  and  with- 
out reproach,"  he  set  the  world  the  noblest  example  of  chival- 
rous grandeur  of  character.  His  spirit,  a  pure  reflection  of 
that  of  the  Master,  overshadowed  the  Islamic  world,  and  formed 
the  animating  genius  of  succeeding  ages.  The  wars  of  the 
Crusades  brought  barbarian  Europe  into  contact  with  the 
civilisation  of  the  Islamic  East,  and  opened  its  eyes  to  the 
magnificence  and  refinement  of  the  Moslems  ;  but  it  was 
especially  the  influences  of  Mohammedan  Andalusia  on  the 
neighbouring  Christian  provinces  which  led  to  the  introduction 
of  chivalry  into  Europe.  The  troubadours,  the  trouveurs  of 
Southern  France,  and  the  minnesingers  of  Germany,  who  sang 
of  love  and  honour  in  war,  were  the  immediate  disciples  of  the 
romanceurs  of  Cordova,  Granada,  and  Malaga.  Petrarch  and 
Boccaccio,  even  Tasso  and  Chaucer,  derived  their  inspiration 
from  the  Islamic  fountain-head.  But  the  coarse  habits  and 
thoughts  of  the  barbarian  hordes  of  Europe  communicated  a 
character  of  grossness  to  pure  chivalry. 

In  the  early  centuries  of  Islam,  almost  until  the  extinction 
of  the  Saracenic  empire  in  the  East,  women  continued  to  occupy 
as  exalted  a  position  as  in  modern  society.  Zubaida,  the  wife 
of  Harun,  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the  age,  and 
by  her  virtues,  as  well  as  by  her  accomplishments,  leaves  an 
honoured  name  to  posterity.     Humaida,  the  wife  of  Faruk,  a 

^  The  Emperor  Humayun,  pursued  by  the  Afghans,  received,  on  his  march 
to  Cabul,  the  bracelet  from  the  Jodhpur  queen,  and  at  once  came  to  her  help. 
I  have  mentioned  two  instances  of  Moslem  chivalry,  which  might  be  multiplied 
by  hundreds. 


THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  255 

tledinitc  citizen,  left  for  many  years  the  sole  guardian  of  hcv 
ninor  son.  edncates  him  to  become  one  of  the  most  distingnished 
urisconsnlts  of  the  day.^  Sukaina,  or  Sakina,  the  daughter  of 
iusain,-  and  the  grand-daughter  of  Ali,  was  the  most  brilliant, 
nost  accomplished,  and  most  virtuous  woman  of  her  time, — 
'  la  dame  des  dames  de  son  temps,  la  plus  belle,  la  plus  gracieuse, 
la  plus  brillante  de  qualites,"  as  Perron  calls  her.  Herself  no 
nean  scholar,  she  prized  the  converse  of  learned  and  pious 
)eople.  The  ladies  of  the  Prophet's  family  were  noted  for 
heir  learning,  their  virtues,  and  their  strength  of  character. 
3uran,  the  wife  of  the  Caliph  Mamun,  Umm-ul-Fazl,  Mamun's 
ister,  married  to  the  eighth  Imam  of  the  house  of  Ali,  Umm 
il-Habib,  Mamun's  daughter,  were  all  famous  for  their  scholar- 
hip.  In  the  fifth  century  of  the  Hegira,  the  Sheikha  Shuhda, 
lesignated  Fakkr  un-nisa  ("the  glory  of  women"),  lectured 
)ublicly,  at  the  Cathedral  Mosque  of  Bagdad,  to  large 
udiences  on  literature,  rhetoric,  and  poetry.  She  occupies  in 
he  annals  of  Islam  a  position  of  equality  with  the  most  dis- 
inguished  'iilama.  What  would  have  befallen  this  lady  had 
he  flourished  among  the  fellow-religionists  of  St.  Cyril  can  be 
udged  by  the  fate  of  Hypatia.  Possibly  she  would  not  have 
)een  torn  to  pieces  by  enthusiastic  Christians,  but  she  would, 
o  a  certainty,  have  been  burnt  as  a  witch.  Zat  ul-Hemma, 
iorrupted  into  Zemma,  "  the  lion-heart,"  the  heroine  of  many 
)attles,  fought  side  by  side  with  the  bravest  knights.^ 

The  improvement  effected  in  the  position  of  women  by  the 
^rophet  of  Arabia  has  been  acknowledged  by  all  unprejudiced 
vriters,  though  it  is  still  the  fashion  with  bigoted  contro- 
'ersialists  to  say  the  Islamic  system  lowered  the  status  of 
vomen.  No  falser  calumny  has  been  levelled  at  the  great 
^rophet.  Nineteen  centuries  of  progressive  development 
vorking  with  the  legacy  of  a  prior  civilization,  under  the  most 
avourable  racial  and  climatic  conditions,  have  tended  to  place 

^  Faruk  was  away  for  twenty-seven  years  engaged  in  wars  in  Khorasiin. 
iis  son's  name  is  Rabya-ar-Ra}'. 

*  Husain  was  married  to  one  of  the  daughters  of  Yezdjard,  the  last 
iasanian  king  of  Persia. 

*  For  a  full  account  of  the  distinguished  women  who  have  flourished  in 
slam,  see  the  article  in  the  May  number  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  for  1899 
nd  The  Short  History  of  the  Saracens  (Macmillan). 


256  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

women,  in  most  countries  of  Christendom,  on  a  higher  social 
level  than  the  men, — have  given  birth  to  a  code  of  etiquette 
which,  at  least  ostensibly,  recognises  the  right  of  women  to 
higher  social  respect.  But  what  is  their  legal  position  even  in 
the  most  advanced  communities  of  Christendom  ?  Until  very 
recently,  even  in  England,  a  married  woman  possessed  no 
rights  independently  of  her  husband.  If  the  Moslem  woman 
does  not  attain  in  another  hundred  years,  the  social  position  i 
of  her  European  sister,  there  will  be  time  enough  to  declaim  j 
against  Islam  as  a  system  and  a  dispensation.  But  the  Teacher  j 
who  in  an  age  when  no  country,  no  system,  no  community  gave 
any  right  to  woman,  maiden  or  married,  mother  or  wife,  who, 
in  a  country  where  the  birth  of  a  daughter  was  considered  a 
calamity,  secured  to  the  sex  rights  which  are  only  unwillingly  and 
under  pressure  being  conceded  to  them  by  the  civilised  nations 
in  the  twentieth  century,  deserves  the  gratitude  of  humanity. 
If  Mohammed  had  done  nothing  more,  his  claim  to  be  a  bene- 
factor of  mankind  would  have  been  indisputable.  Even  under 
the  laws  as  they  stand  at  present  in  the  pages  of  the  legists,  the 
legal  position  of  Moslem  females  may  be  said  to  compare 
favourably  with  that  of  European  women.  We  have  dealt  in 
another  place  at  length  with  this  subject.  We  shall  do  no 
more  here  than  glance  at  the  provisions  of  the  Moslem  codes 
relating  to  women.  As  long  as  she  is  unmarried  she  remains 
under  the  parental  roof,  and  until  she  attains  her  majority  she 
is,  to  some  extent,  under  the  control  of  the  father  or  his  repre- 
sentative. As  soon,  however,  as  she  is  of  age,  the  law  vests 
in  her  all  the  rights  which  belong  to  her  as  an  independent 
human  being.  She  is  entitled  to  share  in  the  inheritance  of 
her  parents  along  with  her  brothers,  and  though  the  proportion 
is  different,  the  distinction  is  founded  on  the  relative  position 
of  brother  and  sister.  A  woman  who  is  sui  juris  can  under  no 
circumstances  be  married  without  her  own  express  consent, 
"  not  even  by  the  sultan."  ^  On  her  marriage  she  does  not, 
lose  her  individuality.  She  does  not  cease  to  be  a  separate, 
member  of  society.  ' 

1  Centuries  after  the  principle  was  laid  down  by  the  Moslem  jurists,  the' 
sovereigns  and  chiefs  of  Christendom  were  in  the  habit  of  forcibly  marrying 
women  to  their  subjects. 


V.  THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  ISLAM  257 

An  ante-nuptial  settlement  by  the  husband  in  favour  of  the 
wife  is  a  necessary  condition,  and  on  his  failure  to  make  a 
settlement  the  law  presumes  one  in  accordance  with  the  social 
position  of  the  wife.  A  Moslem  marriage  is  a  civil  act,  needing 
no  priest,  requiring  no  ceremonial.  The  contract  of  marriage 
gives  the  man  no  power  over  the  woman's  person,  beyond 
what  the  law  defines,  and  none  whatever  upon  her  goods  and 
property.  Her  rights  as  a  mother  do  not  depend  for  their 
recognition  upon  the  idiosyncrasies  of  individual  judges.  Her 
earnings  acquired  by  her  own  exertions  cannot  be  wasted  by 
a  prodigal  husband,  nor  can  she  be  ill-treated  with  impunity 
by  one  who  is  brutal.  She  acts,  if  sui  juris,  in  all  matters 
which  relate  to  herself  and  her  property  in  her  own  individual 
right,  without  the  intervention  of  husband  or  father.  She  can 
sue  her  debtors  in  the  open  courts,  without  the  necessity  of 
joining  a  next  friend,  or  under  cover  of  her  husband's  name. 
She  continues  to  exercise,  after  she  has  passed  from  her  father's 
house  into  her  husband's  home,  all  the  rights  which  the  law 
gives  to  men.  All  the  privileges  which  belong  to  her  as  a 
woman  and  a  wife  are  secured  to  her,  not  by  the  courtesies 
which  "  come  and  go,"  but  by  the  actual  text  in  the  book  of 
law.  Taken  as  a  whole,  her  status  is  not  more  unfavourable 
than  that  of  many  European  women,  whilst  in  many  respects 
she  occupies  a  decidedly  better  position.  Her  comparatively 
backward  condition  is  the  result  of  a  want  of  culture  among 
the  community  generally,  rather  than  of  any  special  feature 
in  the  laws  of  the  fathers. 


CHAPTER  VI 
BONDAGE  (SLAVERY) 

"  And  as  to  your  slaves,  see  that  ye  feed  them  as  ye  feed  yourselves 
and  clothe  them  as  ye  clothe  yourselves." — The  Prophet. 

SLAVERY  in  some  of  its  features  has  been  aptly  compared 
with  polygamy.  Like  polygamy,  it  has  existed  among 
all  nations,  and  has  died  away  with  the  progress  of 
human  thought  and  the  growth  of  a  sense  of  justice  among 
mankind.  Like  polygamy  it  was  the  natural  product  of 
passion  and  pride  so  strongly  marked  in  certain  phases  of 
the  communal  and  individual  development.  But  unlike 
polygamy,  it  bears  from  its  outset  the  curse  of  inherent 
injustice. 

In  the  early  stages,  when  humanity  has  not  risen  to  the  full 
appreciation  of  the  reciprocal  rights  and  duties  of  man  ;  when 
laws  are  the  mandates  of  one,  or  of  the  few,  for  the  many  ; 
when  the  will  of  the  strong  is  the  rule  of  life  and  the  guide  of 
conduct — then  the  necessary  inequality,  social,  physical,  or 
mental,  engendered  by  nature  among  the  human  race,  invari- 
ably takes  the  form  of  slavery,  and  a  system  springs  into 
existence  which  allows  absolute  power  to  the  superior  over  the 
inferior.  1  This  complete  subserviency  of  the  weak  to  the 
strong  has  helped  the  latter  to  escape  from  the  legendary  curse 
laid  on  man — "  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread 
till  thou  return  to  the  ground,"  and  allowed  them  to  employ 
the  leisure  thus  acquired  in  congenial  pursuits.  "  The  simple 
wish,"  says  the  author  of  Ancient  Law,  "  to  use  the  bodily 
powers  of  another  person  as  the  means  of  ministering  to  one's 

^  Comp.  throughout  L' Influence  des  Croisades  siir  l'£tat  des  Penples  de 
I' Europe,  by  Maxime  de  Choiseul  D'Aillecourt,  Paris,  1809. 


VI.  BONDAGE  (SLAVERY)  259 

own  ease  or  pleasure,  is  doubtless  the  foundation  of  slavery, 
and  as  old  as  human  nature."  ^ 

The  practice  of  slavery  is  co-eval  with  human  existence. 
Historicall3^  its  traces  are  visible  in  every  age  and  in  every 
nation.  Its  germs  were  developed  in  a  savage  state  of  society, 
and  it  continued  to  flourish  even  when  the  progress  of  material 
civilisation  had  done  away  with  its  necessity. 

The  Jews,  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the  ancient  Germans, ^ 
—people  whose  legal  and  social  institutions  have  most  affected 
modern  manners  and  customs, — recognised  and  practised  both 
kinds  of  slavery,  prasdial  servitude  as  well  as  household 
slavery. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  from  the  commencement  of  their 
existence  as  a  nation,  two  forms  of  slavery  were  practised.  The 
Israelite  slave,  given  into  bondage  as  a  punishment  for  crime 
or  for  the  payment  of  a  debt,  occupied  a  higher  position  than 
a  slave  of  alien  birth.  The  law  allowed  the  former  his  liberty 
after  six  years  of  servitude,  unless  he  refused  to  avail  himself 
of  his  right.  But  the  foreign  slaves,  whether  belonging  to  the 
people  whom  the  Israelites  had  reduced  into  absolute  helotage 
by  a  merciless  system  of  warfare,  or  whether  acquired  in 
treacherous  forays  or  by  purchase,  were  entirely  excluded  from 
the  benefits  of  this  arrangement,  an  arrangement  made  in  a 
spirit  of  national  partiaHty  and  characteristic  isolation. ^  The 
lot  of  these  bondsmen  and  bondswomen  was  one  of  unmitigated 
hardship.  Helots  of  the  soil  or  slaves  of  the  house,  hated  and 
despised  at  the  same  time,  they  lived  a  life  of  perpetual  drudgery 
in  the  service  of  pitiless  masters. 

Christianity,  as  a  system  and  a  creed,  raised  no  protest 
against  slavery,  enforced  no  rule,  inculcated  no  principle  for 
the  mitigation  of  the  evil.  Excepting  a  few  remarks  on  the 
disobedience  of  slaves,^  and  a  general  advice  to  masters  to  give 
servants  their  due,  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  as  portrayed  in  the 
Christian  traditions,  contained  nothing  expressive  of  dis- 
approval of  bondage.     On  the  contrary,  Christianity  enjoined 

*  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  p.  104. 

*  Caesar  {De  Bell.  Gall.  lib.  vi.),  Tacitus  {De  Moribus  German,  cap.  24,  25). 
and  Pothier  {De  Stat.  Servor.  apud  Germ.  lib.  i.)  all  testify  to  the  extreme 
severity  of  German  servitude. 

"  Lev.  XXV.  44,  45.  *  I  Tim.  iv.  i,  2. 


26o  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

on  the  slave  absolute  submission  to  the  will  of  his  or  her  pro- 
prietor.    It    found   slavery    a   recognised   institution    of   the 
empire  ;    it  adopted  the  system  without  any  endeavour  to 
mitigate   its   baneful   character,    or   to   promote   its   gradual 
abolition,  or  to  improve  the  status  of  slaves.     Under  the  civil 
law,  slaves  were  mere  chattels.     They  remained  so  under  the 
Christian    domination.     Slavery    had    flourished    among    the 
Romans  from  the  earliest  times.     The  slaves,  whether  of  native 
or  of  foreign  birth,  whether  acquired  by  war  or  purchase,  were 
regarded   simply   as   chattels.     Their   masters   possessed   the 
power  of  life  and  death  over  them.     But  that  gradual  improve-  I 
ment  which  had  raised  the  archaic  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  j 
to  the  comprehensive  code  of  Hadrian,  did  not  fail  to  introduce 
some  amehoration  in  the  condition  of  the  slaves.     In  spite,  j 
however,  of  the  changes  which  the  humanity  or  the  wisdom  of  ■ 
the  emperors  had  effected  in  the  old  laws,  the  person  of  the  \ 
slave  was  absolutely  subject  to  the  will  of  the  master.     Each  j 
magnate  of  the  empire  possessed  thousands  of  slaves,  who  were  j 
tortured  and  subjected  to  lashings  for  the  most  trivial  of  faults.  | 

The  introduction  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  into  Europe  affected  j 
human  chattelhood  only  in  its  relation  to  the  priesthood.     A  j 
slave  could  become  free  by  adopting  monachism,  if  not  claimed  ! 
within  three  years. ^     But  in  other  respects,  slavery  flourished  l 
as  much  and  in  as  varied  shapes  as  under  the  pagan  domination. 
The  Digest,  compiled  under  a  Christian  emperor,  pronounced 
slavery  a  constitution  of  the  law  of  nature  ;  and  the  Code  fixed  ' 
the  maximum  price  of  slaves  according  to  the  professions  for  | 
which  they  were  intended.     Marriages  between  slaves  were  j 
not  legal,  and  between  the  slave  and  the  free  were  prohibited  i 
under  severe  penalties.  ^    The  natural  result  was  unrestrained 
concubinage,  which  even  the  clergy  recognised  and  practised.' 

Such  was  slavery  under  the  most  advanced  system  of  laws 
known  to  the  ancient  world.     These  laws  reflected  the  wisdom  ; 
of  thirteen  centuries,  and  towards  the  close  of  their  develop- '^ 

^  Comp.  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  i.  p.  358.  | 

2  One  of  the  punishments  was,  if  a  free  woman  married  a  slave,  she  was  ! 

to  be  put  to  death  and  the  slave  burnt  alive.     Comp.  the  splendid  though ; 

apologetic  chapter  of  Milman  on  the  subject,  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  j 

2  Comp.  Milman,  Latin  Christianitv,  vol.  ii.  p.  369  ;    and  also  Du  Cange,  1, 

Concubina.  ' 


VI.  BONDAGE  (SLAVERY)  261 

ment  had  engrafted  upon  themselves  some  faint  offshoots  of 
the  teachings  of  one  of  the  greatest  moral  preceptors  of  the 
world. 

\Mth  the  establishment  of  the  Western  and  Northern  bar- 
barians on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire,  besides  personal 
slavery,  territorial  servitude  scarcely  known  to  the  Romans, 
became  general  in  all  the  newly  settled  countries.  The  various 
rights  possessed  by  the  lords  over  their  vassals  and  serfs 
exhibited  a  revolting  picture  of  moral  depravity  and  degrada- 
tion.^ The  barbaric  codes,  like  the  Roman,  regarded  slavery 
as  an  ordinary  condition  of  mankind  ;  and  if  any  protection 
was  afforded  to  the  slave,  it  was  chiefly  as  the  property  of  his 
master,  who  alone,  besides  the  State,  had  the  power  of  life  and 
death  over  him. 

Christianity  had  failed  utterly  in  abolishing  slavery  or 
alleviating  its  evils.  The  Church  itself  held  slaves,  and  recog- 
nised in  exphcit  terms  the  lawfulness  of  this  baneful  institution. 
Under  its  influence  the  greatest  civilians  of  Europe  had  upheld 
slavery,  and  have  insisted  upon  its  usefulness  as  preventing  the 
increase  of  pauperism  and  theft. ^  And  it  was  under  the  same 
influences  that  the  highly  cultured  Christians  of  the  Southern 
States  of  North  America  practised  the  cruellest  inhumanities 
upon  the  unfortunate  beings  whom  they  held  as  slaves, — many 
of  their  own  kith, — and  shed  torrents  of  blood  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  curse  of  slavery  in  their  midst.  The  least  trace 
of  the  blood  of  an  inferior  race,  however  imperceptible,  sub- 
jected the  unfortunate  being  to  all  the  penalties  of  slavery. 
The  white  Christian  could  never  legitimatise  the  issue  of  his 
illicit  connection  with  his  negro  slave-women.  With  her  he 
could  never  contract  a  legal  union.  The  mother  of  his 
illegitimate   children   and   her   descendants,   however  remote, 

^  Comp.  De  Choiseul,  and  also  consult  on  this  subject  the  comprehensive 
chapter  of  Stephen's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England,  bk.  ii.  pt.  i.  chap. 
ii.  One  of  the  miserable  and  disgusting  privileges  possessed  by  the  lord  was 
designated  in  Britain  the  custom  of  culiage,  which  was  afterwards  commuted 
into  a  fine.  This  custom,  as  has  been  correctly  supposed,  gave  rise  to  the 
law  of  inheritance,  prevalent  in  some  English  counties,  and  known  by  the 
name  of  Borough  English. 

*  Pufendorff,  Law  of  Nature  and  Nations,  bk.  vi.  c.  3,  s.  10  ;  Ulricus  Huberus, 
Praelect  Jur.  Civ.  1.  i.  tit.  4,  s.  6  ;  Pothier,  De  Statu  Servorum  ;  and  Grotius, 
De  Jure  Bell.,  1.  ii.  c.  5,  s.  27. 


262  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  il. 

could  be  sold  by  his  legitimate  white  issue  at  any  time.  Chris- 
tianity failed  to  grasp  the  spirit  of  its  Master's  teachings  in 
regard  to  the  equality  of  man  in  the  sight  of  God. 

Islam  recognises  no  distinction  of  race  or  colour  ;  black  or 
white,  citizens  or  soldiers,  rulers  or  subjects,  they  are  perfectly 
equal,  not  in  theory  only,  but  in  practice.  In  the  field  or  in 
the  guest-chamber,  in  the  tent  or  in  the  palace,  in  the  mosque 
or  in  the  market,  they  mix  without  reserve  and  without  con- 
tempt. The  first  Muezzin  of  Islam,  a  devoted  adherent  and  an 
esteemed  disciple,  was  a  negro  slave.  To  the  white  Christian, 
his  black  fellow-religionist  may  be  his  equal  in  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,  but  certainly  not  in  the  kingdom  of  this  world  ;  in  the 
reign  of  Christ,  perhaps,  but  not  in  the  reign  of  Christianity. 
The  law  may  compel  him,  a  larger  humanity  with  torrents  of 
blood  may  force  him  to  give  his  black  brother  civic  rights,  but 
the  pride  of  race  and  colour  acknowledges  no  equality,  and  even 
in  the  house  of  God  a  strict  separation  is  observed. 

The  Islamic  teachings  dealt  a  blow  at  the  institution  of 
slavery  which,  had  it  not  been  for  the  deep  root  it  had  taken 
among  the  surrounding  nations  and  the  natural  obliquity  of 
the  human  mind,  would  have  been  completely  extinguished  as 
soon  as  the  generation  which  then  practised  it  had  passed  away. 

It  has  been  justly  contended  that,  as  the  promulgation  of 
the  laws,  precepts,  and  teachings  of  Islam  extended  over 
twenty  years,  it  is  naturally  to  be  expected  many  of  the  pre- 
Islamic  institutions,  which  were  eventually  abolished,  were,  at 
first,  either  tacitly  permitted  or  expressly  recognised.^  In  one 
of  these  categories  stood  the  usage  of  slavery.  The  evil  was 
intertwined  with  the  inmost  relations  of  the  people  among  whom 
Mohammed  flourished.  Its  extinction  was  only  to  be  achieved 
by  the  continued  agency  of  wise  and  humane  laws,  and  not  by 
the  sudden  and  entire  emancipation  of  the  existing  slaves, 
which  was  morally  and  economically  impossible.  Numberless 
provisions,  negative  as  well  as  positive,  were  accordingly 
introduced  in  order  to  promote  and  accomplish  a  gradual 
enfranchisement.  A  contrary  policy  would  have  produced  an 
utter  collapse  of  the  infant  commonwealth. 

The  Prophet  exhorted  his  followers  repeatedly  in  the  name 

^Tahzib  ul-Akhlak  (15th  Rajab,  1288),  p.  118. 


VI.  BONDAGE  (SLAVERY)  263 

of  God  to  enfranchise  slaves,  "  than  which  there  was  not  an 
act  more  acceptable  to  God."  He  ruled  that  for  certain  sins 
of  omission  the  penalty  should  be  the  manumission  of  slaves. 
He  ordered  that  slaves  should  be  allowed  to  purchase  their 
liberty  by  the  wages  of  their  service  ;  and  that  in  case  the 
unfortunate  beings  had  no  present  means  of  gain,  and  wanted 
to  earn  in  some  other  employment  enough  for  that  purpose, 
they  should  be  allowed  to  leave  their  masters  on  an  agreement 
to  that  effect.^  He  also  provided  that  sums  should  be  advanced 
to  the  slaves  from  the  public  treasury  to  purchase  their  liberty. 
In  certain  contingencies,  it  was  provided  that  the  slave  should 
become  enfranchised  without  the  interference  and  even  against 
the  will  of  his  master.  The  contract  or  agreement  in  which 
the  least  doubt  was  discovered,  was  construed  most  favourably 
in  the  interests  of  the  slave,  and  the  slightest  promise  on  the 
part  of  the  master  was  made  obligatory  for  the  purposes  of 
enfranchisement.  He  placed  the  duty  of  kindness  towards  the 
slave  on  the  same  footing  with  the  claims  of  "  kindred  and 
neighbours,  and  fellow-travellers,  and  wayfarers  "  ;  encouraged 
manumission  to  the  freest  extent,  and  therewith  the  gift  of  "  a 
portion  of  that  wealth  which  God  hath  given  you  "  ;  and 
prohibited  sensual  uses  of  a  master's  power  over  the  slave,  with 
the  promise  of  divine  mercy  to  the  wronged.  To  free  a  slave 
is  the  expiation  for  ignorantly  slaying  a  believer,  and  for  certain 
forms  of  untruth.  The  whole  tenor  of  Mohammed's  teaching 
made  "  permanent  chattelhood  "  or  caste  impossible  ;  and  it  is 
simply  "  an  abuse  of  words  "  to  apply  the  word  slavery,  in  the 
English  sense,  to  any  status  known  to  the  legislation  of  Islam. 
The  Lawgiver  ordained,  that  a  fugitive  fleeing  to  the 
territories  of  Islam  should  at  once  become  enfranchised  ;  that 
the  child  of  a  slave  woman  should  follow  the  condition  of  the 
father,  while  the  mother  should  become  free  at  his  death  ;  that 
the  slave  should  be  able  to  contract  with  his  master  for  his 
emancipation  ;  and  that  a  part  of  the  poor-tax  should  be 
devoted  to  the  ransom  of  those  held  in  bondage.  The  masters 
were  forbidden  to  exact  more  work  than  was  just  and  proper. 
They  were  ordered  never  to  address  their  male  or  female  slaves 
by  that  degrading  appellation,  but  by  the  more  affectionate 

1  Koran  xxiv.  33,  etc. 


264  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

name  of  "  my  young  man,"  or  "  my  young  maid  "  ;  it  was 
enjoined  that  all  slaves  should  be  dressed,  clothed,  and  fed 
exactly  as  their  masters  and  mistresses.  Above  all,  it  was 
ordered  that  in  no  case  should  the  mother  be  separated  from 
her  child,  nor  brother  from  brother,  nor  father  from  son,  nor 
husband  from  wife,  nor  one  relative  from  another.^ 

In  the  moral  rules  laid  down  for  the  treatment  of  those  then 
in  bondage,  the  Arabian  Teacher  did  not  prescribe  the  reciprocal 
duties  of  master  and  slave  in  the  one-sided  manner  so  often 
visible  in  other  creeds.^  With  a  deeper  and  truer  knowledge 
of  human  nature,  he  saw  that  it  was  not  so  needful  to  lay  down 
the  duties  the  weak  owe  to  the  strong,  as  those  the  strong  owe 
to  the  weak.  In  Islam  no  discredit  is  attached  to  the  status 
of  slavery.  It  is  an  accident,  and  not,  as  in  the  civil  law  and 
patristic  Christianity,  "  a  constitution  of  nature."  Zaid,  the 
freedman  of  the  Prophet,  was  often  entrusted  with  the  command 
of  troops,  and  the  noblest  captains  served  under  him  without 
demur  ;  and  his  son  'Osama  was  honoured  with  the  leadership 
of  the  expedition  sent  by  Abu  Bakr  against  the  Greeks.  Kutb 
ud-din,  the  first  king  of  Delhi,  and  the  true  founder,  therefore, 
of  the  Musulman  empire  in  India,  was  a  slave.  The  slavery 
which  was  allowed  in  Islam  had,  in  fact,  nothing  in  common 
with  that  which  was  in  vogue  in  Christendom  until  recent 
times,  or  with  American  slavery  until  the  holy  war  of  1865  put 
an  end  to  that  curse. 

In  Islam  the  slave  of  to-day  is  the  grand  vizier  of  to-morrow. 
He  may  marry,  without  discredit,  his  master's  daughter,  and 
become  the  head  of  the  family.  Slaves  have  ruled  kingdoms 
and  founded  dynasties.  The  father  of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni 
was  a  slave.  Can  Christianity  point  to  such  records  as  these  ? 
Can  Christianity  show,  in  the  pages  of  history,  as  clear, "as 
humane  an  account  of  her  treatment  of  slaves  as  this  ? 

From  all  that  we  have  said  it  is  abundantly  clear  that  the 
Legislator  himself  looked  upon  the  custom  as  temporary  in  its 

^  I  see  no  need  of  quoting  authorities  on  these  points,  as  they  are  admitted 
facts.  But  I  may  refer  the  curious  reader  to  the  traditions  collected  in  the 
Mishkdt,  the  Sahih  of  Bukhari,  and  the  Bihar  iil- Anwar.  The  latter  contains 
the  noblest  monument  of  generosity  and  charity  practised  hy  the  Prophet's 
immediate  descendants. 

*  See  Col.  iii.  22  ;    i  Tim.  vi.  i. 


VI.  BONDAGE  (SLAVERY)  265 

nature,  and  held  that  its  extinction  was  sure  to  be  achieved  by 
the  progress  of  ideas  and  change  of  circumstances.  The  Koran 
always  speaks  of  slaves  as  "  those  whom  your  right  hands  have 
acquired,"  indicating  thus  the  only  means  of  acquisition  of 
bondsmen  or  bondswomen.  It  recognised,  in  fact,  only  one 
kind  of  slavery — the  servitude  of  men  made  captives  in  bond 
fide  lawful  warfare,  Jihdd-i-Shara'i.  Among  all  barbarous 
nations  the  captives  are  spared  from  a  motive  of  selfishness 
alone, ^  in  order  to  add  to  the  wealth  of  the  individual  captor, 
or  of  the  collective  nation,  by  their  sale-money  or  by  their 
labour. 2  Like  other  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Arab  of  the 
pre-Islamic  period  spared  the  lives  of  his  captives  for  the  sake 
of  profiting  by  them.  Mohammed  found  this  custom  existing 
among  his  people.  Instead  of  theorising,  or  dealing  in  vague 
platitudes,  he  laid  down  strict  rules  for  their  guidance,  enjoin- 
ing that  those  only  may  be  held  in  bond  who  were  taken  in 
bond  fide  legal  war  until  they  were  ransomed,  or  the  captive 
bought  his  or  her  own  liberty  by  the  wages  of  service.  But 
even  when  these  means  failed,  an  appeal  to  the  pious  feelings 
of  the  Moslem,  combined  with  the  onerous  responsibilities 
attached  to  the  possession  of  a  slave,  was  often  enough  to 
secure  the  eventual  enfranchisement  of  the  latter.  Slave- 
Ufting  and  slave-dealing,  patronised  by  dominant  Christianity,' 
and  sanctified  by  Judaism,  were  utterly  reprobated  and  con- 
demned. The  man  who  dealt  in  slaves  was  declared  the 
outcast  of  humanity.  Enfranchisement  *  of  slaves  was  pro- 
nounced to  be  a  noble  act  of  virtue.  It  was  forbidden  in 
absolute  terms  to  reduce  Moslems  to  slavery.  To  the  lasting 
disgrace  of   a  large  number  of   professed   Moslems  it  must 

1  Comp.  Milman,  Latin  Christ,  vol.  ii.  p.  387.  The  ancient  jurists  based  the 
righf  of  enslaving  the  captive  on  the  prior  right  of  killing  him.  In  this  they 
are  followed  by  Albericus  Gentilis  {De  Jur.  Gent.  cap.  de  Servitude),  Grotius, 
and  Pufendortf.  Montesquieu,  indeed,  was  the  first  to  deny  this  mythical 
right  of  killing  a  captive,  unless  in  case  of  absolute  necessity,  or  for  self- 
preservation.  And  this  the  author  of  the  Spirit  of  Laws  denied,  because  of 
his  freedom  from  the  thraldom  of  the  Church. 

*  Comp.  Milman,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  iii.  p.  48. 

'  After  the  massacre  of  Drogheda  by  Cromwell,  and  the  suppression  of  the 
insurrection  in  Ireland,  the  English  Protestants  sold  the  Irish,  men  and 
women,  wholesale  to  the  colonists  in  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  places. 
The  same  was  done  after  Monmouth's  rebellion. 

*  According  to  an  authentic  and  well-known  tradition  from  Imam  Ja'far 
as-Sadik  (Bihar  ul- Anwar), 


266  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

be  said,  however,  that,  whilst  observing,  or  trying  to  observe 
the  letter,  they  have  utterly  ignored  the  spirit  of  the  Teacher's 
precepts,  and  allowed  slavery  to  flourish  (in  direct  contraven- 
tion of  the  injunctions  of  the  Prophet)  by  purchase  and  other 
means.  The  possession  of  a  slave,  by  the  Koranic  laws,  was 
conditional  on  a  bond  fide  struggle,  in  self-defence,  against 
unbelieving  and  idolatrous  aggressors,  and  its  permission  was 
a  guarantee  for  the  safety  and  preservation  of  the  captives. 
The  cessation  of  the  state  of  war  in  which  the  Moslem  com- 
munity was  at  first  involved,  from  the  animosity  of  the 
surrounding  tribes  and  nations,  would  have  brought  about  the 
extinction  of  slavery  by  a  natural  process — the  stoppage  of 
future  acquisition  and  the  enfranchisement  of  those  in  bondage. 
However,  whether  from  contact  with  the  demoralised  nations 
of  the  East  and  the  West,  and  the  wild  races  of  the  North,  or 
from  the  fact  that  the  baneful  institution  was  deeply  rooted 
among  all  classes  of  society,  many  Moslems,  like  the  Christians 
and  the  Jews,  recognised  slavery,  and  to  some  extent  do  so 
even  now.  But  the  wild  Turkoman,  or  the  African  Arab,  who 
glories  in  slave-lifting,  is  no  more  a  representative  of  Islam  than 
is  the  barbarous  Guacho,  who  revels  on  the  savage  prairies  of 
South  America,  of  Christianity.^  Like  polygamy,  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery,  prevalent  universally  among  mankind  at  some 
stage  or  other  of  their  growth,  has,  at  least  among  the  nations 
which  claim  to  be  civilised,  outlived  the  necessities  which 
induced  its  practice,  and  must  sooner  or  later  become  extinct. 
It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  Islam,  did  not  "  consecrate  " 
slavery,  as  has  been  maUciously  affirmed,  but  provided  in  everj; 

1  In  order  not  to  break  the  letter  of  his  Prophet's  Commandments,  the 
Turkoman  (himself  a  violent  Sunni)  forced  his  captive  (whether  a  Sunni  or  a, 
Shiah)  to  acknowledge  himself  a  heretic.  And  the  African  Arab  calls  hij 
murderous  razzias,  on  the  pagan  negroes,  Jihads.  Mr.  Joseph  Thompson,  th( 
well-known  African  traveller,  in  a  letter  to  the  London  Times  of  the  i4tl: 
of  November,  1887,  thus  writes  on  the  subject  of  slavery  in  East  Africa 
"  I  unhesitatingly  affirm,  and  I  speak  from  a  wider  experience  of  Easterr 
Central  Africa  than  any  of  your  correspondents  possess,  that  if  the  slav( 
trade  thrives  it  is  because  Islam  has  not  been  introduced  in  these  regions' 
and  for  the  strongest  of  all  reasons,  that  the  spread  of  Mahommedanisn, 
would  have  meant  the  concomitant  suppression  of  the  slave  trade."  Hii; 
account  of  "  the  peaceful  and  unassuming  agencies  "  by  which  Islam  has  beer: 
spread  in  Western  Africa  and  Central  Soudan  deserves  the  attention  of  ever) 
reader.  "  Here,"  he  says,  "  we  have  Islam  as  a  living,  active  force,  full  o 
the  lire  and  energy  of  its  early  days,  proselytizing  too  with  much  of  the  mar 
vellous  success  which  characterized  its  early  days." 


VI.  BONDAGE  (SLAVERY)  267 

way  for  its  abolition  and  extinction  by  circumscribing  the  means 
of  possession  within  the  narrowest  Hmits.  Islam  did  not  deal 
capriciously  with  this  important  question.  Whilst  proclaiming 
in  the  most  emphatic  terms  the  natural  equality  of  human 
beings,  it  did  not,  regardless  of  consequences,  enfranchise  the 
men  and  women  already  in  bondage,  which  would  have  only 
been  productive  of  evil  in  a  world  not  then  ripe  for  that  con- 
summation of  human  liberty,  moral  and  intellectual. 

The  mutilation  of  the  human  body  was  also  explicitly 
forbidden  by  Mohammed,  and  the  institution  which  flourished 
both  in  the  Persian  and  the  Byzantine  empires  was  denounced 
in  severe  terms.  Slavery  by  purchase  was  unknown  during 
the  reigns  of  the  first  four  CaHphs.  There  is  at  least  no 
authentic  record  of  any  slave  having  been  acquired  by  purchase 
during  their  tenure  of  the  office.  But  with  the  accession  of  the 
usurping  house  of  Ommeyya  a  change  came  over  the  spirit 
of  Islam.  Muawiyah  w^as  the  first  Musulman  sovereign  who 
introduced  into  the  Moslem  world  the  practice  of  acquiring 
slaves  by  purchase.  He  w^as  also  the  first  to  adopt  the 
Byzantine  custom  of  guarding  his  women  by  eunuchs.  During 
the  reigns  of  the  early  Abbassides,  the  Shiah  Imam  Ja'far 
as-Sadik  preached  against  slavery. 

The  time  is  now  arrived  when  humanity  at  large  should 
raise  its  voice  against  the  practice  of  servitude,  in  whatever 
shape  or  under  whatever  denomination  it  may  be  disguised. 
The  Moslems  especially,  for  the  honour  of  their  great  Prophet, 
should  try  to  efface  that  dark  page  from  their  history — a  page 
which  would  never  have  been  written  but  for  their  contra- 
vention of  the  spirit  of  his  laws,  however  bright  it  may  appear 
by  the  side  of  the  ghastly  scrolls  on  which  the  deeds  of  the 
professors  of  the  rival  creeds  are  recorded.  The  day  is  come 
when  the  voice  which  proclaimed  liberty,  equality,  and  universal 
brotherhood  among  all  mankind  should  be  heard  with  the  fresh 
vigour  acquired  from  the  spiritual  existence  and  spiritual 
pervasion  of  fourteen  centuries.  It  remains  for  the  Moslems 
to  show  the  falseness  of  the  aspersions  cast  on  the  memory  of 
the  great  and  noble  Prophet,  by  proclaiming  in  exphcit  terms 
that  slavery  is  reprobated  by  their  faith  and  discountenanced 
by  their  code. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

"  The  blood  of  the  Zimmi  is  Uke  the  blood  of  the  Moslem  " — All 

HITHERTO,  we  have  considered  the  teachings  of  th( 
Arabian  Prophet  solely  from  one  point  of  view — ae 
furnishing  the  rule  of  human  conduct,  and  supplying 
the  guide  of  man's  duty  to  his  Creator  and  to  his  fellow- 
creatures.  We  now  propose  to  examine  the  influence  o^ 
Islam  on  collective  humanity — on  nations,  and  not  merel) 
on  the  individual,  in  short,  on  the  destiny  of  mankind  in  the 
aggregate. 

Seven  centuries  had  passed  since  the  Master  of  Nazaretl 
had  come  with  his  message  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  to  th( 
poor  and  the  lowly.  A  beautiful  life  was  ended  before  th( 
ministry  had  barely  commenced.  And  now  unutterable 
desolation  brooded  over  the  empires  and  kingdoms  o: 
the  earth,  and  God's  children,  sunk  in  misery,  were  anxiousl} 
waiting  for  the  promised  deliverance  which  was  so  long  ir 
coming. 

In  the  West,  as  in  the  East,  the  condition  of  the  masses  wa; 
so  miserable  as  to  defy  description.  They  possessed  no  civi 
rights  or  political  privileges.  These  were  the  monopoly  of  th( 
rich  and  the  powerful,  or  of  the  sacerdotal  classes.  The  lav 
was  not  the  same  for  the  weak  and  the  strong,  the  rich  and  th( 
poor,  the  great  and  the  lowly.  In  Sasanide  Persia,  the  priest; 
and  the  landed  proprietors,  the  Dehkdns,  enjoyed  all  power  anc 
influence,  and  the  wealth  of  the  country  was  centred  in  theii 
hands.  The  peasantry  and  the  poorer  classes  generally  wen 
ground  to  the  earth  under  a  lawless  despotism.  In  the  Byzan 
tine  Empire,  the  clergy  and  the  great  magnates,  courtezans 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  269 

and  other  nameless  ministrants  to  the  vices  of  Cjesar  and 
proconsul,  were  the  happy  possessors  of  wealth,  influence 
and  power.  The  people  grovelled  in  the  most  abject  misery. 
In  the  barbaric  kingdoms — in  fact,  wherever  feudalism 
had  established  itself — by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
population  were  either  serfs  or  slaves. 

Villeinage  or  serfdom  was  the  ordinary  status  of  the  peasantry. 
At  first  there  was  little  distinction  between  praedial  and  domestic 
slavery.  Both  classes  of  slaves,  with  their  families,  and  their 
goods  and  chattels,  belonged  to  the  lord  of  the  soil,  who  could 
deal  with  them  at  his  own  free  will  and  pleasure.^  In  later 
times  the  serfs  or  villeins  were  either  annexed  to  the  manor, 
and  were  bought  and  sold  with  the  land  to  which  they  belonged, 
or  were  annexed  to  the  person  of  the  lord,  and  were  transferable 
from  one  owner  to  another.  They  could  not  leave  their  lord 
without  his  permission  ;  and  if  they  ran  away,  or  were  pur- 
loined from  him,  might  be  claimed  and  recovered  by  action, 
like  beasts  or  other  chattels.  They  held,  indeed,  small  portions 
of  land  by  way  of  sustaining  themselves  and  their  families,  but 
it  was  at  the  mere  will  of  the  lord,  who  might  dispossess  them 
whenever  he  pleased.  A  villein  could  acquire  no  property, 
either  in  land  or  goods  ;  but  if  he  purchased  either,  the  lord 
might  enter  upon  them,  oust  the  villein,  and  seize  them  to  his 
own  use. 

An  iron  collar  round  the  neck  was  the  badge  of  both  praedial 
servitude  and  domestic  slavery.  The  slaves  were  driven  from 
place  to  place  in  gangs,  fed  like  swine,  and  housed  worse  than 
swine,  with  fettered  feet  and  manacled  hands,  linked  together 
in  a  single  chain  which  led  from  collar  to  collar.  The  trader 
in  human  flesh  rode  with  a  heavy  knotted  lash  in  his  hands, 
with  which  he  '  encouraged  '  the  weary  and  flagging.  This 
whip  when  it  struck,  and  that  was  frequently,  cut  the  flesh  out 
of  the  body.  Men,  women,  and  children  were  thus  dragged 
about  the  country  with  rags  on  their  body,  their  ankles  ulcerated, 
their  naked  feet  torn.  If  any  of  the  wretches  flagged  and  fell, 
they  were  laid  on  the  ground  and  lashed  until  the  skin  was  flayed 
and  they  were  nearly  dead.     The  horrors  of  the  Middle  Passage, 

*  The  Church  retained  its  slaves  longest.  Sir  Thomas  Smith  in  his  Common- 
wealth speaks  bitterly  of  the  hypocrisy  of  the  clergy. 


270  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

the  sufferings  of  the  poor  negroes  in  the  Southern  States  of 
North  America  before  the  War  of  Emancipation,  the  cruelties 
practised  by  the  Soudanese  slave-hfters,  give  us  some  con- 
ception of  the  terrible  sufferings  of  the  slaves  under  Christian 
domination  at  the  time  when  Islam  was  first  promulgated,  and 
until  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  ^  And  even  after  the 
lapse  of  almost  two  thousand  years  of  Christ's  reign,  we  still 
find  Christians  lashing  to  death  helpless  women,  imprisoned  for 
real  or  imaginary  pohtical  offences  by  one  of  the  most  powerful , 
empires  of  the  civilised  world. ^  i 

The  condition  of  the  so-called  freemen  was  nowise  better 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  serfs.     If  they  wanted  to  part  with 
their  lands,  they  must  pay  a  fine  to  the  lord  of  the  manor.     If 
they  wanted  to  buy  any,  they  must  likewise  pay  a  fine.     They 
could  not  take  by  succession  any  property  until  they  had  paid ! 
a  heavy  duty.     They  could  not  grind  their  corn  or  make  their  | 
bread  without  paying  a  share  to  the  lord.     They  could  not 
harvest  their  crops  before  the  Church  had  first  appropriated  its 
tenth,  the  king  his  twentieth,  the  courtiers  their  smaller  shares. 
They  could  not  leave  their  homes  without  the  leave  of  the  lord, 
and  they  were  bound,  at  all  times,  to  render  him  gratuitous 
services.     If  the  lord's  son  or  daughter  married,  they  must ; 
cheerfully  pay  their  contributions.     But  when  the  freeman's ! 
daughter  married,  she  must  first  submit  to  an  infamous  outrage  '. 
— and  not  even  the  bishop,  the  servant  of  Christ,  when  he  ; 
happened  to  be  the  lord  of  the  manor,  would  waive  the  atrocious  ■ 
privilege  of  barbarism.     Death  even  had  no  solace  for  these 
poor  victims  of  barbarism.     Living,  they  were  subject  to  the  ; 
inhumanities  of  man  ;    dead,  they  were  doomed  to  eternal 
perdition  ;  for  a.  felo-de-se  was  the  unholiest  of  criminals,  there  | 
was  no  room  for  his  poor  body  in  consecrated  ground  ;    he  ' 
could  only  be  smuggled  away  in  the  dead  of  night  and  buried 
in  some  unhallowed  spot  with  a  stake  through  his  body  as  a 
warning  to  others.,  \ 

1  In  the  Parliamentary  War  both  sides  sold  their  opponents  as  slaves  to  ;l 
the  colonists.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth's  rebellion  i 
all  his  followers  were  sold  into  slavery.  The  treatment  of  the  slaves  in  the  i 
colonies  at  the  hands  of  "  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  "  and  their  descendants  will  \\ 
not  bear  description. 

» This  was  written  before  the  fall  of  the  Romanoffs. 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  271 

Such  was  the  terrible  misery  which  hung  over  the  people  ! 
But  the  baron  in  his  hall,  the  bishop  in  his  palace,  the  priest  in 
his  cloister,  little  recked  they  of  the  sufferings  of  the  masses. 
The  clouds  of  night  had  gathered  over  the  fairest  portion  of 
Europe  and  Africa.  Everywhere  the  will  of  the  strongest  was 
the  measure  of  law  and  right.  The  Church  afforded  no  help 
to  the  downtrodden  and  oppressed.  Its  teachings  were 
opposed  to  the  enfranchisement  of  the  human  race  from  the 
rule  of  brute  force.  "  The  early  Fathers  "  had  condemned 
resistance  to  the  constituted  authorities  as  a  deadly  sin.  No 
tyranny,  no  oppression,  no  outrages  upon  humanity  were  held 
to  justify  subjects  in  forcibly  protecting  themselves  against 
the  injustice  of  their  rulers.  The  servants  of  Jesus  had  made 
common  cause  with  those  whom  he  had  denounced, — the  rich 
and  powerful  tyrant.  They  had  associated  themselves  with 
feudalism,  and  enjoyed  all  its  privileges  as  lords  of  the  soil, 
barons  and  princes. 

The  non-Christians — Jews,  heretics,  or  pagans — enjoyed, 
under  Christian  domination,  a  fitful  existence.  It  was  a  matter 
of  chance  whether  they  would  be  massacred  or  reduced  to 
slavery.  Rights  they  had  none  ;  enough  if  they  were  suffered 
to  exist.  If  a  Christian  contracted  an  ilUcit  union  with  a  non- 
Christian, — a  lawful  union  was  out  of  the  question, — he  was 
burnt  to  death.  The  Jews  might  not  eat  or  drink  or  sit  at  the 
same  table  with  the  Christians,  nor  dress  hke  them.  Their 
children  were  liable  to  be  torn  from  their  arms,  their  goods 
plundered,  at  the  will  of  the  baron  or  bishop,  or  a  frenzied 
populace.  And  this  state  of  things  lasted  until  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Not  until  the  Recluse  of  Hira  sounded  the  note  of  freedom, 
— not  until  he  proclaimed  the  practical  equality  of  mankind, 
not  until  he  abolished  every  privilege  of  caste,  and  emancipated 
labour, — did  the  chains  which  had  held  in  bond  the  nations 
of  the  earth  fall  to  pieces.  He  came  with  the  same  message 
which  had  been  brought  by  his  precursors  and  he  fulfilled  it. 

The  essence  of  the  pohtical  character  of  Islam  is  to  be  found 
in  the  charter,  which  was  granted  to  the  Jews  by  the  Prophet 
after  his  arrival  in  Medina,  and  the  notable  message  sent  to^the 
Christians  of  Najran   and   the  neighbouring  territories   after 


272  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Islam  had  fully  established  itself  in  the  Peninsula.     This  latter 
document  has,  for  the  most  part,  furnished  the  guiding  principle  ; 
to  aU  Moslem  rulers  in  their  mode  of  dealing  with  their  non- 
Moslem  subjects,  and  if  they  have  departed  from  it  in  any 
instance  the  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  character  of  the  par- 
ticular sovereign.     If  we  separate  the  political  necessity  which 
has  often  spoken  and  acted  in  the  name  of  religion,  no  faith  is 
more  tolerant  than  Islam  to  the  followers  of  other  creeds.^ 
"  Reasons  of  State  "  have  led  a  sovereign  here  and  there  to 
display  a  certain  degree  of  intolerance,  or  to  insist  upon  a 
certain  uniformity  of  faith  ;    but  the  system  itself  has  ever 
maintained  the  most  complete  tolerance.     Christians  and  Jews, 
as  a  rule,  have  never  been  molested  in  the  exercise  of  their 
religion,   or  constrained  to  change  their  faith.     If  they  are  ; 
required  to  pa}^  a  special  tax,  it  is  in  lieu  of  military  service,  ; 
and  it  is  but  right  that  those  who  enjoy  the  protection  of  the  ; 
State  should  contribute  in  some  shape  to  the  pubUc  burdens.  • 
Towards  the  idolaters  there  was  greater  strictness  in  theory,  ,j 
but  in  practice  the  law  was  equally  hberal.     If  at  any  time  i| 
they  were  treated  with  harshness,  the  cause  is  to  be  found  in  j 
the  passions  of  the  ruler  or  the  population.     The  religious  : 
element  was  used  only  as  a  pretext.  | 

In  support  of  the  time-worn  thesis  that  the  non-Moslem  i 
subjects  2  of  Islamic  States  labour  under  severe  disabilities, 
reference  is  made  not  only  to  the  narrow  views  of  the  later 
canonists  and  lawyers  of  Islam,  but  also  to  certain  verses  of 
the  Koran,  in  order  to  show  that  the  Prophet  did  not  view 
non-Moslems   with  favour,   and   did  not   encourage  friendly  . 
relations  between  them  and  his  followers.^     In  dealing  with  , 
this  subject,  we  must  not  forget  the  stress  and  strain  of  the 
life-and-death   struggle  in  which   Islam   was  involved  when 
those  verses  were  promulgated,  and  the  treacherous  means  that 
were  often  employed  by  the  heathens,  as  well  as  the  Jews  and 
the  Christians,  to  corrupt  and  seduce  the  Moslems  from  the 
new  Faith.     At  such  a  time,  it  was  incumbent  upon  the  Teacher 

1  Comp.  Gobineau,  Les  Religions  et  les  Philosophies  dans  I'Asie  Centrale. 

2  In  the  Islamic  system  the  non-Moslem  subjects  of  Moslem  States  are  called 
Ahl-uz-zimmah  or  Zimmis.  i.e  "  people  living  under  guarantees," 

3  See  Sell's  Essays  on  IsWm, 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  273 

to  warn  his  followers  against  the  wiles  and  insidious  designs  of 
hostile  creeds.  And  no  student  of  comparative  history  can 
blame  him  for  trying  to  safeguard  his  little  commonwealth 
against  the  treachery  of  enemies  and  aliens.  But  when  we 
come  to  look  at  his  general  treatment  of  non-Moslem  sub- 
jects, we  find  it  marked  by  a  large-hearted  tolerance  and 
sympathy. 

Has  any  conquering  race  or  Faith  given  to  its  subject 
nationalities  a  better  guarantee  than  is  to  be  found  in  the 
following  words  of  the  Prophet  }  "To  [the  Christians  of] 
Najran  and  the  neighbouring  territories,  the  security  of  God 
and  the  pledge  of  His  Prophet  are  extended  for  their  lives, 
their  religion,  and  their  property — to  the  present  as  well  as 
the  absent  and  others  besides  ;  there  shall  be  no  interference 
\\dth  [the  practice  of]  their  faith  or  their  observances  ;  nor  any 
change  in  their  rights  or  privileges  ;  no  bishop  shall  be  removed 
from  his  bishopric  ;  nor  any  monk  from  his  monastery,  nor 
any  priest  from  his  priesthood,  and  they  shall  continue  to 
enjoy  every  thing  great  and  small  as  heretofore  ;  no  image  or 
cross  shall  be  destroyed  ;  they  shall  not  oppress  or  be  oppressed  ; 
they  shall  not  practise  the  rights  of  blood-vengeance  as 
in  the  Days  of  Ignorance  ;  no  tithes  shall  be  levied  from 
them  nor  shall  they  be  required  to  furnish  provisions  for  the 
troops."  ^ 

After  the  subjugation  of  Hira,  and  as  soon  as  the  people  had 
taken  the  oath  of  allegiance,  Khalid  bin-Walid  issued  a  pro- 
clamation by  which  he  guaranteed  the  lives,  liberty  and 
property  of  the  Christians,  and  declared  that  "  they  shall  not 
be  prevented  from  beating  their  ndkm  ^  and  taking  out  their 
crosses  on  occasions  of  festivals."  "  And  this  declaration," 
says  Imam  Abu-Yusuf,^  "  was  approved  of  and  sanctioned  by 
the  Caliph  *  and  his  council."  ^ 

1  I.e.  nor  shall  troops  be  quartered  on  them  ;  Fithlh  ul-Bulddn  (Balazuri). 
p.  65  ;  Kitdb-ul-Khardj  of  Imam  Abu  Yusuf.  Muir  gives  this  guarantee  of 
the  Prophet  in  an  abridged  form,  vol.  ii.  p.  299  ;   see  Appendix. 

*  A  piece  of  wood  used  in  Eastern  Christian  churches  in  place  of  a  bell. 
'  The  Chief  Kazi  of  Harun  ar-Rashid. 

*  Abu  Bakr. 

'••  Consisting  of  Omar.  Osman  and  Ali  and  the  other  leading  Companions 
of  the  Prophet  ;    see  the  Kitdb  \d-Kharaj,  p.  84. 
SI.  S 


274  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

The  non-Moslem  subjects  were  not  precluded  from  building 
new  churches  or  temples.  Only  in  places  exclusively  inhabited 
by  Moslems  a  rule  of  this  kind  existed  in  theory.  "  No  new 
Church  or  temple,"  said  Abdullah  bin  Abbas/  "  can  be  erected 
in  a  town  solely  inhabited  by  Moslems  ;  but  in  other  places 
where  there  are  already  Zimmis  inhabiting  from  before,  we 
must  abide  by  our  contract  with  them."  ^  In  practice,  how- 
ever, the  prohibition  was  totally  disregarded.  In  the  reign  of 
Mamun,  we  hear  of  eleven  thousand  Christian  churches, 
besides  hundreds  of  synagogues  and  fire-temples  within  the 
empire.  This  enlightened  monarch,  who  has  been  represented 
as  "  a  bitter  enemy  "  of  the  Christians,  included  in  his  Council 
the  representatives  of  all  the  communities  under  his  sway, — 
Moslems,  Jews,  Christians,  Sabaeans  and  Zoroastrians  ;  whilst 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Christian  hierarchy  were 
carefully  regulated  and  guaranteed. 

It  is  a  notable  fact,  with  few  parallels  even  in  modern  history, 
that  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt  the  Caliph  Omar  scrupulously 
preserved  intact  the  property  dedicated  to  the  Christian 
churches  and  continued  the  allowances  made  by  the  former 
government  for  the  support  of  the  priests.^ 

The  best  testimony  to  the  toleration  of  the  early  Moslem 
government  is  furnished  by  the  Christians  themselves.  In 
the  reign  of  Osman  (the  third  Caliph),  the  Christian  Patriarch 
of  Merv  addressed  the  Bishop  of  Ears,  named  Simeon,  in  the 
following  terms  :  "  The  Arabs  who  have  been  given  by  God  the 
kingdom  (of  the  earth)  do  not  attack  the  Christian  faith  ;  on 
the  contrary  they  help  us  in  our  religion  ;  they  respect  our 
God  and  our  Saints,  and  bestow  gifts  on  our  churches  and 
monasteries." 

In  order  to  avoid  the  least  semblance  of  high-handedness, 
no  Moslem  was  allowed  to  acquire  the  land  of  a  zimmi  even 
by  purchase.  "  Neither  the  Imam  nor  the  Sultan  could  dis- 
possess a  zimmi  of  his  property." 

The  Moslems  and  the  zimmis  were  absolutely  equal  in  the 
eye  of  the  law.  "Their  blood,"  said  Ali  the  Caliph,  "  was  j 
like  our  blood."     Many  modern  governments,  not  excepting  | 

^  A  cousin  of  the  Prophet  and  a  jurist  of  recognised  authority. 

»  Kitab  nl-Khardj,  p.  88.  ^  Makrizi,  pp.  492,  499.  ; 


i   VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  275 

some  of  the  most  civilised,  may  take  the  Moslem  administration 
for  their  model.  In  the  punishment  of  crimes  there  was  no 
difference  between  the  rulers  and  the  ruled.  Islam's  law  is 
that  if  a  zimmi  is  killed  by  a  Moslem,  the  latter  is  liable  to  the 
:   same  penalty  as  in  the  reverse  case.^ 

}  In  their  anxiety  for  the  welfare  of  the  non-Moslem  subjects, 
the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad,  like  their  rivals  of  Cordova,  created  a 
special  department  charged  with  the  protection  of  the  zimmis 
and  the  safeguarding  of  their  interests.  The  head  of  this 
department  was  called,  in  Bagdad,  Kdtih-ul-Jihhdzeh  ;  in 
Spain,  Kdtib-uz-Zimdm.^ 

Mutawakkil,  who  rased  to  the  ground  the  mausoleum  of  the 
martyr  Husain   and  forbade   pilgrimages  to  the  consecrated 
spot,    excluded    non-Moslems,    as    he    excluded    the    Moslem 
I    Rationalists,  from  the  employment  of  the  State  and  subjected 
them  to  many  disabilities.     In  the  later  works  of  law,  written 
whilst  the  great  struggle  was  proceeding  between  Islam  and 
Christendom,   on  one  side  for  Hfe,  on  the    other  for  brute 
mastery,  there  occur  no  doubt  passages  which  give  colour  to 
the  allegation  that  in  Islam  zimmis  are  subject  to  humiliation. 
But  no  warrant  for  this  statement  will  be  found  in  the  rules 
inculcated  by  the  Teacher,  or  his  immediate  disciples  or  suc- 
cessors.    It  must  be  added,  however,  that  the  bigoted  views 
of  the  later  canonists  were  never  carried  into  practice  ;    and 
the  toleration  and  generosity  with  which  the  non-Moslems  were 
j   treated   are   evidenced   by   the   fact    that   zimmis   could   be 
{  nominated  as  executors  to  the  wills  of  Moslems  ;    that  they 
I  often  filled  the  office  of  rectors  of  Moslem  universities  and 
I   educational  institutions,   and  of  curators  of  Moslem  endow- 
I   ments  so  long  as  they  did  not  perform  any  religious  functions. 
I   And  when  a  non-Moslem  of  worth  and  merit  died,  the  Moslems 
i   attended  his  funeral  in  a  body. 

■  In  the  beginning  military  commands,  for  obvious  reasons, 

>  Zail'i  in  his  T akhrij-id-Hedaya  mentions  a  case  which  occurred  in  the 
;  Caliphate  of  Omar.  A  Moslem  of  the  name  of  Bakr  bin  Wail  killed  a  Christian 
'    named  Hairut.     The  Caliph  ordered  that  "  the  killer  should  be  surrendered  to 

■  the  heirs  of  the  killed."     The  culprit  was  made  over  to  Honain,  Hairiit's  heir, 
i    who  put  him  to  death,  p.  338,  Delhi  edition.     A  similar  case  is  reported  in  the 

reign  of  Omar  bin  Abdul  Aziz. 

*  With  a  Zal  ;   see  The  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  p.  573. 


276  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  11. 

were  not  entrusted  to  non-Moslems,  but  all  other  posts  of 
emolument  and  trust  were  open  to  them  equally  with  Moslems. 
This  equality  was  not  merely  theoretical,  for  from  the  first 
century  of  the  Hegira  we  find  important  offices  of  state  held 
by  Christians,  Jews  and  Magians.  The  Abbasides,  with  rare 
exceptions,  recognised  no  distinction  among  their  subjects  on 
the  score  of  religion.  And  the  dynasties  that  succeeded  them 
in  power  scrupulously  followed  their  example. 

If  the  treatment  of  non-Moslems  in  Islamic  countries  is 
compared  with  that  of  non-Christians  under  European  Govern- 
ments, it  would  be  found  that  the  balance  of  humanity  and 
generosity,  generally  speaking,  inclines  in  favour  of  Islam. 
Under  the  Mogul  Emperors  of  Delhi,  Hindus  commanded 
armies,  administered  provinces  and  sat  in  the  councils  of  the 
sovereign.  Even  at  the  present  time  can  it  be  said  that  in  no 
European  empire,  ruling  over  mixed  nationalities  and  faiths, 
is  any  distinction  made  of  creed,  colour  or  race  ? 

That  which  Islam  had  almost  exclusively  in  view  was  to 
inculcate  among  mankind  the  principle  of  divine  unity  and 
human  equality  preached  by  the  Prophet.  So  long  as  the 
central  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God  and  the  message  of  the 
Prophet  is  recognised  and  accepted,  Islam  allows  the  widest 
latitude  to  the  human  conscience.  Consequently,  wherever  the 
Moslem  missionary-soldier  made  his  appearance,  he  was  hailed 
by  the  down-trodden  masses  and  the  persecuted  heretics  as 
the  harbinger  of  freedom  and  emancipation  from  a  galling 
bondage.  Islam  brought  to  them  practical  equahty  in  the 
eye  of  the  law,  and  fixity  of  taxation. 

The  battle  of  Kadesia,  which  threw  Persia  into  the  hands 
of  the  Moslems,  was  the  signal  of  dehverance  to  the  bulk  of 
the  Persians,  as  the  battles  of  Yermuk  and  Ajnadin  were  to  the 
Syrians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Egyptians.  The  Jews,  whom  the 
Zoroastrians  had  massacred  from  time  to  time,  the  Christians, 
whom  they  hunted  from  place  to  place,  breathed  freely  under 
the  authority  of  the  Prophet,  the  watchword  of  whose  faith 
was  the  brotherhood  of  man.  The  people  everywhere  received 
the  Moslems  as  their  hberators.  Wherever  any  resistance 
was  offered,  it  was  by  the  priesthood  and  the  aristocracy. 
The   masses   and   the   working  classes  in  general,  who  were 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  277 

under  the  ban  of  Zoroastrianism,  ranged  themselves  with  the 
conquerors.  A  simple  confession  of  an  everlasting  truth  placed 
them  on  the  same  footing  as  their  Moslem  emancipators. 

The  feudal  chiefs  of  the  tribes  and  villages  retained  all  their 
privileges,  honours,  and  local  influence, — "  more  than  we 
believe,"  says  Gobineau,  "  for  the  oppressions  and  persecutions 
of  the  Musulmans  have  been  greatly  exaggerated." 

The  conquest  of  Africa  and  Spain  was  attended  with  the 
same  result.  The  Arians,  the  Pelagians,  and  other  heretics 
hitherto  the  victims  of  orthodox  fury  and  hatred, — the  people 
at  large,  who  had  been  terribly  oppressed  by  a  lawless  soldiery 
and  a  still  more  lawless  priesthood, — found  peace  and  security 
under  Islam.  By  an  irony  of  fate,  which  almost  induces  a 
belief  in  the  Nemesis  of  the  ancients,  the  Jews,  whose  animosity 
towards  the  Prophet  very  nearly  wrought  the  destruction  of 
the  Islamic  commonwealth,  found  in  the  Moslems  their  best 
protectors.  "  Insulted,  plundered,  hated  and  despised  by  all 
Christian  nations,"  they  found  that  refuge  in  Islam,  that 
protection  from  inhumanity,  which  was  ruthlessly  denied  to 
them  in  Christendom. 

Islam  gave  to  the  people  a  code  which,  however  archaic 
in  its  simplicity,  was  capable  of  the  greatest  development  in 
accordance  with  the  progress  of  material  civihsation.  It 
conferred  on  the  State  a  flexible  constitution,  based  on  a  just 
appreciation  of  human  rights  and  human  duty.  It  limited 
taxation,  it  made  men  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  it  consecrated 
the  principles  of  self-government.  It  established  a  control 
over  the  sovereign  power  by  rendering  the  executive  authority 
subordinate  to  the  law, — a  law  based  upon  religious  sanction 
and  moral  obligations.  "  The  excellence  and  effectiveness  of 
each  of  these  principles,"  says  Urquhart  "  (each  capable  of 
immortalising  its  founder),  gave  value  to  the  rest  ;  and  aU 
combined,  endowed  the  system  which  they  formed  with  a 
force  and  energy  exceeding  those  of  any  other  political  system. 
Within  the  lifetime  of  a  man,  though  in  the  hands  of  a  popula- 
tion, wild,  ignorant,  and  insignificant,  it  spread  over  a  greater 
extent  than  the  dominions  of  Rome.  While  it  retained  its 
primitive  character,  it  was  irresistible."  ^ 

*  Urquhart,  Spirit  of  the  East,  vol.  i.  Introd.  p.  xxviii. 


278  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

The  short  government  of  Abu  Bakr  was  too  fully  occupied 
with  the  labour  of  pacifying  the  desert  tribes  to  afford  time  for 
any  systematic  regulation  of  the  provinces.  But  with  the 
reign  of  Omar — a  truly  great  man — commenced  that  sleepless 
care  for  the  welfare  of  the  subject  nations  which  characterised 
the  early  Moslem  governments. 

An  examination  of  the  political  condition  of  the  Moslems 
under  the  early  Caliphs  brings  into  view  a  popular  government 
administered  by  an  elective  chief  with  limited  powers.  The 
prerogatives  of  the  head  of  the  State  were  confined  to  admini- 
strative and  executive  matters,  such  as  the  regulation  of  the 
police,  control  of  the  army,  transaction  of  foreign  affairs, 
disbursement  of  the  finances,  etc.  But  he  could  never  act  in 
contravention  of  the  recognised  law. 

The  tribunals  were  not  dependent  on  the  government.  Their 
decisions  were  supreme  ;  and  the  early  Caliphs  could  not 
assume  the  power  of  pardoning  those  whom  the  regular 
tribunals  had  condemned.  The  law  was  the  same  for  the  poor 
as  for  the  rich,  for  the  man  in  power  as  for  the  labourer  in  the 
field.  i 

As  time  advances  the  stringency  of  the  system  is  relaxed  | 
but  the  form  is  always  maintained.  Even  the  usurpers,  who,i 
without  right,  by  treachery  and  murder  seized  the  reins  of' 
government,  and  who  in  their  persons  represented  the  pagan 
oligarchy  which  had  been  displaced  by  the  teachings  of  Islam, 
observed  more  or  less  the  outward  semblance  of  law-abiding 
executive  heads  of  a  representative  government.  And  the 
rulers  of  the  later  dynasties,  when  they  overstepped  the  bounds, 
often  unhmited,  of  arbitrary  power,  were  restrained  by  the; 
sentence  of  the  general  body  of  jurisconsults,  which  in  all 
Musulman  States  serves  as  a  constitutional  check  on  the 
sovereign.  In  the  early  times,  however,  the  "  Companions  " 
of  the  Master  formed  as  it  were  an  effective  Council  of  State. 
The  consideration  attached  to  the  title  of  "  Companion  of  the 
Prophet  "  was  as  great  in  the  camp  as  in  the  city.  The  power- 
ful influence  which  they  possessed  increased  with  the  conquests 
of  the  Moslems.  The  quality  of  ashdh  carried  with  it  a 
character  of  sanctity  and  nobleness.  When  a  person  bearing 
this  title  was  in  an  action,  the  crowd  flocked  to  his  side  and; 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  279 

followed  his  lead.  In  the  first  degree  were  those  who  had 
accompanied  the  Prophet  from  Mecca — the  Exiles,  and  the 
Ansar  who  had  received  him  with  devotion,  and  who  had 
battled  in  defence  of  the  Faith  at  Badr  and  Ohod  ;  those  who 
were  charged  with  any  work  by  him  and  those  who  had  talked 
with  him,  seen  him,  or  heard  him.  In  the  last  rank  came 
those  who  had  served  under  any  of  the  sahdba,  and  thus  came 
indirectly  within  the  magic  influence  of  the  Master. 

An  incident  which  occurred  during  the  Caliphate  of  Omar 
shows  the  absolute  equality  of  all  men  in  Islam.  Jabala,  king 
of  the  Ghassanides,  having  embraced  the  Faith,  had  proceeded 
to  Medina  to  pay  his  homage  to  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful. 
He  had  entered  the  city  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony,  and 
been  received  with  much  consideration.  Whilst  performing 
the  tawdf,  or  circumambulation  of  the  Kaaba,  a  humble  pilgrim 
engaged  in  the  same  sacred  duties  accidentally  dropped  a  piece 
of  his  pilgrim's  dress  over  the  royal  shoulders.  Jabala  turned 
round  furiously  and  struck  him  a  blow  which  knocked  out  the 
poor  man's  teeth.  The  rest  of  this  episode  must  be  told  in 
the  memorable  words  of  Omar  himself  to  Abu  Obaidah,  com- 
manding the  Moslem  troops  in  Syria.  "  The  poor  man  came 
to  me,"  writes  the  Caliph,  "  and  prayed  for  redress  ;  I  sent 
for  Jabala,  and  when  he  came  before  me  I  asked  him  why  he 
had  so  ill-treated  a  brother-Moslem.  He  answered  that  the 
man  had  insulted  him,  and  that  were  it  not  for  the  sanctity  of 
the  place  he  would  have  killed  him  on  the  spot.  I  answered 
that  his  words  added  to  the  gravity  of  his  offence,  and  that 
unless  he  obtained  the  pardon  of  the  injured  man  he  would 
have  to  submit  to  the  usual  penalty  of  the  law.  Jabala 
replied,  '  I  am  a  king,  and  the  other  is  only  a  common  man.' 
"  King  or  no  king,  both  of  you  are  Musulmans  and  both  of 
you  are  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law.'  He  asked  that  the  penalty 
might  be  delayed  until  the  next  day  ;  and,  on  the  consent  of 
the  injured,  I  accorded  the  delay.  In  the  night  Jabala  escaped, 
and  has  now  joined  the  Christian  dog.^  But  God  will  grant 
thee  victory  over  him  and  the  hke  of  them  ..." 

This  letter  was  read  by  Abu  Obaidali  at  the  head  of  his 

*  Such  was  the  designation  usually  given  to  the  Byzantine  emperors  by  the 
early  Moslems. 


2So  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

troops.     These  communications  appear  to  have  been  frequent 
under  the  early  Cahphate.     No  person  in  the  camp  or  in  the 
city  was  a  stranger  to   pubHc   affairs.     Every  Friday  after 
divine  service,  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful  mentioned  to 
the  assembly  the  important  nominations  and  events  of  the  day. 
The  prefects  in  their  provinces  followed  the  example.     No  one 
was  excluded  from  these  general  assemblies  of  the  public.     It 
was  the  reign  of  democracy  in  its  best  form.     The  Pontiff  of 
Islam,  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful,  was  not  hedged  roimd  ' 
by  any  divinity.     He  was  responsible  for  the  administration  of 
the  State  to  his  subjects.     The  stern  devotion  of  the  early 
Caliphs    to    the    well-being    of    the   people,    and  the  austere 
simphcity  of  their  lives,  were  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
example  of  the  Master.     They  preached  and  prayed  in  the 
mosque  like  the  Prophet  ;    received  in  their  homes  the  poor 
and  oppressed,  and  failed  not  to  give  a  hearing  to  the  meanest. 
Without  cortege,  without  pomp  or  ceremony,  they  ruled  the  , 
hearts  of  men  by  the  force  of  their  character.     Omar  travelled  i 
to  Syria  to  receive  the  capitulation  of  Jerusalem,  accompanied  I 
by  a  single  slave.     Abu  Bakr  on  his  death-bed  left  only  a  suit 
of  clothes,  a  camel,  and  a  slave  to  his  heir.     Every  Friday,  Ali  ! 
distributed  his  own  allowance  from  the  public  treasury  among  I 
the  distressed  and  suffering  ;   and  set  an  example  to  the  people 
by  his  respect  for  the  ordinary  tribunals.     Whilst  the  Republic 
lasted  none  of  the  CaUphs  could  alter,  or  act  contrary  to,  the  ■ 
judgment  of  the  constituted  courts  of  justice.^ 

Naturally,  it  is  difficult  for  a  new  government,  introduced  by 
force  of  arms,  to  conciliate  the  affection  of  the  people  at  once. 
But  the  early  Saracens  offered  to  the  conquered  nations  motives 
for  the  greatest  confidence  and  attachment.  Headed  by  chiefs 
of  the  moderation  and  gentleness  of  Abu  Obaidah,  who 
tempered  and  held  in  check  the  ferocity  of  soldiers  like  Khalid, 
they  maintained  intact  the  civil  rights  of  their  subjects.  They 
accorded  to  all  the  conquered  nations  the  completest  religious  ' 
toleration.  Their  conduct  might  furnish  to  many  of  the  i! 
civilised  governments  of  modern  times  the  noblest  example  of  | 

I 

1  The  first  sentence  of  a  court  of  justice  which  was  not  carried  into  execution 
was  under  Mu'awi5-ah,  who  pardoned  a  man  found  guilty  by  the  judge  upon 
the  criminal  reciting  a  poem  in  praise  of  the  usurper. 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  281 

civil  and  religious  libe^t5^  They  did  not  lash  women  to  death. 
They  did  not  condemn  innocent  females  to  Siberian  mines 
and  the  outrages  of  their  guards.  They  had  the  sagacity  not 
to  interfere  with  any  beneficent  civil  institution,  existing  in 
the  conquered  countries,  which  did  not  militate  wkh  their 
religion. 

The  measures  taken  by  Omar  to  secure  the   agricultural 

prosperity  of  the  people  evince  an  ever-present  solicitude  to 

promote  their  well-being  and  interests.     Taxation  on  land  was 

fixed  upon  an  equable  and  moderate  basis  ;    aqueducts  and 

canals  were  ordered  to  be  made  in  every  part  of  the  empire. 

The  feudal  burdens,  which  had  afflicted  the  cultivators  of  the 

soil,    were    absolutely    withdrawn,    and    the    peasantry    were 

emancipated  from  the  bondage  of  centuries.     The  death  of 

this  remarkable  man  at  the  hands  of  an  assassin  was  an  un- 

i  doubted  loss  to  the  government.     His  character,  stern  and  yet 

just,  his  practical  commonsense  and  knowledge  of  men,  had 

eminently  fitted  him  to  repress  and  hold  in  check  the  ambitious 

;  designs  of  the  children  of  Ommeyya.     On  his  death-bed  Omar 

:  entrusted  to  six  electors  the  task  of  nominating  a  successor  to 

I  the  office .     The  CaHphate  was  offered  to  the  son  of  Abu  Talib, 

but   Ommeyyade   intrigue   had   annexed   to   the   proposal   a 

'  condition  which  they  knew  Ali  would  not  accept.     He  was 

i  required  to  govern,  not  only  in  accordance  with  the  laws  and 

•  precedents  of  the  Prophet,  but  also  with  those  estabUshed  by 

his  two  predecessors.     With  characteristic  independence  Ali 

;  refused  to  allow  his  judgment  to  be  so  fettered.     The  Caliphate 

\  was  then  offered,  as  it  was  expected  by  the  Ommeyyades,  to 

!  their  kinsman  Osman.     The  accession  of  this  venerable  chief 

I  to  the  vicegerency  of  the  Prophet  proved  in  the  sequel  an 

j  unquahfied  disaster  to  the  commonwealth  of  Islam.     He  was 

I  a  member  of  that  family  which  had  always  borne  a  deep-rooted 

I  animosity  towards  the  children  of  Hashim.     They  had  per- 

;  secuted  the  Teacher  with  rancorous  hatred,  and  had  driven 

:  him  from  his  home.     They  had  struggled  hard  to  crush  the 

Faith  in  its  infancy,  and  had  battled  against  it  to  the  last. 

Strongly    united    among    themselves,    and    exercising    great 

influence  among  all  the  tribes  of  Mozar,^  of  wliicli  they  were 

»  With  a  Zdd. 


282  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

the  prominent  members,  the  Ommeyyades  had  watched  witi 
ill-concealed  jealousy  the  old  power  and  prestige  slip  awaj' 
from  their  hands.  After  the  fall  of  Mecca  they  had  acceptec 
the  inevitable,  but  never  forgave  the  house  of  Hashim  oi 
Islam  for  the  ruin  which  the  son  of  Abdullah  had  wrought  tc 
them.  Whilst  the  Prophet  lived,  his  commanding  personalit) 
overawed  all  these  traitors.  Many  of  them  had  made  c 
nominal  profession  of  the  Faith  from  self-interest  ^  and  i 
greed  to  secure  a  part  of  the  worldly  goods  which  the  success 
of  the  Moslems  brought  to  the  Islamic  commonwealth.  Bui 
they  never  ceased  to  hate  the  democracy  proclaimed  b} 
Mohammed.  Libertines  and  profligates,  unscrupulous  anc 
cruel,  pagans  at  heart,  they  chafed  at  a  religion  of  equal  rights 
a  religion  which  exacted  strict  observance  of  moral  duties  anc 
personal  chastity.  They  set  themselves,  from  the  commence 
ment,  to  undermine  the  government  to  which  they  had  sworr 
allegiance,  and  to  destroy  the  men  upon  whom  the  Republic 
depended.  The  lirst  two  successors  of  the  Prophet  had  kepi 
their  ambition  within  bounds,  and  repressed  their  intrigue; 
and  treacherous  designs.  With  the  election  of  Osman,  thej 
flocked  to  Medina  like  vultures  scenting  the  prey.  His  acces 
sion  was  the  signal  for  that  outburst  of  hatred,  that  pent-uj 
profligacy  on  the  part  of  the  Ommeyyades,  which  convulsec 
the  Islamic  world  to  its  innermost  core,  and  destroyed  it: 
noblest  and  most  precious  hves. 

Under  Osman  there  was  a  complete  reversal  of  the  policj' 
and  administration  of  his  two  predecessors,  whose  decisions  b 
had  engaged  to  follow.  All  the  old  governors  and  commanderi 
taken  from  among  the  immediate  disciples  of  the  Prophet  anc 
his  Companions  were  displaced.  Merit  and  faithful  service 
were  wholly  disregarded.  All  offices  of  trust  and  emolumen" 
were  seized  by  the  Ommeyyades.  The  governorships  of  the 
provinces  were  bestowed  on  men  who  had  proved  themselve; 
most  inimical  to  Islam,  and  the  treasury  was  emptied  in  theii' 
favour.  We  shall  have  to  describe  the  subsequent  events  ii 
some  detail  when  dealing  with  the  divisions  in  the  Church  o 
Mohammed  ;  suffice  it  for  us  to  say,  that  the  corruptness  of  th( 
administration,  the  total  disregard  of  all  precedent,  the  gros; 
1  They  were,  therefore,  called  the  Muallafat  ul-kuliXb. 


I  vil.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  283 

I  favouritism  displayed  by  the  old  Caliph  towards  his  kinsmen, 
\  and  his  refusal  to  listen  to  any  complaint,  gave  rise  to  serious 
f  disaffection  among  the  old  companions  of  the  Prophet  and  the 
'  general  body  of  the  Moslems,  ending  in  revolt  in  which  Osman 
I  lost  his  life.     On  Osman's  tragical  death,  AH  was  elected  to 
i  the  vacant  Caliphate  by  the  consensus  of  the  people.     The 
i  rebellions  which  followed  are  matters  of  history.     "  Had  Ali 
I  been  allowed  to  reign  in  peace,"  says  Oelsner,  "  his  virtues, 
\  his  firmness,   and   his   ascendancy  of  character   would  have 
I  perpetuated  the  old  republic  and  its  simple  manners."  ^     The 
t  dagger  of  an  assassin  destro3^ed  the  hope  of  Islam.     "  With 
;  him,"  says  Major  Osborn,  "  perished  the  truest-hearted  and 
!  best  Moslem  of  whom  Mohammedan  history  has  preserved  the 
I  remembrance."     Seven  centuries  before,  this  wonderful  man 
!  would  have  been  apotheosised  ;    thirteen  centuries  later  his 
I  genius  and  talents,   his  virtues  and  his  valour,  would  have 
!  extorted  the  admiration  of  the  civilised  world.     As  a  ruler,  he 
came  before  his  time.     He  was  almost  unfitted  by  his  uncom- 
promising love  of  truth,  his  gentleness,  and  his  merciful  nature, 
to  cope  with  the  Ommeyyades'  treachery  and  falsehood. 
With  the  estabUshment  of  an  autocracy  under  Mu'awiyah 
'  the  political  spirit  of  Islam  underwent  a  great  change.     The 
!  sovereigns  were  no  more  the  heads  of  a  commonwealth,  elected 
i  by  the  suffrage  of  the  people,  and  governing  solely  for  the 
:  welfare  of  their  subjects  and  the  glory  of  the  Faith.     From  the 
!  time  of  IMu'awiyah  the  reigning  Cahph  nominated  his  successor  ; 
I  and  the  oath  of  fealty  taken  by  the  people  in  his  presence,  or 
)  in  that  of  his  proxy,  confirmed  his  nomination.     This  system 
i  combined  the  vices  of  democracy  and  despotism  without  the 
advantages   of  either.     Under  the   Repubhc   not   only   were 
i  the  Cahphs  assisted  by  a  council  of  the  Companions  of  the 
'  Prophet,  but  the  provincial  governors  had  similar  advisory 
bodies.     During  the  Ommeyyade  rule  the  government  was  a 
pure  autocracy  tempered  by  the  freedom  of  speech  possessed 
by  the  desert  Arabs  and  the  learned  or  holy,  which  enabled 
them,  often  by  a  phrase  or  verse  from  the  Koran  or  from  the 
poets,  to  change  the  mood  of  the  sovereign.     Under  the  first 
five  Cahphs  of  the  Abbaside  dynasty  also  the  government 

'  Oelsner,  Des  Effets  de  la  religion  de  Mohammed. 


284  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

continued    to    be    more     or    less    autocratic,    although    the  j 
departmental  ministers  and  prominent  members  of  the  family ! 
formed  a  body  of  unauthorised  councillors.     A  regular  Council  l 
composed  of  the  leading  representatives  of  communities  owning 
allegiance  to  the  Caliph  was  for  the  first  time  established  in 
the  reign  of  Mamun  the  Great.     The  Buyides,  the  Samanides, 
the  Seljukides,  and  the  Ayyubides  all  had  their  councils  in  j 
which  the  people  were  more  or  less  represented.  ' 

But  absolutism  in  the  hands  of  the  early  Abbasides  helped  : 
in  the  intellectual  development  and  material  prosperity  of  the 
Islamic  nations.     In  the  vigour  of  their  rule  and  the  firmness  ; 
with  which  they  held  the  reins  of  government  they  may  be  | 
compared  with  the  Tudors  of  England.     The  political  and  i 
administrative  machinery  of  the  Abbaside  Cahphate,  which  i 
was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  succeeding  dynasties,  owes  its ; 
origin  to  the  genius  of  Mansur,  the  founder  of  Bagdad.     In 
its  effective  distribution  of  work  and  its  control  of  details  it 
ranks  with  the  most  perfectly  organised  systems  of  modern  | 
times.  I 

At  the  very  commencement  of  their  rule,  which  lasted  forj 
several  centuries,  they  estabUshed  a  Chamber  of  Finance  and| 
a  Chancellery  of  State,  the  first  being  charged  with  the  duty  of  j 
receiving  the  taxes  and  disbursing  the  expenses  of  the  empire, 
the  second  with  the  duty  of  impressing  a  character  of  authen- 
ticity on  the  mandates  of  the  sovereigns.  Later,  for  the  better 
subdivision  of  work,  other  departments  of  state  (called  diwdns) 
were  created,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal : — the 
Diwdn-ul-Khardj  (Central  Offtce  of  Taxes)  or  Department  of 
Finance  ;  the  Diwdn-ud-Did  (Offtce  of  the  Crown  Property)  ; 
the  Diwdn-iiz-zimdm  (Audit  or  Accounts  Office)  ;  the  Diwdn- 
ul-Jund  (War  Office)  ;  the  Diwdn-ul-Mawdli  wa'l  Ghilmdn 
(Office  for  the  Protection  of  Clients  and  Slaves),  where  a 
register  was  kept  of  the  freedmen  and  slaves  of  the  Caliph,  and 
arrangements  made  for  their  maintenance  ;  the  Diwdn-ul- 
Barid  (the  Post  Office)  ;  Diwdn-uz-Zimdm  an-Nafakdt  (House- 
hold Expense  Office)  ;  the  Diwdn-ur-Rasdil  (Board  of  Corre- 
spondence or  Chancery  Office)  ;  the  Diwdn-ut-Toukia  (Board  of 
Requests)  ;  the  Diwdn  un  nazr  fi'l  Mazdlim  (Board  for  the 
Inspection  of  Grievances)  ;    the  Diwdn-ul-Ahdds  w'ash-Shurta 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  285 

(Militia  and  Police  Office)  ;  and  the  Diwdn-ul-'Atd  (Donation 
Office),  analogous  to  the  paymaster-general's  department, 
charged  with  the  payment  of  the  regular  troops.  The  protec- 
tion of  the  interests  of  non-Moslems  was  entrusted  to  a  special 
office,  the  head  of  which  was  called  the  Kdtih-ul-jihhdzeh. 

Each  Government  office  was  presided  over  by  a  director 
who  was  designated  the  Rats,  or  Sadr,  and  the  practical  work 
!of  control  and  supervision  was  carried  on  by  inspectors,  called 
Mushrifs,  or  Ndzirs.'^ 

To    this    organisation    the    Abbaside    CaHphs    added    the 
appointment  of  an  officer  with  the  designation  of  Hdjib,  who 
introduced  the  foreign  ambassadors,  and  also  foraied  a  Court 
of  Appeal  from  the  decrees  of  the  Kazis.     They  instituted  the 
office  of  Vizier,  or  Prime  Minister,  whose  duty  it  was  to  submit 
for  the  consideration  of  the  sovereign  the  various  matters 
requiring  his  decision.     They  gave  regularity  to  the  provincial 
administration,  and  fixed  definitely  the  contributions  due  from 
the  provinces.     They  constructed  caravanserais,  built  cisterns 
and  aqueducts  along  the  road  from  Bagdad  to  Mecca,  planted 
trees  along  the  route,  and  everywhere  founded  wayside  resting- 
■  places  for  the  travellers  and  pilgrims.     They  made  a  route 
.  between  Mecca  and  Medina,  and  laid  relays  of  horses  and 
!  camels  between  Hijaz  and  Yemen  to  facilitate  communication 
I  between  these  two  provinces.     They  established  couriers  in 
i  every  city  for  the  despatch  of  the  post.     They  formed  a  central 
office  in  the  metropolis  for  the  custody  and  preservation  of  the 
archives  of  the  empire,  and  created  an  efficient  pohce  in  every 
part  of  their  dominions.     They  formed  a  syndicate  of  mer- 
chants, charged  with  the  supervision  of  commercial  transactions, 
the  decision  of  disputes  between  mercantile  men,  and  the  duty 
1  of  suppressing  fraud.     Not  only  did  each  centre  of  commerce 
'  possess    its    corporation    of    merchants    but    most    cities    of 
importance  had  their  town  councils.     They  created  the  office 
of  Miihtesib,  or  intendant  of  the  market,  who  went  round  daily 
to  examine  the  weights  and  measures  of  the  tradespeople. 
They  fostered  self-government  and  protected  and  encouraged 
municipal  institutions.     Agriculture  was  promoted  by  advances 

^  For  a  full  account  of  the  political  and  administrative  machinery  of  the 
Abbasides,  see  The  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  pp.  402-443. 


286  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

to  the  peasantry,  and  periodical  reports  were  required  from  the 
provincial  officers  respecting  the  prosperity  of  the  people  and 
the  state  of  the  country.  Many  of  them,  in  the  midst  of  their 
pomp  and  circumstance,  tried  to  maintain  a  semblance  of 
republican  virtue.  Books  written  by  them,  baskets  woven  by 
them,  used  to  be  sold  in  the  market,  and  the  proceeds  were 
supposed  to  supply  the  personal  expenses  of  the  Caliphs. 
Their  zeal  to  promote  the  well-being  of  their  subjects  may 
perhaps  be  taken  into  the  great  Account  against  their  cruelties 
towards  the  Alides.  Under  Mamun  and  his  two  immediate 
successors  the  Abbaside  empire  attained  the  zenith  of 
prosperity. 

Spain  furnishes  one  of  the  most  instructive  examples  of  the 
political  character  of  Islam  and  its  adaptability  to  all  forms 
and  conditions  of  society.  This  country  had  suffered  fright- 
fully under  the  barbarian  hordes  which  had  swept  over  the 
land,  destroying  and  levelling  every  institution  they  found 
existing.  The  kingdoms  they  had  formed  over  the  ruins  of 
the  Roman  administration  had  effaced  the  germs  of  political 
development.  Their  subjects  were  weighted  down  with  feudal 
burdens,  and  all  the  terrible  consequences  flowing  therefrom. 
Vast  areas  were  completely  denuded  of  population.  The 
introduction  of  the  Islamic  Code  enfranchised  the  people  as 
well  as  the  land  from  feudal  bondage.  The  desert  became 
fruitful,  thriving  cities  sprang  into  existence  on  all  sides,  and 
order  took  the  place  of  anarchy.  Immediately  on  their  arrival 
on  the  soil  of  Spain,  the  Saracens  published  an  edict  assuring 
to  the  subject  races,  without  any  difference  of  race  or  creed, 
the  most  ample  liberty,  Suevi,  Goth,  Vandal,  Roman,  and  Jew 
were  all  placed  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Moslem.  They 
guaranteed  to  both  Christian  and  Jew  the  full  exercise  of  their 
religions,  the  free  use  of  their  places  of  worship,  and  perfect 
security  of  person  and  property.  They  even  allowed  them  to 
be  governed,  within  prescribed  limits,  by  their  own  laws,  to 
fill  all  civil  offices  and  serve  in  the  army.  Their  women  were 
invited  to  intermarry  with  the  conquerors.  Does  not  the  conduct 
of  the  Arabs  in  Spain  offer  an  astonishing  contrast  to  that  of 
many  European  nations,  even  in  modern  times,  in  their  treat- 
ment of  conquered  nationalities  ?     Whilst  to  compare  the  Arabi 


'm.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  287 

rule  with  that  of  the  Normans  in  England,  or  of  the  Christians 
in  Syria  during  the  Crusades,  would  be  an  insult  to  common- 
^ense  and  humanity.  The  fidehty  of  the  Arabs  in  maintaining 
their  promises,  the  equal-handed  justice  which  they  administered 
to  all  classes,  without  distinction  of  any  kind,  secured  them  the 
confidence  of  the  people.  And  not  only  in  these  particulars, 
but  also  in  generosity  of  mind  and  in  amenity  of  manner,  and 
in  the  hospitality  of  their  customs,  the  Arabians  were  dis- 
tinguished above  all  other  people  of  those  times. ^  The  Jews 
had,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  suffered 
bitterly  under  the  barbarians,  and  they  profited  most  by  the 
change  of  government.  Spanish  ladies  of  the  highest  rank, 
among  them  the  sister  of  Pelagius  and  the  daughter  of  Roderick, 
contracted  marriages  with  "  the  Infidels,"  as  the  orthodox  Jean 
Mariana  calls  the  Moslems.  They  enjoyed  all  the  rights  and 
:privileges  which  their  rank  gave  them  with  full  liberty  of 
iconscience.  The  Moslems  invited  all  the  landed  proprietors, 
Iwhom  the  violence  of  Roderick  had  driven  into  the  mountains, 
ito  abandon  their  retreats.  Unhappily  the  depopulation  was  so 
igreat  that  this  measure  had  no  effect  in  supplying  inhabitants 
to  the  soil.  They,  accordingly,  held  forth  the  most  generous 
advantages  to  foreign  cultivators  who  wished  to  establish  them- 
selves in  the  Peninsula.  These  offers  brought  large  and 
industrious  colonies  from  Africa  and  Asia.  Fifty  thousand 
Jews  at  one  time,  accompanied  by  their  women  and  children, 
j  settled  in  Andalusia. 

j  For  seven  centuries  the  Moslems  held  Spain,  and  the  bene- 
ficence of  their  rule,  in  spite  of  intestine  quarrels  and  dynastic 
disputes,  is  testified  to  and  acknowledged  even  by  their 
:  enemies.  The  high  culture  attained  by  the  Spanish  Arabs  has 
'been  sometimes  considered  as  due  principally  to  frequent 
I  marriages  between  Moslems  and  Christians.  This  circumstance 
:  undoubtedly  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the  development  of 
1  the  Spanish  Moslems  and  the  growth  of  that  wonderful  civilisa- 
■  tion  to  which  modern  Europe  owes  so  much  of  its  advance  in 
'the  arts  of  peace. ^  What  happened  in  Spain  happened  also 
in  other  places.     Wherever  the  Moslems  entered  a  change  came 

1  Conde's  History  of  the  Spanish  Moors, 
»  Renan,  Averroes  et  Averroisme, 


288  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

over  the  countries  ;  order  took  the  place  of  lawlessness,  and 
peace  and  plenty  smiled  on  the  land.  As  war  was  not  the 
privileged  profession  of  one  caste,  so  labour  was  not  the  mart 
of  degradation  to  another.  The  pursuit  of  agriculture  was  as 
popular  wdth  all  classes  as  the  pursuit  of  arms.^ 

The  importance  which  Islam  attaches  to  the  duties  o1 
sovereigns  towards  their  subjects,  and  the  manner  in  which  il 
promotes  the  freedom  and  equality  of  the  people  and  protects 
them  against  the  oppression  of  their  rulers,  is  shown  in  £ 
remarkable  work  ^  on  the  reciprocal  rights  of  sovereigns  anc 
subjects,  by  Safi-ud-din  Mohammed  bin  AU  bin  Taba  Taba 
commonly  known  as  Ibn  ut-Tiktaka.^  The  book  was  com 
posed  in  701  a.h.  (1301-2),  and  is  dedicated  to  Fakhr  ud-dti 
Tsa  bin  Ibrahim,  Ameer  of  Mosul. 

The  first  part  deals  with  the  duties  of  sovereigns  tc 
their  subjects,  and  the  rules  for  the  administration  of  public 
affairs  and  pohtical  economy.  The  author  describes  th( 
qualities  essential  for  a  sovereign, — wisdom,  justice,  know 
ledge  of  the  wants  and  wishes  of  his  people,  and  the  fea 
of  God  ;  and  adds  emphatically  that  this  latter  quality  i; 
the  root  of  all  good,  and  the  key  to  all  blessings,  "  fo 
when  the  king  is  conscious  of  the  presence  of  God,  Hi 
servants  will  enjoy  the  blessings  of  peace  and  security."     Thi 

aIJ'  jUc  xx^  I  &lil  fc_JlA.      S..t 

sovereign  must  also  possess  the  quality  of  mercy,  wy3Jt  ^;>*^a*. 
and  "  this  is  the  greatest  of  all  good  quahties."  He  must  hav 
an  ever-present  desire  to  benefit  his  subjects,  and  consult  wit^ 
them  on  their  wants  ;  for  the  Prophet  consulted  always  wit 
his  Companions,  and  God  hath  said,^  "  Consult  with  them  ^  0: 
every  affair."     In  the  administration  of  pubhc  affairs,  it  is  th 

1  Oelsner.  I 

2  This  work  is  generally  known  as  the  Kitdb-i-Tarikh-ud-Duwal  Hist,  tj 
Dynasties;  but  its  proper  title  is  Kiidb-iil-fakhn  fi'l  dddb-ul-Sultaniyat  wa 
duwal  nl-Isldynia,  "  the  book  of  Fakhri,  concerning  the  conduct  of  sovereigi 
and  the  Islamic  dynasties  "  ;   Derenbourg's  Edition  ;   see  Appendix. 

3  With  a  hard  kdf.  *  In  the  Koran.  « I.e.  The  people. 


VII.  THE  POLITICAL  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  289 

sovereign's  duty  to  superintend  the  public  income,  guard  the 
Uves  and  property  of  his  subjects,  maintain  peace,  check 
the  evil-doer,  prevent  injuries.  He  must  always  keep  his  word, 
and  then,  adds  the  author  significantly,  "  the  duty  of  the 
subject  is  obedience,  but  no  subject  is  bound  to  obey  a  tyrant." 
Ibn  Rushd  (the  great  Averroes)  says,  "  the  tyrant  is  he  who 
governs  for  himself,  and  not  for  his  people." 

The  laws  of  the  Moslems,  based  on  equitable  principles,  and 
remarkable  for  their  simplicity  and  precision,  did  not  demand 
an  obedience  either  difficult  to  render  or  incompatible  with  the 
intelligence  of  mankind.  The  countries  where  the  Moslems 
estabUshed  themselves  remained  exempt  from  the  disastrous 
consequences  of  the  feudal  system  and  the  feudal  code.^ 
"  Admitting  no  privilege,  no  caste,  their  legislation  produced 
two  grand  results, — that  of  freeing  the  soil  from  factitious 
burdens  imposed  by  barbarian  laws,  and  of  assuring  to 
individuals  perfect  equality  of  rights."  ^ 

1  In  Corsica,   Sardinia,   Sicily,   and  Lower  Italy,   the  feudal  system  was 
introduced  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Arabs. 
*  Oelsner. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS  OF  ISLAM 


iUi\ 


Hafiz. 


TO  every  philosophical  student  of  the  history  of  religion 
the  heading  of  this  chapter  must  cause  surprise,  ifj 
not  pain  ;  to  every  Islamist  devoted  to  the  Founder 
of  his  Faith  it  must  cause  sorrow  and  shame.  Alas  !  that 
the  religion  of  humanity  and  universal  brotherhood  should  not 
have  escaped  the  curse  of  internecine  strife  and  discord  ;  that 
the  Faith  which  was  to  bring  peace  and  rest  to  the  distracted 
world  should  itself  be  torn  to  pieces  by  angry  passions 
and  the  lust  of  power.  The  evils,  which  we  deplored  in 
Christianity  arose  from  the  incompleteness  of  the  system,  and_ 
its  incompatibihty  with  human  needs  ;  in  Islam,  the  evilsj 
that  we  shall  have  to  describe  arose  from  the  greed  of  earthly] 
advancement,  and  the  revolutionary  instincts  of  individuals] 
and  classes  impatient  of  moral  law  and  order.  j 

Nothing  evinces  so  clearly  the  extraordinary  genius  of  thfj 
Arabian  Teacher,  his  wonderful  personality,  and  the  impressive 
ness  of  his  call  to  religious  unity  and  universal  citizenship,  a; 
the  world-movement  of  which  he  was  the  cause,  and  which,  ir 
spite  of  internal  dynastic  wars,  carried  his  people  on  a  tida 
wave  of  conquest  from  one  end  of  the  globe  to  the  other.  Arabia , 
hitherto  the  home  of  warring  tribes  and  clans,  each  with  itij 
blood-feud  of  centuries,  was  suddenly  animated  with  a  commoi 
purpose.  Until  now  the  wars  of  the  Arabs  and  their  alliances 
their  virtues  and  their  vices,  their  love  of  independence  anc 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      291 

their  clannish  feeling,  had  alike  prevented  community  of  action. 
Suddenly  a  nation  of  shepherds  is  turned  into  a  nation  of  kings, 
a  race  of  semi-nomades  transformed  into  masters  of  "  a  world- 
faith  and  law."  With  unexampled  energy  and  self-mastering 
devotion  the  congeries  of  wandering  clans  planted  between 
three  continents  take  up  the  banner  of  the  Faith  and  bear  it 
aloft  to  ever}^  quarter  of  the  earth.  "  You  have  been  elected 
to  carry  to  all  mankind  the  message  of  mercy,  the  announcement 
i  of  divine  unity,"  is  the  call  addressed  to  them,  and  they  respond 
I  to  it  with  a  determination  which  acknowledges  no  obstacle. 
The  intensity  of  conviction,  which  alone  could  carry  them 
through  the  barriers  of  hostile  creeds  and  races,  explains  the 
mystery  of  the  revolution  ! 

Truth  is  eternal :    Mohammed's  message  was  not  new.     It 
had  been  dehvered  before,  but  had  not  reached  the  heart  of 
I  man.     His  voice  quickened  the  dead  into  life,  revived  the 
i  dying,  and  made  the  pulse  of  humanity  beat  with  the  accumu- 
lated force  of  ages.     The  exodus  of  the  Saracens  under  this 
mighty  impulse,  its  magnitude  and  its  far-reaching  effects, 
,  form  the  most  marvellous  phenomenon  of  modern  times.     They 
;  issued    from    their    desert-fastnesses    as    the    preceptors    of 
;  humanity.     Within  thirty  years — the  term  prophesied  for  the 
'  true  CaHphate — they  were  knocking  at  the  gate  of  every  nation, 
;  from  the  Hindu  Kush  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  to  deliver 
,  their  message.     In  the  short  space  of  time  which  elapsed  from 
;  the  death  of  the  Prophet  to  the  subversion  of  the  Republic, 
I  they  built  up  an  empire,  which,  in  its  vastness,  exceeded  that 
j  achieved  by  the  Romans  after  thirteen  centuries  of  continuous 
1  expansion.     Turn  over  the  pages  of  Ibn  ul-Athir,  Tabari,  or 
I  Abulfeda,  you  will  find  a  continuous  record  of  the  wave  rolling 
onward,  fertilising  every  soil  over  which  it  passes,  assimilating 
in  its  way  all  that  is  good. 
I       The  same  causes,  however,  which,  until  the  advent  of  the 
,  Prophet,  had  prevented  the  growth  of  the  Arabs  into  a  nation, 
I  — the  same  tribal  jealousies,  the  same  division  of  clan  and  clan, 
i  the  marks  of  which  are  still  visible  throughout  the  Moslem 
;  world, — led  eventually,  not  only  to  the  ruin  of  the  Republic, 
but  also  to  the  downfall  of  the  Saracenic  empire.     "  Had  the 
followers  of  Mohammed  marched  on  the  lines  of  the  Master 


292  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

and  adopted  the  character  of  the  early  CaUphs,"  says  d'Ohsson, 
"  their  empire  would  have  been  still  more  vast  and  more  durable 
than  that  of  the  Romans."  But  the  greed  of  the  Ommeyyade, 
the  unruliness  of  the  Arab,  and  his  spirit  of  individualism, 
which  showed  itself  even  when  arrayed  against  a  common  foe, 
caused  the  overthrow  of  the  stupendous  fabric  which  the 
heroism  and  devotion  of  the  early  Moslems  had  raised.  Owing 
to  this,  they  lost  Tours,  even  whilst  victory  was  within  their 
grasp  ;  they  were  driven  out  of  Spain  because  they  could  not 
forget  the  old  jealousies  of  the  desert,  and  make  common  cause 
against  the  enemy. 

But  though  the  Republic  fell,  and  the  imperial  sceptre  passed 
from  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  the  Faith  lived.  It  was  the 
outcome  of  ages  of  evolution.  It  represented  the  latest  phase 
in  the  religious  development  of  man  ;  it  did  not  depend  for  its 
existence  or  its  growth  on  the  life  of  empires  or  men.  And  as 
it  spread  and  fructified,  each  race  and  each  age  profited  by  its 
teachings  according  to  their  own  spiritual  necessities  and, 
intellectual  comprehension  !  \ 

The  Church  of  Mohammed,  like  the  Church  of  Christ,  hasj 
been  rent  by  intestine  divisions  and  strifes.  Difference  o: 
opinion  on  abstract  subjects,  about  which  there  cannot  be  an) 
certitude  in  a  finite  existence,  has  always  given  rise  to  greatei 
bitterness  and  a  fiercer  hostility  than  ordinary  differences  oi 
matters  within  the  range  of  human  cognition.  The  disputei 
respecting  the  nature  of  Christ  deluged  the  earth  with  th<| 
blood  of  millions  ;  the  question  of  Free-will  in  man  caused,  i! 
not  the  same  amount  of  bloodshed,  equal  trouble  in  Islam; 
The  claim  to  infaUibility  on  the  part  of  the  Pontiffs  of  Ronni 
convulsed  Christendom  to  its  core  ;  the  infallibility  of  tb| 
people  and  of  the  Fathers  became  in  Islam  the  instrument  fa' 
the  destruction  of  precious  fives. 

Most  of  the  divisions  in  the  Church  of  Mohammed  owe  thei 
origin  primarily  to  political  and  dynastic  causes, — to  the  oL 
tribal  quarrels,  and  the  strong  feeling  of  jealousy  whic 
animated  the  other  Koreishites  against  the  family  of  Hashiir 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Prophet  had  not  expressl 
designated  any  one  as  his  [successor  in  the  spiritual  and  ten 
poral  Government  of  Islam  ;  but  this  notion  is  founded  on 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      293 

mistaken  apprehension  of  facts,  for  there  is  abundant  evidence 
that  many  a  time  the  Prophet  had  indicated  Ah  for  the  vice- 
gerency.  Notably  on  the  occasion  of  the  retm^n  journey  from 
the  performance  of  "  the  Farewell  Pilgrimage,"  during  a  halt 
at  a  place  called  Khumm,  he  had  convoked  an  assembly  of  the 
people  accompanying  him,  and  used  words  which  could  leave 
little  doubt  as  to  his  intention  regarding  a  successor.  "  Ali," 
said  he,  "  is  to  me  what  Aaron  was  to  Moses.  Almighty  God  ! 
be  a  friend  to  his  friends  and  a  foe  to  his  foes  ;  help  those  who 
help  him,  and  frustrate  the  hopes  of  those  who  betray  him  !  "  ^ 
On  the  other  hand,  the  nomination  of  Abu  Bakr  to  lead  prayers 
during  the  Prophet's  illness  might  point  to  a  different  choice. 
The  question  came  up  for  discussion  and  settlement  on  his 
decease,  when  it  became  necessary  to  elect  a  leader  for  Islam. 
The  Hashimites  maintained  that  the  office  had  devolved  by 
appointment  as  well  as  by  succession  upon  Ali.  The  other 
Koreishites  insisted  upon  proceeding  by  election.  Whilst  the 
kinsmen  of  Mohammed  were  engaged  in  his  obsequies,  Abu 
Bakr  was  elected  to  the  Caliphate  by  the  votes  of  the  Koreish 
and  some  of  the  Medinite  Ansar.  The  urgency  of  an  immediate 
selection  for  the  headship  of  the  State  might  explain  the  haste. 
With  his  usual  magnanimity  and  devotion  to  the  Faith, 
scrupulously  anxious  to  avoid  the  least  discord  among  the 
disciples  of  the  Master,  Ali  at  once  gave  in  his  adhesion  to 
Abu  Bakr.  Three  times  was  he  set  aside,  and  on  every  occasion 
he  accepted  the  choice  of  the  electors  without  demur.  He 
himself  had  never  stood  forth  as  a  candidate  for  the  suffrages 
of  the  electors,  and  whatever  might  have  been  the  feeling  of 
his  partisans,  he  had  never  refrained  from  giving  to  the  first 
two  Cahphs  his  help  and  advice  in  the  governance  of  the 
Commonwealth  :  and  they  on  their  side  had  always  deferred 
to  his  counsel  and  his  exposition  of  the  Master's  teachings. 
We  have  already  referred  to  the  circumstances  connected  with 
the  elevation  of  Osman  to  the  Cahphate.     We  will  here  trace 

'  Ibn  Khallikan,  vol.  i.  p.  383.  "  According  to  Al-Hazimi,"  says  Ibn- 
Khallikan,  "  Khumm  is  the  name  of  a  valley  lying  between  Mecca  and  Medina, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  at-Tuhfa.  It  contains  a  pond  (Ghadir)  near 
which  the  Prophet  pronounced  his  invocation."  This  took  place  on  the  i8th 
of  Zu'l-Hijja,  for  Ibn- Khallikan  says  the  18th  of  that  month  "  is  the 
anniversary  of  the  Feast  of  Ghadir  {Id  ul-Ghadh).  which  is  the  same  as  that 
of  Ghadir  i-Khumm." 


294  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

the  events  which  followed  upon  his  accession  to  elucidate  the 
history  of  the  deplorable  schism  which  has  for  so  long  divided 
the  Moslem  world  into  two  sects.  Osman  possessed  neither 
the  shrewdness  of  Abu  Bakr  nor  the  intellectual  vigour  or  the 
moral  fibre  of  Omar.  His  amiability  and  easy  good  nature 
made  him  a  pliable  tool  in  the  hands  of  his  kinsfolk.  The 
venerable  Caliph  surrounded  by  his  hungry  kinsmen,  the 
provinces  crying  for  redress,  and  the  general  body  of  Moslems 
sullenly  watching  the  proceedings  of  the  head  of  the  State, 
form  an  instructive  though  sad  picture  of  the  times.  The 
character  of  the  deluded  Pontiff  has  been  graphically  portrayed } 
by  Dozy.  "The  personality  of  Osman  did  not  justify  his 
election  to  the  Caliphate.  It  is  true  he  was  rich  and  generous, 
had  assisted  Mohammed  and  the  rehgion  by  pecuniary  sacrifices, 
and  that  he  prayed  and  fasted  often,  and  was  a  man  of  amiable 
and  soft  manners.  He  was,  however,  not  a  man  of  spirit,  and 
was  greatly  enfeebled  by  old  age.  His  timidity  was  such  that 
when  placed  on  the  pulpit  he  knew  not  how  to  commence  his 
sermon.  Unhappily  for  this  old  man,  he  possessed  an  inordinate 
fondness  for  his  kinsmen,  who  formed  the  Meccan  aristocracy, 
and  who,  for  twenty  years,  had  insulted,  persecuted,  and  fought 
against  Mohammed.  Soon  they  dominated  over  him  com- 
pletely. His  uncle,  Hisham,  and  especially  Hisham's  son, 
Merwan,  in  reality  governed  the  country,  only  allowing  the 
title  of  Cahph  to  Osman,  and  the  responsibility  of  the  most 
compromising  measures,  of  which  he  was  often  wholly  ignorant. 
The  orthodoxy  of  these  two  men,  especially  of  the  father,  was 
strongly  suspected.  Hisham  had  been  converted  only  when 
Mecca  was  taken.  Having  betrayed  state-secrets,  he  had  been 
disgraced  and  exiled.  Abu  Bakr  and  Omar  had  maintained 
the  order  passed  (b}'  the  Prophet).  Osman,  on  the  contrary, 
not  only  recalled  him  from  his  exile,  but  gave  him  on  his  arrival 
a  hundred  thousand  pieces  of  silver  from  the  public  treasury^ 
and  a  piece  of  land  belonging  to  the  State.  He  made  Merwan 
his  secretary  and  vizier,  and  married  him  to  one  of  his  daughters 
and  enriched  him  with  the  spoils  of  Africa."  ^  .  .  .  He  con- 
firmed Mu'awiyah,  the  son  of  Abu  Sufian  and  Hind,  who  hac 
fought  against  Mohammed  with  such  ferocity  at  Ohod,  in  tht 

'  Doz}',  Hist,  des  Mussulmans  dans  I'Espagne,  vol.  i.  p.  4-|. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      295 

governorship  of  Syria  ;  and  his  foster-brother,  Abdullah  ibn 
Sa'd  ibn  Snrrah,  to  the  satrapy  of  Egypt.  This  Abdullah  was 
at  one  time  a  secretary  to  the  Prophet,  and  when  the  Master 
dictated  his  revelations,  he  used  to  change  the  words  and 
"  denaturalise  "  their  meaning.  His  sacrilege  being  discovered, 
he  had  fled,  and  had  relapsed  into  idolatry.  Walid,  an  uterine 
brother  of  the  old  Caliph,  was  made  governor  of  Kufa.  His 
father  had  often  ill-treated  Mohammed,  and  once  nearly 
strangled  him.  An  abandoned  debauchee,  a  profligate 
drunkard,  his  life  was  a  scandal  to  the  Moslems.  He  appeared 
in  the  mosque  at  the  time  of  morning-prayers  helpless  from 
intoxication,  falling  prostrate  on  the  ground  as  he  attempted 
to  perform  the  duties  of  an  Imam,  or  leader  of  prayer  ;  and 
when  the  by-standers  hurried  up  to  assist  him  to  his  feet, 
shocked  them  by  demanding  more  wine,  in  a  husky  and  stam- 
mering voice.  These  were  the  men  whom  the  Caliph  favoured  ! 
They  fastened  upon  the  provinces  like  famished  leeches,  heaping 
up  wealth  by  means  of  pitiless  extortion.  Complaints  poured 
into  Medina  from  all  parts  of  the  empire.  But  the  complaints 
were  invariably  dismissed  with  abuses  and  hard  words. ^  A 
deputation,  consisting  of  twelve  thousand  men,  headed  by 
Mohammed,  the  son  of  the  Caliph  Abu  Bakr,  came  to  the 
capital  to  lay  before  Osman  the  grievances  of  the  people,  and 
to  seek  redress.  Sore  pressed  at  their  demands  for  justice,  he 
had  recourse  to  the  intervention  of  the  son-in-law  of  the  Prophet 
whose  advice  he  had  hitherto  persistently  refused  to  heed.  Ali 
persuaded  the  deputation  to  depart  to  their  homes,  by  giving 
them  a  pledge  that  their  complaints  should  be  redressed.  On 
their  way  back,  and  hardly  at  a  day's  journey  from  Medina, 
they  intercepted  a  letter  written  by  Osman's  secretary,  which 
bore  the  Caliph's  own  seal,  containing  a  mandate  to  the  un- 
scrupulous Mu'awiyah  to  massacre  them  in  a  body.  Enraged 
at  this  treachery,  they  returned  to  Medina,  entered  the  old 
Cahph's  house,  and  killed  him.  His  death  furnished  to  the 
Ommeyyades  what  they  were  long  thirsting  for,  a  plea  for  a 
revolt  against  Islam, — against  its  democracy,  its  equal  rights, 
and  its  stern  rules  of  morahty.  It  furnished  to  the  Meccans 
and  their  allies  an  excuse  for  organising  a  conspiracy  against 

'  Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  iii.  p.  125. 


296  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  11. 

Medinite  dominance,  which  they  hated  so  bitterly.  Ah  had 
tried  hard  to  save  Osman,  at  first  by  wise  counsels  not  to 
abandon  himself  absolutely  into  the  hands  of  his  unprincipled 
kinsmen,  and  at  the  last  crisis  by  placing  himself  before  the 
infuriated  soldiery,  and  asking  for  consideration  for  the  vener- 
able though  misguided  pontiff.  He  had  nearly  sacrificed  his 
own  sons  in  his  endeavours  to  protect  Osman.  On  Osman's 
death  he  was  raised  to  the  Caliphate  by  the  unanimous  voice 
of  the  people.  Since  the  death  of  the  Prophet,  Ali,  though  he 
had  never  failed  to  attend  the  councils  of  State,  had  always 
maintained  a  dignified  reserve  and  a  noble  independence  of 
character.  In  his  retirement  he  had  chiefly  devoted  himself 
to  study  and  the  peaceable  occupations  of  domestic  life.  Called 
to  the  helm  of  the  State,  he  received  the  oath  of  fealty  with  his 
usual  simplicity,  declaring  his  readiness  to  resign  the  office  to 
any  one  more  worthy. 

"  Had,"  says  Sedillot,  "  the  principle  of  hereditary  succession 
(in  favour  of  Ali)  been  recognised  at  the  outset,  it  would  have 
prevented  the  rise  of  those  disastrous  pretensions  which  engulfed 
Islam  in  the  blood  of  Moslems.  .  .  .  The  husband  of  Fatima 
united  in  his  person  the  right  of  succession  as  the  lawful  heir 
of  the  Prophet,  as  well  as  the  right  by  election.  It  might  have 
been  thought  that  all  would  submit  themselves  before  his 
glory  ;  so  pure  and  so  grand.  But  it  was  not  to  be."  Zubair 
and  Talha,  who  had  hoped  that  the  choice  of  the  people  might 
fall  on  either  of  them  for  the  Caliphate,  baulked  in  their  am- 
bitious designs,  and  smarting  under  the  refusal  of  the  new 
Caliph  to  bestow  on  them  the  governorships  of  Basra  and 
Kufa,  were  the  first  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt.  They  were 
assisted  by  'Ayesha,  the  daughter  of  Abu  Bakr,  who  had  taken 
a  decisive  part  in  the  former  elections.  This  lady  had  always 
borne  an  inveterate  dislike  towards  the  son-in-law  of  Khadija, 
and  now  this  feeling  had  grown  into  positive  hatred.  She  was:^ 
the  life  and  soul  of  the  insurrection,  and  herself  accompanied ■; 
the  insurgent  troops  to  the  field,  riding  a  camel.  The  Caliph, 
with  his  characteristic  aversion  to  bloodshed,  sent  his  cousin 
Abdullah  bin  Abbas  to  adjure  the  insurgents  by  every  obliga- 
tion of  the  Faith  to  abandon  the  arbitrament  of  war.  But  toi' 
no  avail.     Zubair  and  Talha  gave  battle  at  a  place  called; 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      297 

Khoraiba,  and  were  defeated  and  killed.^  'Ayesha  was  taken 
prisoner.  She  was  treated  with  courtesy  and  consideration, 
and  escorted  with  every  mark  of  respect  to  Medina.  Hardly 
had  this  rebelhon  been  suppressed,  when  Ah  learnt  of  the 
insurrection  of  Mu'awiyah  in  Syria.  The  son  of  Abu  Sufian, 
like  most  of  his  kinsmen  whom  Osman  had  appointed  to  the 
governorships  of  the  provinces,  had,  with  the  gold  lavished 
upon  him  by  the  late  Pontiff  and  the  wealth  of  Syria,  collected 
round  him  a  large  band  of  mercenaries.  Ali  had  been  advised 
by  several  of  his  councillors  to  defer  the  dismissal  of  the  corrupt 
governors  appointed  by  the  late  Cahph  until  he  himself  was 
secure  against  all  enemies.  "  The  Bayard  of  Islam,  the  hero, 
without  fear  and  without  reproach,"  ^  refused  to  be  guilty  of 
any  duplicity  or  compromise  with  injustice.  The  fiat  went 
forth  removing  from  their  offices  all  the  men  whom  Osman  had 
placed  in  power,  and  who  had  so  grossly  betrayed  the  public 
trust.  Mu'awiyah  at  once  raised  the  standard  of  revolt. 
Defeated  in  several  consecutive  battles  on  the  plains  of  Siffin, 
on  the  last  day  when  his  troops  were  flying  like  chaff  before 
the  irresistible  charge  of  Malek  al-Ashtar,  he  bethought  himself 
of  a  ruse  to  save  his  men  from  impending  destruction.  He 
made  some  of  his  soldiers  tie  copies  of  the  Koran  to  their 
spears,  and  advance  towards  the  Moslems  shouting,  "  Let  the 
blood  of  the  Faithful  cease  to  flow  ;  if  the  Syrian  army  be 
destroyed,  who  will  defend  the  frontier  against  the  Greeks  ? 
If  the  army  of  Irak  be  destroyed,  who  will  defend  the  frontier 
against  the  Turks  and  Persians  ?  Let  the  Book  of  God  decide 
between  us."  The  Caliph,  who  knew  well  the  character  of  the 
arch-rebel  and  his  fellow-conspirator,  Amr(u)  the  son  of  al-'As, 
saw  through  the  artifice,  and  tried  to  open  the  eyes  of  his 
people  to  the  treachery  ;  but  a  large  body  of  his  troops  refused 
to  fight  further,  and  demanded  that  the  dispute  should  be 
referred  to  arbitration.  In  answer  to  the  Caliph's  assurances 
that  the  son  of  Abu  Sufian  was  only  using  the  Koran  as  a  device 
for  delivering  himself  from  the  jaws  of  death,  these  refractory 

1  The  battle  is  called  the  "  Battle  of  the  Camel,"  from  'Ayesha's  presence  in 
a  litter  on  a  camel.  The  place  where  the  fight  actually  took  place  and  where 
these  men  were  killed,  is  called  Wddi  us-Saba',  "  Valley  of  the  Lion." 

-  These  are  the  designations  given  to  Ali  by  Major  Osborn. 


298  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

spirits  threatened  open  defection.^  Malek  al-Ashtar  was  recalled, 
the  battle  was  stopped,  and  the  fruits  of  a  victory  already! 
won  were  irretrievably  lost.^  An  arbitration  was  arranged.; 
The  bigots,  who  had  compelled  AH  to  sheathe  the  sword  at  thei 
moment  of  victory,  forced  upon  him,  against  his  own  judgment! 
and  wishes,  Abu  Musa  al-Asha'ri  as  the  representative  of  the{ 
House  of  Mohammed.  This  man,  who  was  also  secretly  hostile, 
to  Ali,  was  altogether  unfitted  by  his  vanity  and  religious'i 
conceit  and  a  somewhat  simple  nature  to  cope  with  the  astute 
and  unscrupulous  Amr  the  son  of  al-'As,  who  acted  as  the 
representative  of  Mu'awiyah,  and  he  soon  fell  into  the  trap  laid 
for  him  by  the  latter.  Amr  led  Abu  Musa  to  believe  that  the 
removal  of  both  Ali  and  Mu'awiyah  (of  the  one  from  the  Cali- 
phate and  of  the  other  from  the  governorship  of  Syria),  and} 
the  nomination  of  another  person  to  the  Headship  of  Islam,! 
was  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  Moslems.  The  trick] 
succeeded  ;  Abu  Musa  ascended  the  pulpit  and  solemnly  an-j 
nounced  the  deposition  of  Ali.  After  making  this  announcement! 
he  descended  aglow  with  the  sensation  of  having  performed, 
a  virtuous  deed.  And  then  Amr  smilingly  ascended  the  pulpiti 
vacated  by  Abu  Musa  the  representative  of  AH,  and  pronounced 
that  he  accepted  the  deposition  of  Ali,  and  appointed 
Mu'awiyah  in  his  place.  Poor  Abu  Musa  was  thunder-struck ; 
but  the  treachery  was  too  patent,  and  the  Fatimides  refused 
to  accept  the  decision  as  vahd.^  This  happened  at  Dumat 
ul-Jandal.  The  treachery  of  the  Ommeyyades  exasperated 
the  Fatimides,  and  both  parties  separated  vowing  undying 
hatred  towards  each  other.  Ali  was  shortly  after  assassinated 
whilst  engaged  in  prayer  in  a  mosque  at  Kufa.^  His  assassina-i 
tion  enabled  the  son  of  Abu  Sufian  to  consolidate  his  power] 
both  in  Syria  and  Hijaz.     On  the  death  of  Ali,  Hasan,  his! 

^  Shahristani,  pt.  i.  p.  85.  -  Ibid. 

^  Those  very  men  who  had  forced  upon  the  CaUph  the  arbitration  after- 
wards repudiated  it,  and  rose  in  rebelUon  against  him  for  consenting  to  theii 
demand  for  arbitration.  They  were  the  original  Khawarij  (insurgents),  whc 
became  afterwards  an  enormous  source  of  evil  to  Islam  ;    see  post. 

^  With  the  chivalrous  generosity  which  distinguished  him,  the  Caliph  Ali, 
even  in  his  war  against  his  treacherous  foe,  always  ordered  his  troops  tc 
await  the  enemy's  attack,  to  spare  the  fugitive,  and  respect  the  captive,  andj 
never  to  insult  the  women.  With  his  dying  breath  he  commanded  his  sons' 
to  see  that  the  murderer  was  killed  with  one  stroke  of  the  sword,  and  that  nc 
unnecessary  pain  might  be  inflicted  on  him. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      299 

eldest  son,  was  raised  to  the  Caliphate.  Fond  of  ease  and 
i  quiet,  he  hastened  to  make  peace  with  the  enemy  of  his  House, 
and  retired  into  private  life.  But  the  Ommeyyade's  animosity 
pursued  him  even  there,  and  before  many  months  were  over 
!  he  was  poisoned  to  death.  The  star  of  Hind's  son  was  now  in 
i  the  ascendant,  and  Abu  Sufian's  ambition  to  become  the  king 
,  of  Mecca  was  fulfilled  on  a  grander  scale  by  Mu'awiyah.  Thus 
,  was  the  son  of  the  two  most  implacable  foes  of  the  Prophet, 
'  by  the  strangest  freak  of  fortune  recorded  in  history,  seated  on 

•  the  throne  of  the  Caliphs.  Lest  it  be  considered  our  estimate 
I  of  Mu'awiyah's  character  is  actuated  by  prejudice,  we  give  the 

•  words  of  a  historian  who  cannot  be  accused  of  bias  in  favour 
of  either  side.     "  Astute,   unscrupulous,   and  pitiless,"   says 

i  Osborn,  "  the  first  Khalif  of  the  Ommayas  shrank  from  no 
I  crime  necessary  to  secure  his  position.  Murder  was  his  accus- 
!  tomed  mode  of  removing  a  formidable  opponent.  The  grand- 
i  son  of  the  Prophet  he  caused  to  be  poisoned  ;  Malek-al-Ashtar, 
:  the  heroic  heutenant  of  Ah,  was  destroyed  in  a  hke  way.  To 
!  secure  the  succession  of  his  son  Yezid,  IMu'awiyah  hesitated  not 
i  to  break  the  word  he  had  pledged  to  Husain,  the  surviving  son 
t  of  AH.  And  yet  this  cool,  calculating,  thoroughly  atheistic 
;  Arab  ruled  over  the  regions  of  Islam,  and  the  sceptre  remained 
.  among  his  descendants  for  the  space  of  nearly  one  hundred  and 
i  twenty  years.  The  explanation  of  this  anomaly  is  to  be  found 
;  in  two  circumstances,  to  which  I  have  more  than  once  adverted. 

The  one  is,  that  the  truly  devout  and  earnest  Muhammadan 
!  conceived  that  he  manifested  his  religion  most  effectually  by 
I  withdrawing  himself  from  the  affairs  of  the  world.  The  other 
j  is  the  tribal  spirit  of  the  Arabs.  Conquerors  of  Asia,  of 
j  Northern  Africa,  of  Spain,  the  Arabs  never  rose  to  the  level  of 
i  their  position.     Greatness  had  been  thrust  upon  them,  but  in 

the  midst  of  their  grandeur  they  retained,  in  all  their  previous 
.  force  and  intensity,  the  passions,  the  rivalries,  the  petty 
:  jealousies  of  the  desert.     They  merely  fought  again  on  a  wider 

field  '  the  battles  of  the  Arabs  before  Islam.'  " 

With   the   rise  of  Mu'awiyah  the  oligarchical  rule   of   the 

heathen    times    displaced    the    democratic    rule    of    Islam. 

Paganism,    with    all   its   attendant    depravity,    revived,   and 

vice   and   immorality    followed    everywhere    in    the   wake    of 


300  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Ommeyyade  governors  and  the  Syrian  soldiery.  Hijaz  and 
Irak  groaned  under  the  usurper's  rule  ;  but  his  hold  on  the 
throat  of  Islam  was  too  strong  to  be  shaken  off  with  impunity. 
The  wealth  which  he  pitilessly  extracted  from  his  subjects, 
he  lavished  on  his  mercenaries,  who  in  return  helped  him  to 
repress  all  murmurings.  Before  his  death,  he  convened  the 
chief  officers  of  his  army  and  made  them  take  the  oath  of 
fealty  to  his  son  Yezid,  whom  he  had  designated  as  his  successor 
to  the  throne.  This  was  Yezid's  title  to  the  Caliphate  !  On; 
Mu'awiyah's  death,  the  Domitian  of  the  house  of  Ommeyya; 
ascended  the  throne  founded  by  his  father  on  fraud  andj 
treachery.  As  cruel  and  treacherous  as  Muawiyah,  he  did  not, ' 
like  his  father,  possess  the  capacity  to  clothe  his  cruelties  in 
the  guise  of  policy.  His  depraved  nature  knew  no  pity  or 
justice.  He  killed  and  tortured  for  the  pleasure  he  derived 
from  human  suffering.  Addicted  to  the  grossest  of  vices,  his 
boon  companions  were  the  most  abandoned  of  both  sexes. 
Such  was  the  Caliph — the  Commander  of  the  Faithful !  Hus- 
ain,  the  second  son  of  Ali,  had  inherited  his  father's  chivalric 
nature  and  virtues.  He  had  served  with  honour  against  the 
Christians  in  the  siege  of  Constantinople.  He  united  in  his 
person  the  right  of  descent  from  AH,  with  the  holy  character 
of  grandson  of  the  Apostle.  In  the  terms  of  peace  signed 
between  Mu'awiyah  and  Hasan,  his  right  to  the  Caliphate  had 
been  expressly  reserved.  Husain  had  never  deigned  to 
acknowledge  the  title  of  the  tyrant  of  Damascus,  whose  vices 
he  despised,  and  whose  character  he  regarded  with  abhorrence ; 
and  when  the  Moslems  of  Kufa  besought  his  help  to  release; 
them  from  the  curse  of  the  Ommeyyade's  rule,  he  felt  it  his; 
duty  to  respond  to  the  Irakians'  appeal  for  deliverance.  The* 
assurances  he  received,  that  all  Irak  was  ready  to  spring  to  its 
feet  to  hurl  the  despot  from  his  throne  the  moment  he  appeared 
on  the  scene,  decided  him  to  start  for  Kufa  with  his  family 
He  traversed  the  desert  of  Arabia  unmolested,  accompanied 
by  his  brother  Abbas,  a  few  devoted  followers,  and  a  timorous, 
retinue  of  women  and  children  ;  but  as  he  approached  the' 
confines  of  Irak  he  was  alarmed  by  the  solitary  and  hostile 
face  of  the  country,  and  suspecting  treachery,  the  Ommey- 
yade's weapon,  he  encamped  his  small  band  at  a  place  called 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      301 

iKerbela  near  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  No  event 
in  histor}'  surpasses  in  pathos  the  scenes  enacted  on  this  spot. 
Husain's  apprehensions  of  betrayal  proved  to  be  only  too  true. 
He  was  overtaken  by  an  Ommeyyade  army  under  the  brutal 
and  ferocious  Obaidullah  ibn-Ziyad.  For  days  their  tents  were 
surrounded  ;  and  as  the  cowardly  hounds  dared  not  come 
within  the  reach  of  the  sword  of  All's  son  they  cut  the  victims 
off  from  the  waters  of  the  Tigris.  The  sufferings  of  the  poor 
band  of  martjTS  were  terrible.  In  a  conference  with  the  chief 
of  the  enemy,  Husain  proposed  the  option  of  three  honourable 
conditions  :  that  he  should  be  allowed  to  return  to  Medina, 
or  be  stationed  in  a  frontier  garrison  against  the  Turks,  or 
safely  conducted  to  the  presence  of  Yezid.^  But  the  com- 
mands of  the  Ommeyyade  tyrant  were  stern  and  inexorable — 
that  no  mercy  should  be  shown  to  Husain  or  his  party,  and 
that  they  must  be  brought  as  criminals  before  the  "  Caliph  " 
to  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  Ommeyyade  sense  of  justice. 
As  a  last  resource,  Husain  besought  these  monsters  not  to  war 
upon  the  helpless  women  and  children,  but  to  kill  him  and  be 
done  with  it.  But  they  knew  no  pity.  He  pressed  his  friends 
to  consult  their  safety  by  a  timely  flight  ;  they  unanimously 
refused  to  desert  or  survive  their  beloved  master.  One  of  the 
enemy's  chiefs,  struck  with  horror  at  the  sacrilege  of  warring 
against  the  grandson  of  the  Prophet,  deserted  with  thirty 
followers  "  to  claim  the  partnership  of  inevitable  death."  In 
every  single  combat  and  close  fight  the  valour  of  the  Fatimides 
was  invincible.  But  the  enemy's  archers  picked  them  off  from 
a  safe  distance.  One  by  one  the  defenders  fell,  until  at  last 
there  remained  but  the  grandson  of  the  Prophet.  Wounded 
and  dying  he  dragged  himself  to  the  river-side  for  a  last  drink  ; 
they  turned  him  off  with  arrows  from  there.  And  as  he  re- 
entered his  tent  he  took  his  infant  child  in  his  arms  ;  him  they 
transfixed  with  a  dart.  The  stricken  father  bowed  his  head 
to  heaven.     Able  no  more  to  stand  up  against  his  pitiless  foes, 

1  The  author  of  the  Ronzai-tis-Safd.  after  stating  the  above,  adds  that  an 
attendant  of  Husain,  who  by  chance  escaped  the  butchery  of  Kerbela,  denied 
that  his  master,  so  far  as  he  was  aware,  ever  made  any  such  proposal  to  the 
Ommeyyade  leader.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  such  denial  was  made  in 
order  to  show  that  Husain  did  not  lower  himself  by  proposing  terms  to  the 
enemy.  To  my  mind,  however,  it  detracts  in  no  way  from  the  grandeur  of 
Husain's  character  that  he  proposed  terms  to  the  Ommeyyades. 


302  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

alone  and  weary,  he  seated  himself  at  the  door  of  his  tent. 
One  of  the  women  handed  him  a  cup  of  water  to  assuage  his 
burning  thirst  ;  as  he  raised  it  to  his  lips  he  was  pierced  in  the 
mouth  with  a  dart  ;  and  his  son  and  nephew  were  killed  in  his 
arms.  He  lifted  his  hands  to  heaven, — they  were  full  of  blood, 
— and  he  uttered  a  funeral  prayer  for  the  living  and  the  dead. 
Raising  himself  for  one  desperate  charge,  he  threw  himself 
among  the  Ommeyyades,  who  fell  back  on  every  side.  But 
faint  with  loss  of  blood  he  soon  sank  to  the  ground,  and  then 
the  murderous  crew  rushed  upon  the  dying  hero.  They  cut 
off  his  head,  trampled  on  his  body,  and  subjected  it  to  every  , 
ignominy  in  the  old  spirit  of  Hind.  They  carried  the  martyr's  | 
head  to  the  castle  of  Kufa,  and  the  inhuman  Obaidullah  struck  I 
it  on  the  mouth  with  a  cane  :  "  Alas  !  "  exclaimed  an  aged  ; 
Musulman,  "  on  these  lips  have  I  seen  the  lips  of  the  Apostle 
of  God."  "  In  a  distant  age  and  climate,"  says  Gibbon,  "  the 
tragic  scene  of  the  death  of  Husain  will  awaken  the  sympathy 
of  the  coldest  reader."  It  will  now  be  easy  to  understand,  if 
not  to  sympathise  with,  the  frenzy  of  sorrow  and  indignation 
to  which  the  adherents  of  Ali  and  his  children  give  vent  on  the 
recurrence  of  the  anniversary  of  Husain's  martyrdom. 

Thus  fell  one  of  the  noblest  spirits  of  the  age,  and  with  him 
perished  all  the  male  members  of  his  family, — old  and  young,— 
with  the  solitary  exception  of  a  sickly  child,  whom  Husain's 
sister,  Zainab  (Zenobia),  saved  from  the  general  massacre.  He, 
too,  bore  the  name  of  Ali,  and  in  after-life  received  the  noble 
designation  of  Zain  ul-'Abidin,  "  the  Ornament  of  the  Pious." 
He  was  the  son  of  Husain  by  the  daughter  of  Yezdjard,  the 
last  Sasanide  king  of  Persia,  and  in  him  was  perpetuated  the 
house  of  Mohammed.  He  represented  also,  in  his  mother's 
right,  the  claims  of  the  Sasanians  to  the  throne  of  Iran. 

The  tragical  fate  of  Husain  and  his  children  sent  a  thrill  of 
horror  through  Islam  ;  and  the  revulsion  of  feeling  which  it 
caused  proved  eventually  the  salvation  of  the  Faith.  It 
arrested  the  current  of  depravity  which  flowed  from  the 
Ommeyyade  court  of  Damascus.  It  made  the  bulk  of  Moslems 
think  of  what  the  Master  had  done,  and  of  the  injuries  which 
the  children  of  his  enemies  were  inflicting  on  Islam.  For  a 
hundred  years,  however,  the  Ommeyyades  ruled  with  the  free 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      303 

help  of  tlie  sword  and  poison.  They  sacked  Medina,  and  drove 
the  children  of  the  Helpers  into  exile  in  far-away  lands.  The 
city  which  had  sheltered  the  Prophet  from  the  persecution  of 
{the  idolaters,  and  which  he  loved  so  dearly,  the  hallowed 
ground  he  had  trod  in  life,  and  every  inch  of  which  was  sanc- 
tified by  his  holy  work  and  ministry,  was  foully  desecrated  ; 
and  the  people  who  had  stood  by  him  in  the  hour  of  his  need, 
and  helped  him  to  build  up  the  arch  of  the  Faith,  were  sub- 
jected to  the  most  terrible  and  revolting  atrocities,  which  find 
;a  parallel  only  in  those  committed  by  the  soldiers  of  the  Con- 
stable of  France  and  the  equally  ferocious  Lutherans  of  George 
Frundsberg  at  the  sack  of  Rome.  The  men  were  massacred, 
the  women  outraged,  the  children  reduced  into  slavery.  The 
public  mosque  was  turned  into  a  stable,  the  shrines  demolished 
ifor  the  sake  of  their  ornaments.  During  the  whole  period  of 
lOmmeyyade  domination  the  holy  city  remained  a  haunt  of 
iwild  beasts.^  The  paganism  of  Mecca  was  once  more  trium- 
'phant.  And  "  its  reaction,"  says  Dozy,  "  against  Islam  was 
cruel,  terrible,  and  revolting."  The  Meccans  and  the  Ommey- 
1  yades  thus  repaid  the  clemency  and  forbearance  shown  to  them 
iin  the  hour  of  Islam's  triumph  !  The  Ommeyyades  produced 
'  many  notable  men  eminent  for  piety  and  virtue,  chief  amongst 
them  Omar  bin-'Abdul  Aziz,  the  Marcus  Aurelius  of  the  Arabs, 
;  a  virtuous  sovereign,  a  good  ruler,  and  a  God-fearing  Moslem, 
'who  modelled  his  life  after  his  great  namesake  the  second 
!  Caliph.  For  the  rest  they  were  unabashed  pagans  and  revelled 
in  the  disregard  of  the  rules  and  discipline  of  the  religion  they 
professed. 

But  for  the  Ommeyyades,  the  difference  between  the  followers 
of  the  Ahl-ul-Bait,^  the  upholders  of  All's  right  to  the  apostolical 
succession,  and  those  who  maintained  the  right  of  the  people 
to  elect  their  own  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal  chiefs,  would 
never  have  grown  into  a  schism  ;  it  would  have  ended  in  a 
compromise  or  coahtion  after  the  accession  of  Ali  to  the  Cali- 
phate. The  violence  and  treachery  of  the  children  of  Ommeyya 
rendered   this   impossible.     They   had   waded   to   the   throne 

^  Abdul  Malik  ibn-Merwan  went  so  far  as  to  issue  an  edict  forbidding  pilgrims 
to  visit  the  sepulchre  of  the  Prophet  at  Medina. 
*  For  the  meaning  of  this  word  see  note  2,  page  313. 


304  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

through  manifold  crimes  and  oceans  of  blood  ;  it  was  necessary 
for  them  to  impart  a  semblance  of  validity  to  their  tenure  of 
the  ofhce  of  Caliph.     They  claimed  to  have  the  title  of  Ameey- 
nl-Mominin  by  right  of  election — election  by  their  own  mer- 
cenaries and  pagan  partisans.     After  the  sack  of  Medina  and 
the  destruction  and  dispersion  of  the  family  of  Mohammed  and 
the  Muhajirin  and  Ansar,  it  was  easy  to  draw  precedents  from 
the  early  Caliphate,   and  when  that  failed,   to  manufacture  ' 
traditions.     Nor  was  it  difficult  to  appropriate  a  title  which  ' 
might  have  been  assumed,  but  was  not,  by  those  who  supported  i 
the  right  of  the  universality  of  the  people  to  elect  their  chiefs,  li 
The  giants  who  had  built  up  the  Republic  were  dead  or  de- ! 
stroyed  ;   their  children  were  fugitives  or  slaves  ;   who  was  to  ' 
question  the  validity  of  the  title  so  adroitly  usurped  ?     The  i 
Ommeyyade  policy  was  pursued  by  the  dynasty  which  took 
its  place.     The  same  fierce  jealousy  with  which  the   Bani- ; 
Ommeyya  had  pursued  or  persecuted  the  Bani-Fatima,  char-j 
acterised  the  conduct  of  the  Bani-Abbas  towards  the  descen- 
dants of  Mohammed.     They  had  no  claim  to  the  Caliphate « 
themselves  ;    they  made  the  affection  of  the  people  for  the 
children  of  Fatima  the  means  for  their  own  elevation,  and  when 
they  had  attained  the  desired  end  they  rewarded  the  Fatimides 
with  bitter  persecution.     Their  title  also  was  founded  on  quasi- 
election,  and  naturally  they  hunted,  hke  the  Ommeyyades,  all  { 
who  questioned  the  legality  of  their  claim,  or  who  upheld  in ! 
explicit  terms  the  doctrine  of  the  devolution  of  the  Imamate 
by  succession  in  the  line  of  Mohammed.     Every  difference  of 
opinion  was  strictly  repressed  ;    even  the  jurists  of  the  time  j 
were  punished  if  they  ventured  to  express  opinions  which  didj 
not  find  favour  with  the  sovereigns. ^     If  we  did  not  keep  inj 
view  the  circumstances  which  led  to  the  sudden  and  unexpected  ■ 
rise  of  the  Abbasides,  we  would  be  apt  to  regard  it  as  pheno- 
menal.    The  terrible  cruelties  inflicted  by  the  Ommeyyades  on 
the  children  of  Fatima,  and  the  sublime  patience  with  which 
they  had  borne  their  sufferings  and  their  wrongs,  had  given' 
rise  to  a  universal  feeling  of  horror  against  the  tyrants,  andij 
had  invested  the  objects  of  persecution,  in  the  eyes  of  their 

1  Imam  Malik  ibn  Anas,  the  third  pillar  of  the  Sunni  Church,  was  publicly 
punished  for  an  offence  of  this  nature. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      305 

followers  and  disciples,  with  a  superhuman  halo.  Persecution, 
however  fierce,  has  always  failed  to  achieve  its  end  ;  instead 
of  stamping  out  the  faith  or  devotion  of  a  sect  or  community, 
it  has  diverted  it  into  new  channels  and  imparted  to  it  greater 
vitality.  In  Islam,  as  in  Christianity,  the  dangers  of  the  battle- 
field and  the  pains  of  persecution  have  "  clothed  with  more 
than  earthly  splendour  the  objects  for  whom  they  were  endured." 
And  the  children  of  Fatima,  saints  who  had  submitted  to  the 
injustice  of  man  and  devoted  themselves  to  intellectual  pursuits 
and  the  practice  of  religion, — without  arms,  without  treasure, 
and  without  subjects, — ruled  more  firmly  over  the  hearts  of 
their  followers,  and  enjoyed  the  veneration  of  the  people  to  a 
greater  degree,  than  the  caliph  in  his  palace,  the  master  of 
legions.  The  cup  of  Ommeyyade  iniquity  was  full  to  over- 
flowing, and  men  were  crying  aloud  in  the  anguish  of  their 
hearts,  O  Lord,  how  long  !  On  every  side  there  was  an  eager 
and  passionate  longing  engendered  by  the  vices  and  misrule  of 
the  pseudo-caliphs  that  the  House  of  Mohammed  might  be 
restored  to  its  rights.  They  looked  wistfully  to  the  Imams  to 
give  the  sign,  but  these  saints  had  retired  from  the  world  ; 
their  domain  was  no  more  of  this  earth.  Successive  avengers  ^ 
of  their  wrongs  had  risen  in  arms,  and  gone  down  before  the 
serried  ranks  of  their  Syrian  enemies.  The  people  waited  for 
authority  from  the  divinely-appointed  leaders  of  the  Faithful, 
but  they  condemned  the  use  of  force.  What  was  to  be  done  ? 
Several  scions  of  the  House  who  had  risen  against  the  Bani- 
Ommeyya,  contrary  to  the  counsel  and  without  the  sanction 
of  the  heads  of  the  family,  had  sacrificed  themselves  to  their 
ambition  or  their  religious  zeal.  It  was  at  this  juncture,  at 
this  moment  of  unrest,  when  the  Moslems  were  longing  for  a 
sign  from  the  House  of  Mohammed,  that  the  Bani-Abbas 
appeared  on  the  scene.  The  Bani-Abbas  were  the  descendants 
of  Abbas,  an  uncle  of  the  Prophet.  Abbas  had  always  taken 
a  deep  interest  in  the  progress  of  Islam  ;  he  was  Mohammed's 
companion  when  the  famous  "  Pledge  of  the  Women  "  was 
taken  from  the  Medinites.  But  from  some  weakness  of  char- 
acter or  from  policy,  he  did  not  embrace  Islam  definitely  until 
about  the  time  Mecca  fell.     He  was,  however,  always  treated 

*  Sulaiman  ibn  Surrad,  al-Mukhtar,  and  Yezid  ibn  Muhallib. 
S.I.  u 


3o6  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

with  the  greatest  affection  and  consideration  by  Mohammed. 
The  Prophet's  example  was  imitated  by  Abu  Bakr,  Omar,  and 
Osman.  They  dismounted  if  they  met  him  walking  ;  and  not 
unfrequently  would  accompany  him  to  his  residence.^  He  died 
in  A.H.  32, — according  to  some,  two  years  later, — leaving  four 
sons,  Abdullah  {Abu  I  Abbas  Abdullah  ibn  Abbas),  Fazl,  Obaid- 
uUah,  and  Kaithan.  Abdullah,  better  known  in  history  and 
tradition  as  Ibn  Abbas,  was  bom  at  Mecca  in  a.c.  619,  three 
years  before  the  Hegira,  He  was  instructed  in  the  Koran  and 
jurisprudence  by  Ali  himself.  His  reputation  as  a  scholar  and 
expounder  of  the  Koran  and  of  the  decisions  of  the  Caliphs 
stood  so  high  that  crowds  flocked  from  all  parts  to  hear  his 
lectures.  He  gave  public  lessons  one  day  in  the  week  on  the 
interpretation  of  the  Koran  ;  another  day,  on  law  ;  the  third, 
on  grammar  ;  the  fourth,  on  the  history  of  the  Arabs,  and  the 
fifth  on  poetry.  He  gave  an  impulse  to  the  study  and  pre- 
servation of  pre-Islamic  Arab  literature  and  history  by  fre- 
quently quoting  verses  from  the  ancient  poets  to  explain  and 
illustrate  the  difficult  and  obscure  passages  of  the  Koran.  He 
was  wont  to  say,  "  When  you  meet  with  a  difficulty  in  the 
Koran,  look  for  its  solution  in  the  poems  of  the  Arabs,  for  these 
are  the  registers  of  the  Arab  nation . "  ^  The  steady  and  un var}4ng 
devotion  of  Ibn  Abbas  and  his  brothers  to  Ali  was  proverbial. 
All  four  brothers  were  present  at  "  the  Battle  of  the  Camel," 
and  at  Siffin,  Ibn  Abbas,  who  was  no  less  an  accomplished 
soldier  than  a  scholar,  commanded  the  cavalry  of  Ali.  He 
acted  frequently  as  the  envoy  of  the  Caliph,  and  it  was  he 
whom  Ah  desired  to  nominate  as  the  representative  of  the 
House  of  Mohammed  when  forced  by  the  refractory  troops 
to  refer  the  dispute  between  himself  and  Mu'awiyah  to 
arbitration.^  Ibn  Abbas  died  at  Tayef  of  a  broken  heart, 
after  the  murder  of  Husain,  in  a.h.  67,  in  the  seventieth 
year  of  his  age.  His  son,  who  was  named  Ah  after  the  great 
Caliph,  walked  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father  in  his  zealous 
attachment  to  the  children  of  Fatima.     He  died  in  a.h.  117, 

1  Abbas  may  be  called  the  John  of  Gaunt  of  Moslem  liistory. 

2  Once  he  was  asked  how  he  had  acquired  his  extensive  knowledge  :    his 
reply  was,  "  By  means  of  an  inquiring  tongue  and  an  intelligent  heart." 

3  Shahristani,  pt.  i.  p.  86. 


nil.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      307 

ind  was  succeeded  in  the  headship  of  his  family  by  his  son 
Mohammed. 

At  this  time,  Persia,  Irak,  and  Hijaz,  which  had  suffered 
nost  from  the  atrocities  of  the  Bani-Ommeyya,  were  honey- 
rombed  by  secret  organisations  for  the  overthrow  of  the  hated 
"amily.  The  Bani-Abbas  were  the  most  active  in  the  move- 
ment to  subvert  the  Ommeyyade  rule,  at  first,  perhaps,  from 
I  sincere  desire  to  restore  to  the  Fatimides  their  just  rights, 
Dut  afterwards  in  their  own  interests.  Mohammed,  the  son  of 
\li  ibn  Abdullah,  was  the  first  to  conceive  the  project  of  seizing 
he  Caliphate  for  himself.  He  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and 
mbounded  ambition.  Whilst  working  ostensibly  for  the  Fati- 
nides,  he  contrived  gradually  to  establish  the  pretensions  of 
lis  own  family.  He  started  a  new  doctrine  to  justify  the 
■laims  of  his  house  to  the  Imamate  :  that  on  the  murder  of 
Tusain  at  Kerbela,  the  spiritual  headship  of  Islam  was  not 
ransmitted  to  his  surviving  son  Ali  (Zain  ul-'Abidin),  but  to 
\Iohammed  ibn  al-Hanafiya,  a  son  of  the  Caliph  Ali  by  a 
lifferent  mother,  whom  he  had  married  after  the  death  of 
.^atima,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Hanifa  ;  that  upon  his  death 
he  office  descended  upon  his  son  Hashim,  who  had  assigned 
t  formally  to  the  Abbaside  Mohammed.  This  story  received 
redence  in  some  quarters  ;  but  for  the  bulk  of  the  people,  who 
lung  to  the  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  the  da' is  1  of  the 
Vbbasides  affirmed  that  they  were  working  for  the  Ahl-ul-hait. 
iitherto,  the  Abbasides  had  professed  great  devotion  to  the 
iouse  of  Fatima,  and  had  ascribed  to  all  their  movements  and 
)lans  the  object  of  securing  justice  for  the  descendants  of 
slohammed.  The  representatives  and  adherents  of  the  Ahl- 
d-hait,  Uttle  suspecting  the  treachery  which  lay  behind  their 
professions,  extended  to  Mohammed  bin  Ali  and  to  his  party 
he  favour  and  protection  which  was  needed  to  impress  upon 
lis  action  the  sanction  of  a  recognised  authority.  The  attach- 
nent  of  the  Persians  to  the  Fatimide  cause  was  due  to  historical 
!.nd  national  associations.  The  Fatimides  represented  in  their 
)ersons,  through  the  daughter  of  Yezdjard,  the  right  to  the 
hrone  of  Iran.  From  the  first  commencement  of  the  Islamic 
)reachings,  Ali  had  extended  the  utmost  consideration  and 

'  Missionaries  or  political  agents. 


3o8  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

friendship  to  the  Persian  converts,     Salman  the  Persian,  one 
of  the  most  notable  disciples  of  the  Prophet,  was  long  the 
associate  and  friend  of  the  Caliph.     After  the  battle  of  Kadesia, 
Ali  used  to  devote  his  share  of  the  prize-money  to  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  captives,  and  repeatedly  by  his  counsel  induced 
Omar  to  lighten  the  burden  of  the  subjects.     The  devotion  oj 
the  Persians  to  his  descendants  was  intelligible.     Mohammed 
bin   Ali   beguiled  the   Persians   by  preaching  to   them  theii 
approaching  deliverance  from  the  hated  rule  of  their  Aral 
oppressors.     To  the  Yemenites  settled  in  Khorasan,  Pars,  anc 
other  provinces  of  Iran,  who  were  equally  attached  to  th( 
Ahl-ul-hait,  and  whose  animosity  against  their  old  enemies,  th( 
descendants  of  Mozar,  was  inflamed  by  many  recent  injuries 
he  proclaimed  he  was  acting  solely  on  behalf  of  the  Imams  o 
the  House  of  Mohammed.     He  succeeded  in  winning  over  t( 
his  side  Abu  Mushm,  the  ablest  general  of  his  time,  and  hithert* 
a  devoted  partisan  of  the  children  of  Ali.     Before  his  death 
which  took  place  in   125  A.H.,  he  named  his  sons  Ibrahim 
Abdullah  Abu'l  Abbas  (surnamed  Saffdh),  Abdullah  Abu  Ja'fa 
(surnamed  al-Mansur)  as  his  successors,  one  after  the  other.    • 
The  furious  struggle  which  broke  out  about  the  middle  of  th 
eighth    century    between    the    Yemenites    and    Mozarites  i| 
Khorasan  served  as  a  signal  to  apply  the  torch  to  the  well-laij 
mine.     Abu  Muslim  sent  word  to  his  partisans  in  every  cit 
and  village  of  the  Province  to  raise  at  once  the  standard  ( 
revolt.     The  cause  proclaimed  was  "  the  rights  of  the  Ahl-u\ 
bait  "  against  the  usurping   Bani-Ommeyya.      A  short  tiirj 
previously,  Yahya,  a  grandson  of  the  Imam  Ali  Zain-ul-'Abidii 
had  revolted  and  been  killed,  and  his  body  was  exposed,  by  tl 
order  of  Merwan,  upon  a  gibbet.     Abu  Muslim  ordered  tl; 
remains  of  the  young  chief  to  be  taken  down  and  buried  wit 
every  mark  of  respect  ;    and  his  followers  clothed  themselv 
in  black  in  token  of  their  sorrow,  and  their  determination 
avenge  the  death  of  Yahya.     From  that  day  black  became  t) 
distinguishing    symbol    of    the   Abbaside    cause.     And   wh 
the  order  went  forth  summoning  the  people  to  arms  against  t 
usurpers,  the  crowd,  clothed  in  black,  which  flocked  to  t; 
trysting-places  showed  the  widespread  character  and  strengi 
of  the  revolt.     The  gathering  was  to  take  place  on  the  nig: 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      309 

of  the  25th  of  Ramazan  a.h.  127,  and  the  people  were  to  be 
summoned  by  large  bonfires  lighted  on  the  tops  of  the  hills. 
Vast  multitudes  poured  from  every  quarter  into  Merv,  where 
Abu  Muslim  was  dwelhng  at  the  time.  Ibrahim,  who  had 
succeeded  Mohammed  bin  Ali  as  the  head  of  the  Abbasides, 
was  seized  by  Merwan  and  killed  ;  but  before  his  death  he 
contrived  to  pass  to  his  second  brother,  Abu'l  Abbas,  a  docu- 
ment assigning  him  the  authority  in  accordance  with  the 
testament  of  their  father.  Abii  Muslim  soon  made  himself 
master  of  the  whole  of  Khorasan,  and  marched  his  victorious 
troops  towards  Irak.  Nothing  as  yet  was  divulged  as  to  the 
ultimate  purpose  of  the  movement.  The  Ahl-ul-bait  was  the 
watchword  which  rallied  all  classes  of  people  round  the  black 
standard.  Kufa  surrendered  at  once.  Hasan  ibn  Kahtaba, 
the  Ueutenant  of  Abu  Muslim,  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of 
his  troops,  and  was  joined  at  once  by  Abu  Salma  Ja'ar  ibn 
Sulaiman  al-Khallal,  "  who,"  says  the  author  of  the  Rouzat-us- 
Safd,  "  was  designated  the  vizier  of  the  descendants  of  Moham- 
med." Apparently  this  man  acted  as  the  agent  of  the  head  of 
the  family.  He  was  received  with  the  greatest  consideration 
by  the  Abbaside  general,  "  who  kissed  his  hand,  and  seated 
him  in  the  place  of  honour,"  ^  and  told  him  that  it  was  Abu 
Muslim's  orders  that  he  should  be  obeyed  in  all  things.  Abu 
Salma's  vanity  was  flattered,  but  as  yet  he  was  wholly  unaware 
of  the  Abbaside  design.  A  proclamation  was  issued  in  the 
joint  names  of  Abu  Salma  and  Hasan  ibn  Kahtaba,  inviting 
\  the  inhabitants  of  Kufa  to  assemble  the  next  day  at  the  Masjid- 
al-Jdmi'  (the  pubhc  mosque).  The  people  flocked  to  the 
mosque  expecting  some  announcement  ;  but  the  plot  had  not 
yet  thickened,  and  Hasan  and  the  other  Abbaside  partisans 
considered  the  moment  inopportune  for  the  proclamation  of 
their  design.  In  the  meantime,  Abu'l  Abbas,  with  his  brother 
Abu  Ja'far,  had  successfully  evaded  the  Ommeyyade  guards, 
and  had  arrived  at  Kufa,  where  they  kept  themselves  con- 
cealed, waiting  for  the  next  event  of  the  drama.  Abu  Salma, 
who  was  still  faithful  to  the  masters  he  purported  to  serve, 
sent  a  message  secretly  to  the  Imam  (Ja'far  as-Sadik)  to  come 
and  take  up  his  right.     The  Imam,  knowing  well  the  nature  of 

1  Rouzat-HS-Safd  ;    Ibn  ul-Athir,  vol.  v.  p.  312  el  seq. 


310  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  h 

Irakian  communications,  burnt  the  missive  unopened.  Bu 
before  any  answer  could  reach  Abu  Salma,  he  had  ahead 
accepted  Abu'l  Abbas  as  the  Cahph.  He  then  issued  a  pre 
clamation,  still  acting  ostensibly  in  the  name  of  the  Ahl-iil-hai 
inviting  the  inhabitants,  one  and  all,  to  assemble  on  the  follow 
ing  day,  which  was  a  Friday,  to  elect  a  Caliph.  On  that  da 
Kufa  presented  a  strange  aspect.  Large  crowds  of  peoplt 
clothed  in  the  sable  garments  of  the  Bani- Abbas,  were  hastenin 
from  every  quarter  to  the  Masjid-al-jdmi'  to  hear  the  lon^ 
deferred  announcement.  In  due  time  Abu  Salma  appeared  o 
the  scene,  and,  strangely,  dressed  in  the  same  sombre  blacl 
Few,  excepting  the  partisans  of  Abu'l  Abbas,  knew  how  1 
had  come  to  sell  himself  to  the  Abbaside  cause.  He  preferre 
his  head  to  the  interests  of  his  masters.  After  leading  tl 
prayers  he  explained  to  the  assemblage  the  object  of  tl 
meeting.  Abu  Muslim,  he  said,  the  defender  of  the  Faith  ar 
the  upholder  of  the  right  of  the  House,  had  hurled  the  Omme; 
yades  from  the  height  of  their  iniquity ;  it  was  now  necessai 
to  elect  an  Imam  and  Caliph  ;  there  was  none  so  eminent  i] 
piety,  abihty,  and  all  the  virtues  requisite  for  the  office  :j 
Abu'l  Abbas  ;  and  him  he  offered  to  the  Faithful  for  electio' 
Up  to  this  Abu  Salma  and  the  Abbasides  were  dubious  of  tl 
impression  on  the  people.  They  were  afraid  that  even  tl 
Kufians  might  not  view  their  treachery  to  the  house  of  / 
with  approbation.  But  the  proverbial  fickleness  of  the  Irakia 
was  now  proved.  They  had  again  and  again  risen  in  arms 
support  of  the  Fatimide  cause,  and  as  often  betrayed  thc:; 
whom  they  had  pledged  themselves  to  help  or  whose  help  thS' 
had  invoked.  Swayed  by  the  passing  whim  of  the  momeil, 
they  had  as  often  shown  themselves  to  be  traitors,  as  t) 
defenders  of  truth.  After  the  massacre  of  Kerbela  they  hi 
been  so  struck  with  remorse  that  twenty  thousand  of  the;, 
after  spending  a  night  over  the  tomb  of  Husain  praying  i." 
forgiveness,  had  hurled  themselves  against  the  serried  legico 
of  Yezid.  But  the  remorse  did  not  last  long  ;  fickle  a  1 
turbulent,  faithless  and  unreliable,  Hajjaj  ibn-Yusuf,  U 
veritable  "  Scourge  of  God,"  had  alone  kept  them  in  ord  . 
And  now,  no  sooner  had  the  words  passed  from  the  lips  f 
Abu  Salma,  proposing  Abu'l  Abbas  as  the  Caliph,  than  tly 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      311 

burst  forth  with  loud  acclamations  of  the  takbir  ^  signifying 
their  approval.  A  messenger  was  sent  in  haste  to  fetch  Abu'l 
Abbas  from  his  concealment,  and  when  he  arrived  at  the 
mosque  there  was  a  frantic  rush  on  the  part  of  the  multitude 
to  take  his  hand  and  swear  fealty.  The  election  was  complete. 
He  ascended  the  pulpit,  recited  the  khutha,  and  was  henceforth 
the  Imam  and  Cahph  of  the  Moslems. ^  Thus  rose  the  Abbas- 
ides  to  power  on  the  popularity  of  the  children  of  Fatima, 
whom  they  repaid  afterwards  in  a  different  coin.  The  greed 
of  earthly  power  is  the  worst  form  of  ambition.  It  has  caused 
greater  disasters  to  humanity  than  any  other  manifestation  of 
human  passion.  It  never  hesitates  as  to  the  choice  of  means 
to  attain  its  object  ;  it  uses  indiscriminately  both  crime  and 
virtue,  the  one  to  disguise  its  design,  the  other  to  achieve  its 
ends.  It  has  even  pressed  religion  into  its  service.  Ambition 
disguised  in  the  cloak  of  religion  has  been  productive  of  fearful 
calamities  to  mankind.  The  popes  of  Rome,  in  their  incessant 
endeavour  to  maintain  unimpaired  their  temporal  power, 
deluged  the  civilised  world  with  human  blood.  The  pontiffs 
of  Islam,  Abbaside,  Egyptian  Fatimide,  and  Ommeyyade, 
seized  with  avidity  upon  the  claim  prepared  by  willing  minions 
to  supreme  spiritual  and  temporal  rule,  and  in  their  desire  to 
maintain  the  undivided  allegiance  of  their  subjects,  caused 
equal  bloodshed  and  strife  in  the  bosom  of  Islam. 

The  early  Abbaside  Caliphs  were  men  of  great  ability,  and 
possessed  of  vast  foresight  and  statesmanship.  From  the 
moment  they  were  raised  to  the  Caliphate  by  the  acclamation 
of  the  people  of  Kufa,  they  directed  their  whole  energy  towards 
consolidating  the  spiritual  and  temporal  power  in  their  hands, 
and  to  give  shape  and  consistency  to  the  doctrine  of  divine 
sanction  to  popular  election.  Henceforth  it  became  a  point 
of  vital  importance  to  disavow  the  principle  of  apostolical 
succession  by  descent,  and  to  make  the  election  by  the  people 
almost  sacramental. 

During  Saffah's  ^  reign,  Abu  Muslim  enjoyed  some  considera- 

*  I.e.  Alldho-Akbar,  God  is  great. 

*  For  a  full  account,  see  The  Short  History  of  the  Saracens  (Macnullan). 
'Abu'l  Abbas  Abdullah  received  the  title  of  Saffah,   "  blood-spiller,"  or 

"sanguinary,"   on  account  of  his  unsparing  use  of  the  sword   against   his 


312  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

tion,  but  the  king-maker  was  hated  and  suspected  for  his  ill- 
concealed  Fatimide  proclivities.  Under  Saffah's  successor  he 
was  accused  of  heresy — stigmatised  with  the  opprobrious  epithet 
of  Zendik  ^ — and  killed.  The  pure  and  unsullied  lives  of  the 
leading  representatives  of  the  House  of  Mohammed,  the  extreme 
veneration  in  which  they  were  held  by  the  people,  frequently 
evoked  the  jealousy  of  the  Abbasides,  and  exposed  the  children 
of  Fatima  to  periodic  outbursts  of  persecution.  Harun  de- 
stroyed the  Barmekides,  who  were  the  bulwarks  of  his  empire 
and  had  made  for  him  the  fame  which  he  so  largely  appropriated, 
solely  on  suspicion  of  conspiracy  with  the  Fatimides.  This 
state  of  affairs  lasted  until  the  reign  of  Abdullah  al-Mamun, 
the  noblest  Cahph  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  who,  on  his  accession 
to  the  Caliphate,  resolved  to  restore  to  the  children  of  Fatima 
their  just  rights.  He  accordingly  named  Ah  ibn  Musa,  sur- 
named  Riza  ("  the  acceptable  or  agreeable  "),  the  eighth  Imam 
of  the  Fatimides,  as  his  successor,  and  gave  his  sister  Umm 
ul-Fazl  in  marriage  to  this  prince.  He  also  abandoned  the 
black,  the  Abbaside  colour,  in  favour  of  the  green,  which  was 
the  recognised  standard  of  the  Fatimides. ^  Ali  ibn  Musa 
ar-Riza  was  poisoned  by  the  infuriated  Abbasides,  and  Mamun 
was  forced  to  resume  the  black  as  the  colour  of  his  house.  The 
tolerance  shown  by  him  to  the  Fatimides  was  continued  by  his 
two  immediate  successors  (Mu'tasim  and  Wasik).^  The  acces- 
sion of  Mutawakkil  was  the  signal  for  a  new  and  fierce  per- 
secution, which  lasted  during  the  whole  fifteen  years  of  a  reign 
signalised  by  gross  cruelty  and  debauchery.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Muntasir,  whose  first  care  was  to  restore  the  tombs 
of  Ali  and  Husain,  destroyed  by  Mutawakkil,  and  to  re- 
estabhsh  the  sacredness  of  their  memory  so  wantonly  outraged 
by  his  father.  The  sagacity  of  this  Caliph  was  imitated  by  his 
successors,  and  some  degree  of  toleration  was  thenceforward 
extended  to  the  Shiahs.  In  the  year  334  a.h.  (a.c.  945)  Muiz2 
ud-dowla  (the  Deilemite),  of  the  House  of  Buwaih,  became  th( 

enemies  ;  one  of  his  successors  (Mu'tazid  b'illah)  received  the  title  of  Safial 
as-Sani  (Saffah  II.),  and  the  Ottoman,  SeUm  I.,  bore  the  same  designation. 

^  I.e.  a  Magian,  Guebre,  from  Zend. 

-  The  Fatimides  had  adopted  green,  the  colour  of  the  Prophet,  as  the  symbc 
of  their  cause  ;   the  Bani-Ommeyya,  the  white  ;   and  the  Bani-Abbas,  black. 

^  Mu'tasim-b'illah  (Mohammed)  and  Wasik  b'illah  (Harun). 


.III.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      313 

Mayor  of  the  Palace  at  Bagdad.  An  enthusiastic  partisan  of 
:he  Fatimides,  he  entertained  at  one  time  the  design  of  deposing 
die  Abbaside  Cahph  Muti'ullah,  and  placing  in  his  stead  some 
Bcion  of  the  house  of  Ali,  but  was  restrained  by  motives  of 
ipolicy  from  carrying  this  project  into  effect.  Muizz  ud-dowla 
also  instituted  the  Yaum-i-'dshum,  the  day  of  mourning,  in 
commemoration  of  the  martyrdom  of  Hussain  and  his  family 
on  the  plains  of  Kerbela.  In  the  year  a.h.  645  (a.c.  1247), 
under  Musta'sim  b'illah,  another  fierce  persecution  of  the 
Shiahs  broke  out,  the  consequences  of  which  proved  in  the  end 
disastrous  to  Saracenic  civilisation,  engulfing  in  one  common 
ruin  the  Western  Asians.  Impelled  by  the  perfidious  counsels 
of  the  fanatics  who  surrounded  him,  this  imbecile  pontiff  of 
the  Sunni  Church  doomed  the  entire  male  population  of  the 
Shiahs  to  massacre.  By  a  terrible  edict,  which  reminds  us  of 
the  fate  of  the  Albigenses  and  the  Huguenots,  he  permitted  the 
orthodox  to  plunder  the  goods,  demolish  the  houses,  ravage 
the  fields,  and  reduce  to  slavery  the  women  and  children  of 
ithe  Shiahs.  This  atrocious  conduct  brought  upon  the  ill-fated 
city  of  Bagdad  the  arms  of  the  avenging  Hulakii,  the  grandson 
;of  Chengiz.  For  three  days  the  Tartar  chief  gave  up  the  town 
;to  rapine  and  slaughter.  On  the  third  day  the  thirty-seventh 
Caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas  was  put  to  death  with  every 
circumstance  of  ignominy ;  and  so  ended  the  Abbaside 
idynasty  !  ^ 

;  Until  the  time  of  Mu'awiyah  the  adherents  of  the  Ahl-ul-bait  - 
jhad  not  assumed  or  adopted  any  distinctive  appellation.     They 

'  *  A  scion  of  the  house  of  Abbas  escaped  into  Egypt,  and  the  titular  CaUphate 
flourished  there  until  the  Ottoman  Selim  obtained  a  renunciation  in  his  favour 
from  the  last  of  the  Abbasides  ;   see  ante,  p.  130. 

*The  Ahl-ul-bait,  "  People  of  the  House  "  (of  Mohammed),  is  the  designa- 
Ition  usually  given  to  Fatima  and  Ali  and  their  children  and  descendants. 
I  This  is  the  name  by  which  Ibn-Khaldun  invariably  designates  them,  and 
their  followers  and  disciples, — the  Shiahs  or  adherents  of  the  "  People  of  the 
House."  Sanai  represents  the  general  feeling  with  which  the  descendants 
;of  Mohammed  were  regarded  in  the  following  verse  : — 


Ij     ,.ii.=a/<> 


;;;    ^''   J/'   y>    ^J^'^^t 


"  Excepting  the  Book  of  God  and  his  family  (descendants)  nothing  has 
been  left  by  Ahmed  the  Prophet,  memorials  such  as  these  can  never  be  obtained 
till  the  Day  of  Judgment." 


314  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

were  known  simply  as  the  Bani-Hashim.  There  was  no  diffe 
ence  between  the  Bani-Fatima  and  the  Bani- Abbas  ;  they  wei 
all  connected  with  each  other  by  the  closest  ties  of  blood.  Aft* 
Mu'awiyah's  seizure  of  the  sovereign  power  the  followers  of  tl 
House  of  Mohammed  began  to  call  themselves  Shiahs  (adheren 
and  their  enemies  either  Nawdsib  (rebels)  or  Khawdrij  (insu 
gents  or  deserters). ^  The  Ommeyyades  called  themselv( 
Aviawis  (children  of  Ommeyya).  As  yet  the  name  of  Ahl-u 
Sunnat  wa'l  Jama' at  was  wholly  unknown.  Under  Mansur  an 
Harun  this  designation  first  came  into  existence.  In  the  tent 
century,  a  member  of  the  house  of  Ali  wrested  Egypt  from  tl 
Abbasides,  and  estabUshed  a  dynasty  which  ruled  over  th; 
country  and  Syria  until  the  rise  of  Saladin.  The  anathem: 
which  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  and  Cairo  hurled  at  each  othe 
the  multitudinous  traditions  which  were  unearthed  to  demoli: 
the  claims  of  the  one  and  the  other,  and  the  fatwas  emanatii 
from  the  doctors  of  the  two  CaUphates,  accentuated  the  stri 
and  bitterness  of  partisans.  Saladin  overthrew  the  Fatimi( 
dynasty  in  Egypt,  and  restored  the  predominance  of  the  Sun 
Church  in  Eastern  Africa.  Various  other  branches  of  tl 
Bani-Fatima,  however,  succeeded  in  establishing  the  suprema( 
of  their  family  in  different  parts  of  the  two  continents. ^  T] 
Isnd-'asharias  ^  alone,  the  followers  of  the  saintly  Imams,  wl 
reprehended  the  use  of  force,  and  who  claimed  and  exercist 
only  a  spiritual  dominion,  maintained  an  attitude  of  comple 
withdrawal  from  temporal  interests,  until  Shah  Ismail  t] 
great  Safawi  monarch  made  Isnd-'ashariaism  the  State  religic 
of  Persia.  Himself  a  philosopher  and  a  Sufi,  he  perceived 
the  sympathy  and  devotion  of  the  people  to  the  House 
Mohammed,  whose  descendant  he  was,  a  means  of  nation 
awakening  and  consolidation.  Since  then  Isnd-'ashariaism 
the  national  church  of  Persia. 

1  The  name  of  Khawarij  was  especially  given  to  the  troops  who  desert,. 
Ali  at  Dumat  ul-Jandal  and  formed  a  confederacy  hostile  to  IslSm,  and  w 
afterwards  applied  to  those  who  adopted  their  pernicious  doctrines  ;   see  pi. 

-  Besides  the  Bani-Fatima  of  Egypt,  other  branches  of  Fatiniides  ha; 
ruled  under  the  different  denominations  of  Ameer,  Imam,  Sharif,  and  Cali 
in  different  parts  of  the  Musulman  world,  such  as  the  Bani-Ukhaydur,  t 
Bani-jNIusa,  the  Bani-Kitadah  at  Mecca,  the  Bani-Taba-Taba  in  Northe 
Yemen,  the  Bani-Ziyad  in  Southern  Yemen,  and  the  Bani-Idris  in  MoroC' 

^  Isnd  with  a  ^^  ;   see  post. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      315 

The  Bahmani  and  'Adil  Shahi  dynasties  of  Southern  India 
which  Aurungzeb  overthrew,  thus  paving  the  way  for  the  rise 
of  the  Mahratta  marauders  whom  the  Bahmani  sovereigns  had 
kept  in  check  with  an  iron  hand,  were  attaclied  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Imams.  Such  has  been  the  pohtical  fate  of  the  Fatimides, 
which  has  left  its  impress  on  their  doctrines. 

The  title  of  the  Bani-Abbas  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
headship  of  Islam  was  founded  on  bai'at  or  nominal  election. 
Since  Saffah's  accession,  the  Abbaside  Caliphs  had  taken  the 
precaution  of  obtaining  during  their  lifetime  the  fealty  of  the 
chiefs  for  their  intended  successors.  And  it  became  necessary 
to  impress  on  the  doctrine  of  election  a  sanctity  derived  from 
precedent  and  ancient  practice.  The  rise  of  the  Fatimides  in 
Egypt,  their  persistent  endeavour  to  wrest  the  dominion  of  the 
East  from  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad,  made  it  doubly  necessary 
to  controvert  the  pretensions  of  the  children  of  Fatima, 
and  to  give  form  and  consistency  to  the  orthodox  doctrines 
recognising  the  Abbaside  Pontiffs  as  the  spiritual  chiefs 
of  Islam.  1 

Every  corner  of  Irak  and  Hijaz  was  ransacked  for  traditions 
in  support  of  the  right  of  the  house  of  Abbas.  The  doctors  of 
law  were  required  to  formulate  the  principles  of  orthodoxy  in 
explicit  terms  :  and  gradually  the  grand  superstructure  of  the 
Sunni  church  was  raised  on  the  narrow  foundations  of  Abbaside 
self-interest.  Much  of  the  success  of  the  doctors  and  legists 
who  assisted  in  the  growth  and  development  of  Sunnism  was 
due  to  the  Manichaeism  of  the  Egyptian  Fatimides.  The  nature 
of  their  doctrines,  which  were  at  variance  with  the  teachings 

*  Arslan  al-Basasiri,  a  general  in  the  service  of  the  Abbasides,  but  an 
adherent  of  the  Egyptian  Fatimides,  drove  al-Kaim-ba-amr  illah,  the  then 
Caliph  of  Bagdad,  from  the  city,  and  compelled  him  to  take  refuge  with 
the  phylarch  of  the  Arabs  (the  Ameer-ul-Arab,  a  title  analogous  to  the 
Il-Khani  of  Persia),  until  restored  by  Tughril,  the  father  of  Alp  Arslan  and 
the  founder  of  the  Seljukide  dynasty.  During  the  whole  of  this  period  the 
Khutba  was  read  in  Bagdad  itself  in  the  name  of  the  Fatimide  Caliph.  The 
Khutba  is  the  name  given  to  the  sermon  pronounced  on  Fridays  from  the 
pulpits  of  the  great  mosques  in  all  Moslem  countries  ;  it  begins  by  a  declara- 
tion of  God's  attributes  and  unity,  and  an  invocation  of  His  blessings  upon 
the  Prophet,  his  family,  and  successors ;  then  follows  a  prayer  for  the 
reigning  Caliph  and  for  the  prince  who  exercises  civil  power  in  the  State. 
The  right  of  being  named  in  the  Khutba  and  that  of  coining  money  are  two 
of  the  principal  privileges  possessed  by  the  temporal  sovereign,  and  the 
special  marks  of  his  legitimacy. 


3i6  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  n. 

of  both  the  Shiah  Imams  and  the  Simni  doctors  ;  the  assassi- 
nations of  the  best  men  committed  at  the  instance  of  Hasan 
Sabbah  ("  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain  ")  ;  the  disintegrating 
character  of  the  heresies,  which  under  the  influence  of  the 
ancient  Chaldseo-Magism  had  sprung  up  in  various  quarters, 
and  which  were  subversive  of  all  order  and  morality, — added 
greatly  to  the  strength  of  a  system  which  formed,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  masses,  a  bulwark  against  the  enemies  of  Islam.  The 
Shiah  Imams  strongly  condemned  the  impious  or  communistic 
doctrines  of  the  antitypes  of  Mani  and  Mazdak,  but  they  lacked 
the  power,  even  if  willing  to  use  it,  to  suppress  heresy  or  enforce 
uniformity.  Sunnism,  associated  with  the  temporal  power  oj 
the  Abbaside  Caliphs,  possessed  the  means  and  used  it,  anc 
thereby  won  the  sympathy  and  acceptance  of  all  who  carec 
little  about  the  disputes  on  the  abstract  question  of  apostolica 
descent.  ; 

Until  the  rise  of  the  House  of  Abbas  there  was  little  or  mi 
difference  between  the  assertors  of  the  right  of  the  Ahl-ul-bai: 
to  the  pontificate  and  the  upholders  of  the  right  of  the  peoplt; 
to  elect  their  own  spiritual  and  temporal  chiefs.  The  peopl«! 
of  Hijaz  and  the  Medinite  Ansar  especially,  who  were  so  ruthj 
lessly  destroyed  by  the  Ommeyyades,  whilst  they  insisted  oij 
the  principle  of  election,  abhorred  the  injustice  done  to  th< 
children  of  Fatima.  After  the  murder  of  Husain,  a  cry  o 
horror  had  gone  forth  from  the  heart  of  Islam,  and  the  peoplj 
of  the  holy  cities  had  risen  in  arms  against  the  tyrant,  anc; 
suffered  bitterly  for  it.  The  adherents  of  the  Ahl-ul-bait  and 
the  followers  of  the  first  three  Caliphs  together  underwent  fearful 
cruelties  in  the  cause  of  the  common  Faith.  But  when  i| 
became  necessary  for  dynastic  reasons  to  create  a  gulf  betweer 
the  two  parties  the  elements  of  divergence  came  ready  to  ham 
on  both  sides.  Their  doctrinal  and  legal  differences  began  fron 
this  time  to  assume  the  type  and  proportions  they  retain  at  th 
present  moment 

During  the  enlightened  rule  of  Mamun  and  of  his  two  im 
mediate  successors,  when  humanitarian  science  and  philosoph 
influenced  the  conceptions  of  all  classes  of  society,  there  wa 
a  break  in  the  development  of  the  Sunni  Church.  With  th 
exception  of  this  period  the  entire  duration  of  the  Abbasid 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      317 

Caliphate  ^  was  occupied  in  the  consolidation  of  its  dogmas. 
The  Church  and  State  were  hnked  together  ;  the  Caliph  was 
the  Imam — temporal  chief  as  well  as  spiritual  head.  The 
doctors  of  law  and  religion  were  his  servants.  He  presided  at 
the  convocations,  and  guided  their  decisions.  Hence  the 
solidarity  of  the  Sunni  church.  Many  of  the  sects  2  into  which 
it  was  originally  split  up  have  gradually  disappeared,  but  it  is 
still  divided  into  four  principal  denominations,  differing  from 
each  other  on  many  questions  of  dogma  and  ritual.  Their 
differences  may  perhaps  be  likened  to  those  existing  between 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Greek,  Armenian,  and  Syrian 
orthodox  churches. 

Shiahism,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  how  the  Church  and  the 
State  have  become  dissociated  from  each  other,  and  how  the 
"  Expounders  of  the  Law  "  have  assumed,  at  least  among  a 
section,  the  authority  and  position  of  the  clergy  in  Christendom, 
The  freedom  of  judgment,  which  in  Protestantism  has  given 
birth  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  sects,  has  produced  an  almost 
parallel  result  in  Shiahism,  and  the  immense  diversity  of  opinion 
within  the  church  itself  is  due  to  the  absence  of  a  controlling 
temporal  power,  compelling  uniformity  at  the  point  of  the 
sword. 

The  question  of  the  Imamate,^  or  the  spiritual  headship  of 

*  From  750  A.c.  to  1252  A.c. 

*  According  to  Imam  Ja'far  Tusi  (quoted  in  the  Dabistdn),  the  Sunnis  were 
originally  divided  into  sixty-five  sects. 

'  A  very  good  definition  of  the  word  "  Imam  "  is  given  by  Dr.  Percy  Badger  : 
"  The  word  '  Imam  '  comes  from  an  Arabic  root  signifying  to  aim  at,  to  follow 
after, — most  of  the  derivatives  of  which  partake,  more  or  less,  of  that  idea. 
Thus  Imam  means,  primarily,  an  exemplar,  or  one  whose  example  ought  to 
be  imitated.  It  is  applied  in  that  sense,  xar'  e'^ox7?i',  to  Mohammed,  as 
being  the  leader  and  head  of  the  Muslims  in  civil  and  religious  matters,  and 
also  to  the  Khalifahs,  or  legitimate  Successors,  as  his  representatives  in  both 
capacities.  It  is  also  given — in  its  religious  import  only — to  the  heads  of  the 
four  orthodox  sects,  namely,  the  el-Hanafy,  esh-Shafa'iy,  el-Maliky,  and 
el-Hanbaly  ;  and,  in  a  more  restricted  sense  still,  to  the  ordinary  functionary 
of  a  mosque  who  leads  in  the  daily  prayers  of  the  congregation, — an  office 
usually  conferred  on  individuals  of  reputed  piety,  who  are  removable  by  the 
Ndzirs  or  wardens,  and  who,  with  their  employment  and  salary,  lose  the  title 
also." 

"  The  term  is  used  in  the  Koran  to  indicate  the  Book,  or  Scriptures,  or 
record  of  a  people  ;  also,  to  designate  a  teacher  of  religion.  Hence,  most 
probably,  its  adoption  by  the  Muslims  in  the  latter  sense.  '  'VMien  the  Lord 
tried  Abraham  with  certain  words,  which  he  fulfilled,  He  said,  I  have  made 
thee  an  Imam  to  the  people.'  Again,  referring  to  Abraham,  Isaac  and 
Jacob,     '  We  have  made  them  Imams,  that  they  may  direct  others  at  our 


3i8  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

the  Musulman  commonwealth,  is  henceforth  the  chief  battle-; 
ground  of  the  two  sects. ^  The  Shiahs  hold  that  the  spiritual;; 
heritage  bequeathed  by  Mohammed  devolved  on  Ali  and  his 
descendants.  They  naturally  repudiate  the  authority  of  the 
Jama' at  (the  people)  to  elect  a  spiritual  head  who  should  super- 
sede the  rightful  claims  of  the  Prophet's  family.  According  to 
the  Shiahs,  therefore,  the  Imamate  descends  by  divine  appoint- 
ment in  the  apostolical  line.  The  Imam,  besides  being  a 
descendant  of  the  Prophet,  must  possess  certain  qualities, — he 
must  be  Ma' sum  or  sinless,  bear  the  purest  and  most  unsullied 
character,  and  must  be  distinguished  above  all  other  men  for 
truth  and  purity.  It  is  not  proper,  nor  could  it  be  the  intention 
of  the  Almighty,  they  argue,  that  a  man  whose  character  is  not 
unimpeachable  should  have  the  direction  of  the  human  con- 
science. Human  choice  is  fallible,  as  is  proved  by  the  history 
of  mankind  ;  and  the  people  have  often  accepted  the  worst 
men  for  their  leaders.  God  could  never  have  left  the  religious 
needs  of  man  to  his  unaided  faculty.  If  an  Imam  be  needed, 
he  must  be  one  whom  the  conscience  must  accept.  Accordingly; 
they  declare  that  if  the  choice  of  an  Imam  be  left  to  the 
community,   it   would   be    subversive  of    all  morality ;    and 

command.'  And  again,  '  We  delivered  to  Moses  the  Book,  therefore  be  not 
in  doubt  of  his  reception  thereof,  and  we  ordained  it  to  be  a  guide  unto  the 
children  of  Israel.  And  we  appointed  some  of  them  to  be  Imams,  to  direct 
the  people  according  to  our  command.'  " — Badger's  Imams  and  Seyyids  oj 
Oman,  App.   A. 

^  "The  question  of  the  Imamate  forms  a  subject  of  controversy,"  says  Mas'udi,j 
"  between  the  followers  of  different  sects,  particularly  between  those  who. 
adhere  to  the  doctrine  of  appointment,    ^jajJ\  b  im»LI&^)    ^^^  the  followers 
of  the  doctrine  of  election,    ,IJli^^||  uj(«^|.     The  defenders  of  the  doctrine  ol 
appointment    are    the    Imamias,      icl/oVl  (Ja|    who    form   a   section   of  the! 
Adherents,   Shiahs  Sjtj>.JiJ\    of  Ali  ibn  Abi  Talib  and  his  holy  children  (bj; 
Fatima)    j  j.!.  ^^  Wij'^^l  ■     They  believe  that  God  does  not  leave  man- 
kind at  any  time  without  a  man  who  maintains  the  religion  of  God  (and  act; 
as  their  Imam).     Such  men  are  either  prophets  or  their  legates.     The  doctrine 
of  election  is  defended  by  a  section  of  the  Khawarij    ^J'j^^i  ,  the  Murjia; 
AjkAy^^j,,  by  many  of  those  who  admit  the  traditions  and  the  generally  receivec 
opinions  [Ahl-ns-Sunnat),  by  some  of  the  Mu 'tazalas,  and  by  a  section  of  th( 
Zaidias,    <y>JO^_>/f.     They  believe  that  it  is  the  will  of  God  and  his  Prophe- 
that  the  nation  should  choose  a  man  amongst  themselves,  and  make  him  thei 
Imam,  for  there  are  times  when  God  does  not  send  a  legate.     The  Shiah. 
consider  such  Imams  as  usurpers  of  the  dignity." — Muriij-uz-zahab. 


III.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      319 

msequently  the  spiritual  guidance  of  mankind  has  been 
;itrusted  to  divineh^-appointed  persons.^ 
According  to  the  Sunnis,  the  Imamate  is  not  restricted  to 
16  family  of  Mohammed.  The  Imam  need  not  be  just, 
irtuous,  or  irreproachable  {Ma'sum)  in  his  life,  nor  need  he 
e  the  most  excellent  or  eminent  being  of  his  time  (^U/|  JUii  ; 

0  long  as  he  is  free,  adult,  sane,  and  possessed  of  the  capacity 
)  attend  to  the  ordinary  affairs  of  State,  he  is  qualified  for 
.ection.  Another  doctrine  in  which  they  agree  with  the 
hurch  of  Rome  was  full  of  momentous  consequences  to  Islam, 
hey  hold  that  neither  the  vices  nor  the  tyranny  of  the  Imam 
•ould  justify  his  deposition  ;  ^  nor  can  the  perversity  or  evil 
Duduct  of  the  Imam  or  those  who  preside  at  the  public  divine 
3rvice  invahdate  the  prayers  of  the  Faithful.^  They  also  hold 
ftat  the  Im.amate  is  indivisible,  and  that  it  is  not  lawful  to 
lave  two  Imams  at  one  and  the  same  time.  As  Christianity 
ould  yield  obedience  to  but  one  Pope,  so  the  Moslem  world 
ould  yield  obedience  to  but  one  lawful  Caliph.  But  as  three 
'opes  have  often  pretended  to  the  triple  crown,  so  have  three 

^  "  It  is  neither  the  beauty  of  the  sovereign,"  says  Ibn-Klialdun,   "  nor 

'is  great  learning,  perspicacity,  or  any  other  personal  accomplishment  which 

useful  to  his  subject.  .  .  .  The  sovereign  exists  for  the  good  of  his  people." 

The  necessity  of  a  ruler,"  continues  this  remarkable  writer,  whose  keenness 

1  observation  was  equalled  by  his  versatility,  "  arises  from  the  fact  that 
uman  beings  have  to  live  together,  and  unless  there  is  some  one  to  maintain 
rder,  society  would  break  to  pieces.  A  temporal  sovereign  only  enforces 
jch  orders  as  are  promulgated  by  man,  but  the  laws  framed  by  a  divinely- 
ispired  legislator  have  two  objects  in  view — the  moral  as  well  as  social 
•ell-being  of  mankind.  The  Caliph  is  the  Vicar  and  Lieutenant  of  the  Prophet, 
le  is  more  than  a  temporal  ruler,  he  is  a  spiritual  chief  as  well.  The  Caliph 
.  thus  designated  the  Imam,  his  position  being  similar  to  that  of  the  leader 
f  the  congregation  at  the  public  prayers." 

"  This  establishment  of  an  Imam,"  continues  Ibn-Khaldun,  "  is  a  matter 
f  obligation.  The  law  which  declares  its  necessity  is  founded  on  the  general 
ccord  of  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet.  The  Imam  is  the  spiritual  head, 
•hilst  the  Caliph  or  Sultan  represents  the  temporal  power." 

I  '  In  spite  of  this  doctrine,  promulgated  at  the  order  of  tyrants  anxious 
0  avoid  the  penalty  of  their  oppression,  the  people  have  never  approved 
,f  it  entirely.  Under  the  Ommeyyade  Walid,  surnamed  for  his  vices  the 
dsik  (the  Wicked),  they  rose  in  revolt  and  deposed  him.  Similarly,  when 
'ic  iniquities  of  Mutawakkil  (the  Abbaside)  became  intolerable,  he  was 
;eposed  by  his  own  son,  Muntasir  the  Good.  The  history  of  the  Ottoman 
.urks  contains  many  examples  of  the  people  rising  in  revolt  against  a  vicious 
r  incapable  sovereign,  the  last  being  under  the  unhappy  Abdul  Aziz. 

'  Against  this  doctrine  there  is  now  a  widespread  revolt  in  the  Sunni  Church  ; 
ne  Ghair-Mukallidin,  whom  we  shall  describe  later,  holding  that  if  the  Imam 
•-  not  chaste  in  his  life,  the  prayers  of  the  congregation  are  invalid. 


320  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Ameer  ul-Muslimin  laid  claim  to  supreme  rule.  After  tl 
downfall  of  the  Ommeyyades  in  Asia  a  member  of  thij 
house  succeeded  in  setting  up  an  independent  state  in  Spaij 
whilst  the  family  of  Abbas  exercised  power  on  the  banlj 
of  the  Tigris,  and  that  of  Fatima  on  the  Nile.  The  fa 
that  at  various  times  two  or  three  sovereigns  have  assurrn 
simultaneously  the  Headship  of  Islam  has  given  rise  to  ; 
opinion  that  the  rule  of  indivisibility  applies  only  to  one  ai 
the  same  country,  or  to  two  countries  contiguous  to  each  othe 
but  when  the  countries  are  so  far  apart  that  the  power  of  o: 
Imam  cannot  extend  to  the  other,  it  is  lawful  to  elect  a  secoi 
Imam.  The  Imam  is  the  patron  and  syndic  of  all  Musulmar 
and  the  guardian  of  their  interests  during  their  lives  as  well  : 
after  their  death.  He  is  vested  with  the  power  to  nomina| 
his  successors,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Moslems.  As  t' 
ofhce  is  for  the  temporal  and  spiritual  benefit  of  the  communit: 
the  nomination  is  dependent  on  the  choice  of  the  people.^      i 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  persecution  would  ke^l 
the  Shiahs  united  among  themselves  ;  but  although  all  we 
agreed  on  the  question  that  the  supreme  pontificate  of  Isla^. 
is  confined  to  the  line  of  the  Prophet,  many  of  them  fell  awf 
from  the  recognised  heads  of  the  family,  and  attached  their 
selves  from  design  or  predilection  to  other  members  of  tii 
House.  Whilst  the  acknowledged  Imams  and  their  discipr. 
lived  in  holy  retirement,  the  others  found  leisure  amidst  th(' 
foreign  hostilities  for  domestic  quarrels.  They  preached,  thr 
disputed,  they  suffered.  i 

Shahristani  divides  the  Shiahs  into  five  sects,  viz.  the  Zaid'i 
the  Isma'ilia,  the  Isnd-'asharia  or  Imdmia,  the  Kaisdnia,  a:;i 
the  Ghdllia  or  Ghulldt.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  as  '|; 
shall  show  hereafter,  some  of  these  sects,  and  especially  t;! 
branches  into  which  they  bifurcated,  had,  excepting  in  a  mcj! 
or  less  exaggerated  attachment  to  Ali,  nothing  in  common  wiji 
Shiahism  proper.  On  the  contrary,  they  derived  their  origli 
from  sources  other  than  Islamic.  \ 

The  Zaidias,  says  Shahristani,  are  the  followers  of  Zaid,  sji 
of  Ah  II.  (Zain-ul-'Abidin),  son  of  Husain.  They  affirm  ttit 
the  Imamate  descended  from  Ah  to  Hasan,  then  to  Husai ; 

^  Ibn-Khaldun ;  see  ante,  part  i.  chapter  x. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      321 

from  Husain  it  devolved  upon  Ali  II.  (Zain-ul-'Abidin)  ;  and 
from  him  it  passed  to  Zaid,  and  not,  as  is  held  by  the  Isnd- 
'Ashanas,  and,  in  fact,  by  most  Moslems,  to  Mohammed 
al-Bakir.  In  their  doctrines  they  closely  approach  the  Ahl 
us-Sunnat.  They  hold  that  the  people  have  the  right  of 
choosing  their  spiritual  head  from  among  the  descendants 
of  the  Prophet,  combining  thus  the  principle  of  election  with 
the  principle  which  restricts  the  Imamate  to  the  family  of 
Mohammed.  They  also  affirm  that  it  is  lawful  to  elect  the 
mafziil  [tJic  less  eminent)  whilst  the  afzal  {the  most  eminent)  is 
present.  As  a  consequence  of  this  principle,  they  accept  the 
Imamate  of  the  first  three  Caliphs,  whose  pontificate  is  generally 
disclaimed  by  the  other  Shiahs.  They  hold  that  though  All 
was  the  most  eminent  of  all  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet, 
and  by  right  of  descent  as  well  as  by  his  qualities  entitled  to 
the  Imamate,  yet  for  reasons  of  policy,  and  to  allay  the  dis- 
orders which  had  broken  out  upon  the  death  of  the  Prophet, 
to  settle  the  minds  of  the  people  and  to  compose  the  differences 
among  the  tribes,  a  man  of  a  maturer  age  was  required  to  fill 
the  office.  Besides,  owing  to  the  struggle  in  which  Ali  had 
been  engaged  in  defence  of  the  Faith,  the  feeling  of  retaliation 
was  strong  in  the  bosom  of  those  who  had  fought  against  Islam, 
and  who  had  been  only  recently  reduced  to  subjection  ;  and 
these  people  would  not  willingly  have  bowed  before  the  grandeur 
of  Ah.  They  hold  that  the  same  reason  applies  to  the  election 
of  Omar.^  Their  acceptance  of  the  Imamate  of  the  first  two 
Caliphs  brought  upon  the  Zaidias  the  name  of  Rawdfiz,  or  Dis- 
senters, by  the  other  Shiahs.  Another  doctrine  held  by  them 
is  too  important  to  escape  notice.  They  maintain  that  in 
addition  to  piety,  truth,  knowledge,  and  innocence  or  sinless- 
ness,  qualities  required  by  the  Shiahs  proper  for  the  pontifical 
office,  the  Imam  should  possess  bravery,  and  the  capacity  to 
assert  by  force  of  arms  his  right  to  the  Imamate.  The  Imam 
Mohammed  al-Bakir,  who  had  succeeded  his  father  Ali  II., 
maintained  that  the  use  of  force  was  reprehensible.  Zaid 
differed  from  his  brother  in  this  opinion.  He  rose  in  arms 
against  the  tyrants  in  the  reign  of  Hisham  ibn  Abdul  Malik 
(the  Ommeyyade),  and  was  killed  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

*  Shahristani,  pt.  i.  p.  115. 
s.i.  X 


322  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Kufa.  He  was  succeeded  by  Yahya,  his  son,  who  followed 
the  example  of  his  father,  and,  against  the  advice  of  Imam 
Ja'far  as-Sadik,  proceeded  to  assert  his  right  by  force  of  arms. 
He  collected  a  large  following  in  Khorasan,  but  was  defeated 
and  killed  by  one  of  the  generals  of  Hisham. 

On  the  death  of  Yahya,  the  Imamate,  say  the  Zaidias,  passed 
to  another  member  of  the  family,  Mohammed  ibn  Abdullah, 
surnamed  an-N afs-uz-Zakiya  ("  the  Pure  Soul  ").  Mohammed 
assumed  the  title  of  Mahdi,  and  rose  in  arms  in  Hijaz  against 
the  Abbaside  Mansur.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Medina 
by  Tsa,  Mansur's  nephew.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Ibrahim,  who  lost  his  life  similarly  in  a  vain  struggle  against 
the  Abbasides.  Isa,  another  brother,  who  also  endeavoured 
to  assert  his  claims  by  force,  was  seized  by  Mansur,  and  im- 
prisoned for  life.  After  mentioning  these  facts,  Shahristani 
adds  that  "  whatever  befell  them  was  prognosticated  by  Ja'far 
as-Sadik,  who  said  that  temporal  dominion  was  not  for  their 
family,  but  that  the  Imamate  was  to  be  a  toy  in  the  hands  of 
the  Abbasides." 

According  to  a  branch  of  the  Zaidias,  the  Imamate  passed 
from  Ibrahim  to  Idris,  the  founder  of  the  Idriside  dynasty  in 
Mauritania  (^5"'^^'  v^*^),  and  of  the  city  of  Fez.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Idrisides,  the  Zaidias  became  disorganised,  but 
members  of  this  sect  are  still  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of 
Asia  and  Africa.  A  branch  of  the  Zaidias  ruled  in  Tabaristan 
for  a  long  time,  and  there  is  a  Zaidia  Imam  still  in  Northern 
Yemen.  The  Zaidias,  according  to  Shahristani,  were  divided 
into  four  subsections,  viz.  the  Jdrudias,  Sulaimdnias,  Tabarias, 
and  Sdlehias.  They  differ  from  each  other  about  the  devolution 
of  the  Imamate  from  Zaid's  grandson.  The  Jdrudias,  who  up- 
held the  claims  of  Mohammed  Nafs-uz-Zakiya  in  supersession 
of  Isa,  suffered  bitterly  under  Mansur.  The  Sulaimdnias  were 
named  after  their  founder,  Sulaiman  ibn  Jaris,  who  declared 
that  the  Imamate  depended  upon  the  consensus  of  the  people  ; , 
..."  that  the  Imamate  is  not  intended  for  regulating  religion 
or  for  the  acquisition  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Deity,  or  His  unity 
or  the  laws  which  He  has  made  for  the  government  of  the  world,j 
for  these  are  acquired  through  Reason.  The  Imamate  is  in-' 
tended  for  the  government  of  the  earth,  inflicting  punishments 


III.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      323 

a  wrong-doers,  dealing  out  justice,  and  defending  the  State. 
:  is  not  necessary  for  the  Imam  to  be  af-^r.l.  ..."  "A  section 
f  the  Ahl-us-Sunnat  hold  similar  opinions,  for  they  say  that 
is  not  required  for  the  Imam  to  be  learned  or  a  Mujtahid, 
)  long  as  he  is  wise  and  has  some  one  with  him  capable  of 
vpounding  the  law."  ^  The  Sulaimdnias  and  the  Sdlehias 
^ree  in  accepting  the  Imamate  of  the  first  two  Caliphs  ;  the 
.tter  hold  that  Ali,  having  himself  abandoned  his  preferential 
aim  in  favour  of  Abu  Bakr  and  Omar,  the  people  have  no 
ght  to  question  their  Imamate  :  but  as  regards  Osman  they 
•e  in  doubt,  for  they  say  "  when  we  see  how  he  travailed  for 
le  support  of  the  Bani  Ommeyya,  we  find  his  character 
ifferent  from  the  other  Sahdba." 

The  Ismailias,  also  sometimes  called  Sabi'yiin  {Seveners)," 
?rive  their  names  from  Isma'il,  a  son  of  Imam  Ja'far  as-Sadik, 
ho  predeceased  his  father.  They  hold  that  upon  the  death 
••  Imam  Ja'far  as-Sadik,  the  Imamate  devolved  on  Isma'il's 
:)n,  Mohammed  (surnamed  al-Maktum,^  the  hidden  or  un- 
vealed),  and  not  on  Ja'far's  son,  Musa  al-Kazim,  as  believed 
y  the  Isnd-'Asharias  and  generally  by  the  other  Moslems, 
iohammed  al-Maktum  was  succeeded,  according  to  the  Is- 
.a'ilias,  by  Ja'far  al-Musaddak,  whose  son  Mohammed  al-Hahih 
as  the  last  of  the  iinrevealed  Irndms. 

i  His  son,  Abu  Mohammed  Abdullah,  was  the  founder  of  the 
atimide  dynasty  which  ruled  Northern  Africa  for  three  cen- 
iries.  He  had  been  thrown  into  prison  by  the  Abbaside 
iliph,  Mu'tazid-b'illah  Saffah  II.,  but,  escaping  from  his 
angeon  at  Segelmessa,  he  appeared  in  Barbary,  where  he 
:.sumed  the  title  of  Ohaidnllah  and  ISIahdi  [the  promised  Guide). 
oUowers  gathered  round  him  from  all  sides,  and,  assisted  by 

*  Shahristani,  pt.  i.  pp.  119,  120. 

*  Because  they  acknowledge  only  seven  Imams — [i)  Ali,  (2)  Hasan,  (3) 
usain,  (4)  Ali  II.,  (5)  Mohammed  al-Bakir,  (6)  Ja'far  as-Sadik  (the  True). 

•id  (7)  Isma'il. 

'  So  called,  says  Makrizi,  because  his  followers  kept  him  "  concealed  "  to 
cape  the  persecution  of  the  Abbasides.  Isma'il  was  the  eldest  son  of  Imam 
I'far  as-Sadik,  and  a  man  of  sweet  disposition  and  engaging  manners,  and 
cording  to  Makrizi,  had  a  considerable  following  in  Yemen,  in  Ketama, 
id  the  African  provinces.  During  the  lifetime  of  Isma'tl's  mother,  says 
lahristani,  the  Imam  Ja'far  never  had  any  other  wife,  "  like  the  Prophet 
•th  Khadija,  and  Ali  with  Fatima." 


324  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

a  Sufi,  he  soon  overthrew  the  Aghlabites,  who  were  ruHng  thi 
African  provinces  in  the  name  of  the  Cahphs  of  Bagdad,  anl  ; 
founded  an  empire  which  extended  from  Mauritania  to  th!  ; 
confines  of  Egypt.     One  of  his  successors  (Ma'dd  Abu  Temimi  *! 
al-Muizz-li-din-illdh  [Exalter  of  the  Faith  of  God) ,  wrested  Egypj  i' 
and  a  portion  of  Syria  from  the  Abbasides.     Muizz,  to  marj 
his   victory  over  the   enemies   of  his   House,   founded  Cair 
[Kdhira,  the  Victorious  City),  and  removed  his  capital  froi 
Mahdieh,  near  Kairwan,  estabUshed  by  Obaidullah  al-Mahd, 
to  the  new  city.     At  this  time  his  dominions  inchided,  besid(, 
the  whole   of  Northern  Africa,   the  islands   of  Sardinia  anj 
Sicily.     He  founded  in  Cairo  the  mosque  of  al-Azhar  {fdmi\ 
al-azhar,   the   Brilliant   Mosque),    a   vast   public   library,  anl 
several  colleges,  and  endowed  them  richly.     At  these  collegej 
students  received  instruction  in  grammar,  literature,  the  intej   \ 
pretation  of  the  Koran,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  mathematicj    i 
and  history.     "  The  distinctive  character  of  his  reign,"  says  tlj    | 
historian,  "  was  justice  and  moderation."  ^  | 

Almost  all  the  accounts  we  possess  of  the  Egyptian  Fatimidj    ' 
have  come  down  to  us  from  hostile  sources.     Since  Jouhar,  tlj    ; 
general  of  Muizz,  conquered  Egypt  and  Syria  from  the  Caliplj    i 
of  Bagdad,  there  was  an  incessant  struggle  between  the  tv     | 
Caliphates  as  to  the  legitimacy  of  their  respective  titles.    Tlj 
hold  which  the  claim  of  the  Fatimides  to  be  descended  fro 
Mohammed  enabled  them  to  acquire  over  the  people,  gave  ri, 
to  an  unceasing  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Abbasides  to  anrs    I 
hilate  the  genuineness  of  their  rivals'  genealogy,  and  to  impre    ; 
on  the  world  the  anti-Islamic  character  of  the  doctrines  adopt' 
by  them.     In  the  reign  of  Kadir-b'illah,  a  secret  assemblage 
the  doctors  of  the  law  was  held  at  Bagdad  at  the  instance 

^  Marcel.  The  orthodox  Jamal  ud-din  bin  Taghri-bardi  (in  his  Maured  ■ 
Latafat,  &jl!aiJ|  ^J^l  says,  "  though  Muizz  was  a  schismatic,  he  was  w  . 
learned,  generous,  and  just  to  his  subjects," 

For  a  full  account  of  the  Fatimide  dynasty,  see  Short  History  of  the  Sarac  s 
(Macmillan). 


[II.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS     325 

le  frightened  Caliph,  to  fulminate  against  the  Fatimides  an 
iiathema  declaring  that  they  were  not  the  genuine  descendants 
<■  Fatima.  The  Fatimides,  on  their  side,  replied  by  a  counter- 
aathema,  signed  by  the  leading  doctoi-s  of  Cairo,  among  them 
:  any  belonging  to  the  IMaliki  and  Shafe'i  persuasions.  In  spite, 
jwever,  of  the  doubts  thrown  on  their  legitimacy  by  the 
.bbaside  doctors,  great  historians  like  Makrizi,  Ibn  Khaldun, 
,id  Abulfeda  have  accepted  the  genuineness  of  the  claims  of 
le  Fatimides. 

1  Makrizi  is  extremely  outspoken  on  the  subject,  and  plainly 
aarges  the  partisans  of  the  Bani-Abbas  with  misrepresenta- 
pn  and  forgery.  Dealing  with  the  Abbaside  statement  that 
•baidullah  al-Mahdi  was  not  a  descendant  of  Mohammed,  he 
pes  on  to  say,  "  a  little  examination  of  facts  will  show  that  this 
]  a  fabrication.  The  descendants  of  Ali,  the  son  of  Abu  Talib, 
;;  that  time  were  numerous,  and  the  Shiahs  regarded  them  with 
feat  veneration.  What  was  it  then  that  could  have  induced 
•leir  partisans  to  forsake  them,  the  descendants  of  Mohammed, 
ad  to  recognise  in  their  stead  as  Imam  an  offspring  of  the  Magi, 
;man  of  Jewish  origin  ?  No  man,  unless  absolutely  devoid  of 
(•mmonsense,  would  act  thus.  The  report  that  Obaidullah  al- 
ahdi  was  by  descent  a  Jew  or  a  Magian  owes  its  origin  to  the 
;tifices  of  the  feeble  Abbaside  princes,  who  did  not  know  how 
i  rid  themselves  of  the  Fatimides,  for  their  power  lasted  with- 
nt  interruption  for  270  years,  and  they  despoiled  the 
ibbasides  of  the  countries  of  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria,  the  Diar- 
akr,  the  two  sacred  cities  (Mecca  and  Medina),  and  of  Yemen. 
Ihe  Khutba  was  even  read  in  their  names  at  Bagdad  during 
[rty  weeks.  The  Abbaside  armies  could  not  make  head 
ii,^ainst  them  ;  and,  therefore,  to  inspire  the  people  with 
j/ersion  against  the  Fatimides,  they  spread  calumnies  about 
■'leir  origin.  The  Abbaside  officers  and  Ameers  who  could  not 
ontend  successfully  with  the  Fatimides  gladly  adopted  these 
;inders  as  a  means  of  revenge.  The  Kazis,  who  attested  the 
;:t  of  convocation  under  Kadir  b'illah,  acted  under  the  orders 
«  the  Caliph,  and  only  upon  hearsay  ;  and  since  then  historians 
kve  heedlessly  and  without  reflection  given  currency  to  a 
f.lumny  which  was  invented  by  the  Abbasides."  Nothing 
<.n  be  more  explicit  than  this  statement  by  a  critical  historian 


326  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

and  a  distinguished  jurisconsult  whose  reputation  stands  hi^ 
among  all  Orientals.^ 

Probably  the  doctrines  professed  by  the  Egyptian  Fatimid 
were  subjected  to  the  same  process  of  misrepresentation.  St: 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  adopted  largely  the  esoter 
doctrines  of  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun,  surnamed  the  Kadddh  (tl 
Oculist),  and  made  use  of  his  degrees  of  initiation  for  tl 
purposes  of  a  political  propaganda. 

The  protracted  struggle  between  pope  and  emperor  for  tl 
suzerainty  of  Christendom  ;  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  with  i 
concomitant  miseries  ;  the  persecution  of  the  Huguenots, 
which  dynastic  ambitions  played  as  important  a  part  as  religio 
bigotry, — give  us  some  conception  of  the  evils  that  have  flow* 
from  the  greed  of  earthly  power.  In  Islam  it  has  been  tl 
same.  The  Abbasides  battling  with  the  Ommeyyades,  ai 
then  with  the  Egyptian  Fatimides,  produced  the  same  d: 
astrous  results. 

The  eastern  provinces  of  the  ancient  Persian  empire  were 
this  time  the  home  of  a  variety  of  congenial  spirits.  Here  h;. 
gathered  not  only  the  Mago-Zoroastrians,  fleeing  before  ti: 
Islamic  wave,  but  also  the  representatives  of  various  Indi;!. 
sects,  with  their  ideas  of  metempsychosis,  the  incarnation  li 
Vishnu,  the  descent  of  Krishna  from  heaven,  and  his  free  a:! 
easy  intercourse  with  the  gopis.  The  revolutionary  opinio; 
and  heresies  which  under  the  later  Sasanides  had  shaken  t ; 
temple  and  palace  alike,  and  which  Kesra  Anushirvan  hi 
endeavoured  to  exterminate  with  fire  and  sword,  had  surviv  \ 
all  persecutions.  At  least  they  retained  sufficient  vitality  ^ 
reappear  in  Islam  in  various  shapes  and  forms. 

Makrizi  died  in  845  a.c.     Jamal  ud-din  Abu'l  Mahasin  Yusuf  bin  Tag  ; 


bardi,  in 
thus  :— 

his 

'ij^^ 

jj^ 

•J_^^ 

^-* 

»:,^!>'t 

CJ^> 

speaks  of  MaK 

^-^ly^^- 

1     'is 

&£ 

Jisiji 

OJsvJI     ^JlxJI  ^Ui' 

>i^jl 

^ 

;jUil 

SiX 

u- 

0^ 

u' 

J.^1 

cri'^^'    ^^'    ^j*:^^^^^^ 

cr 

^_5   • 

.^n 

^^'    ^ 

'.     f»-*^ 

c/^    ^ 

'^^'^  ^^ 

,»*a'/^' 

c/^    '^-^  I 

s]jJA 

^o^J 

J- 

"  In  this  year  died  the  learned  sheikh  and  Imam,  jurisconsult,  and  nt 
eminent  historian  and  traditionist,  Taki  ud-din  Ahmed,  son  ol  Ali,"  etc.  e1 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS     327 

The  Rdwendis,  an  Indo-Magian  sect  who  maintained  the 
doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  the  Safidjdmagdn} 
founded  by  Hakim  bin  Hashim,  the  infamous  Mokanna,^ 
revolted  in  Khorasan,  and  were  suppressed  by  the  Caliph  Al- 
Mcihdi.  Mokanna  taught  that  God  had  assumed  the  human 
form,  since  He  had  commanded  the  angels  to  adore  the  first 
man  ;  and  that,  since  that  period,  the  divine  nature  had  passed 
from  prophet  to  prophet  until  it  had  descended  to  himself.^ 

About  the  same  time  Mazdakism,  which  two  centuries  and 
a  half  before  had  involved  the  empire  of  the  Chosroes  in  a 
general  conflagration,  and  was  ruthlessly  trampled  under  foot  by 
the  great  Anushirvan,  raised  its  head  again  under  the  Caliphs. 
The  snake  had  only  been  half  killed.  Babek,  surnamed 
Khurrami  (from  Khurram,  his  place  of  birth),  preached,  like 
his  prototype  Mazdak,  the  same  nihilistic  doctrines, — the  com- 
munity of  women  and  goods,  and  the  indifference  of  all  human 
actions.  For  a  space  of  twenty  years  he  filled  the  whole 
circuit  of  the  Caliphate  with  carnage  and  ruin,  until  at  length, 
in  the  reign  of  Mu'tasim  b'illah,  he  was  overthrown,  taken 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death  in  the  Caliph's  presence.  It  was  a 
repetition  of  the  old  story.  Islam  had  to  pass  through  the 
same  throes  as  Christianity.  From  the  beginning  of  the  second 
to  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  there  was  an  unceasing  struggle 
in  Christianity  with  the  ancient  cults,  which  were  appearing  in 
diversified  characters  throughout  the  wide  area  in  which  the 
religion  of  Jesus  was  professed.  After  this  struggle  was  over, 
a  deadly  pall  settled  over  Christendom  ;  orthodoxy  had  suc- 
ceeded in  crushing  not  only  the  revolutionary  Montanists,  the 
Manichaean  Paulicians,  but  also  the  rationalistic  Arians. 
Ecclesiasticism  and  orthodoxy,  convertible  terms,  held  in 
bondage  the  mind  of  man  until  the  Reformation.     Islam  had 

'  So  called  because  they  dressed  themselves  in  white,  like  the  Taborides  of 
Europe. 

*  This  is  the  impostor  whom  Moore  has  made  famous  as  "  the  Veiled  Prophet 
of  Khorasan."  He  was  called  Mokanna  because,  either  to  conceal  his  ugliness, 
or  to  impress  his  followers  with  a  sense  of  inaccessibility,  he  always  wore  a  veil. 
He  was  also  called  the  Sdzendeh-i-Mah  (Moon-maker),  because  on  one  occasion 
he  had,  by  a  piece  of  jugglery,  caused  an  illumination,  like  that  of  the  moon, 
at  Nakhsheb. 

'  Ibn  Khaldun's  General  History,  Kitdb  til-' I  bar.  &c.  (Egypt,  cd.),  vol.  iii. 
p.  206. 


328  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

to  pass  through  the  same  ordeal,  but  its  Reformation  is  only 
just  commencing. 

Islam  required  from  its  votaries  a  simple  confession  of  an 
eternal  truth,  and  the  practice  of  a  few  moral  duties.  In  other 
respects  it  allowed  them  the  widest  latitude  of  judgment.  In 
the  name  of  divine  unity  it  held  forth  to  all  creeds  and  sects  the 
promise  of  a  democratic  equality.  Naturally  the  persecuted 
heretics  of  every  faith  rallied  round  the  standard  of  the  Prophet 
who  had  emancipated  human  judgment  from  the  bondage  of 
priesthood  ;  and  "  Avestan  scripturalists  "  and  Zoroastrian 
free-thinkers,  Manichaeans,  Christians,  Jews,  and  Magi  aU 
hailed  the  advent  of  a  new  dispensation  which  realised  the 
dream  of  religious  unity.  The  swarms  of  gnostic  sects  which 
had  distracted  the  Church  of  Jesus  from  the  second  to  the  sixth 
century  had  either  merged  in  the  Church  of  Mohammed,  or 
lived  in  peace,  unmolested  by  the  orthodox  Greeks  or  Catholics, 
under  the  large  tolerance  of  the  Caliphs.  The  former,  whilst 
they  adopted  the  faith  of  Mohammed,  retained  their  primitive 
conceptions,  and  gave  birth  to  the  docetic  sects  of  Islam,  which 
we  shall  describe  later  on. 

The  national  characteristics  of  a  people,  the  climatic  condi- 
tions under  which  they  exist,  the  natural  features  of  the  country 
in  which  they  dwell,  the  influence  of  older  cults,  all  give  a  colour 
and  a  complexion  to  their  faiths  and  doctrines.  It  is  the  same 
in  Christendom  and  in  Islam.  Iran  gave  birth  to  agnosticism  ; 
from  there  emanated  the  docetic  conceptions  which  permeated 
the  Roman  world  and  impressed  upon  the  primitive  belief  of 
the  judaical  Christians  the  conception  of  a  divinity  who  dis- 
coursed familiarly  with  mankind  on  earth.  Manichasism,  that 
wonderful  mixture  of  fancy  and  philosophy,  to  which  Chris- 
tianity owes  so  much  and  acknowledges  so  little,  was,  in  spite 
of  the  persecution  of  Zoroastrian  and  Christian,  alive,  not  dead. 
Will  it  ever  die,  that  child  of  a  bizarre  genius,  the  outcome  of 
a  nation's  character  ?  Theologians  may  try,  but  will  never 
kill  it.  The  morbidism  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Sunni  Church  gave 
place  in  Iran  to  imaginative  philosophy.  All's  personality 
fired  the  imagination  of  Manichseism.  It  took  the  place  of  the 
docetic  Christ  among  the  people.  The  process  of  deification 
was  not  confined  to  Ali.     His  successors  were  deified  with  him. 


|iii.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      329 

hiaism,  like  Sunnism,  presents  therefore  two  aspects.  One 
the  pure,  simple  S hiaism  of  Mohammed's  immediate  descen- 
ants,  which  we  shall  describe  shortly.  The  other  is  docetic 
hiaism,  fantastic  and  transmogrified  according  to  the 
rimitive  beliefs  of  the  people  among  whom  it  spread.  Ultra- 
liiaism  is  again  as  different  from  docetic  Shiaism  as  ultra- 
imnism  or  NaK'dsibism  is  from  docetic  Sunnism.  Narrow- 
linded  exclusiveness  is  not  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  any 
lie  faith  or  creed  ;  nor  are  the  thunders  of  the  Athanasian 
[reed  confined  to  Christianity.  In  Islam  also  (be  it  said  with 
i^rtain  exceptions)  each  sect  condemns  the  others  to  perdition, 
iDt  eternal  (as  the  orthodox  Christian  charitably  hopes  it  will 
te),  but  sufficiently  prolonged  to  make  them  feel  the  evils  of 
:  different  'doxy  from  its  own.  Still,  notwithstanding  the 
nathemas  of  hell-fire  and  brimstone  which  have  been  hurled 
y  contending  parties  and  sects  against  each  other,  the  philo- 
ophical  student  will  not  fail  to  observe  the  universality  of  Islam. 
,  About  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  Constantine 
ylvanus  founded  the  Manichaean  sect  of  PauUcians,  who 
srived  their  name  from  St.  Paul,  whose  disciples  they  professed 
lemselves  to  be.  The  Paulicians  disclaimed  the  designation 
I  Manichaean  ;  but  their  doctrines  bear  the  closest  analogy  to 
iiose  taught  by  Mani,  and  all  the  Christian  writers,  with  the 
Kception  of  Milner,  ascribe  their  origin  to  Manichaeism.  The 
aulicians  were  the  real  progenitors  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
if  Europe.  Their  abhorrence  of  images  and  relics  was  pro- 
ably  a  reflex  of  Islamic  influences.  In  their  aversion  towards 
•ariolatry  and  saint-worship,  and  in  the  repudiation  of  all 
.isible  objects  of  adoration,  they  closely  approached  the 
i'oslems.  They  believed,  however,  with  Mani,  that  Christ  was 
pure  spirit  which  bore  on  earth  only  the  semblance  of  a  body, 
id  that  the  crucifixion  was  a  mere  delusion.  They  maintained 
ae  eternity  of  matter  ;  the  origin  of  a  second  principle,  of  an 
ctive  being,  who  has  created  this  visible  world,  and  exercises 
■is  temporal  reign  till  the  final  consummation  of  sin  and  death. 
1  the  interpretation  of  the  Christian  Gospels  they  indulge  in 
legories  and  figures,  and  claimed,  like  Mani,  an  esoteric  insight 
iito  the  meaning  of  words.  An  outward  and  expedient  profes- 
:;on  of  another  faith,  a  doctrine  whicli  in  modern  Persia  has 


330  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

become  famous  as  ketmdn  or  takiyye,^  was  held  to  be  commei  - 
able,  I 

The  Paulicians  were  persecuted  by  the  Greek  Church  and  e 
Byzantine  Court  with  terrible  fury,  and  for  nearly  two  hundil 
years  they  waged  a  not  unequal  contest  in  North  Armenia  si 
Cappadocia  with  the  fanatics  and  despots  of  Byzantium,  i 
which  both  sides  perpetrated  the  most  fearful  atrocities, 2  t 
last  they  succumbed  to  superior  force  ;  but  though  tl;!r 
fortresses  were  razed  and  their  cities  ruined,  the  sect  lived,  t 
passed  its  doctrines  to  the  Bulgarians,  who  have  alw;s 
been  regarded  with  disfavour  by  the  Orthodox  Churcli;. 
The  Paulicians  after  their  destruction  in  Asia  appead 
in  South  Provence  and  Savoy  in  the  thirteenth  centr/. 
Their  fate  in  those  countries  is  known  to  every  reaix 
of  European  history.  They  were  annihilated  with  fire  <id 
sword, — not  even  women  and  children  were  spared  ;  sih 
of  the  latter  as  escaped  were  reduced  to  slavery.  But  Pai- 
cianism  did  not  die  ;  it  showed  itself  in  England,  where  i:s 
followers,  under  the  name  of  Lollards,  suffered  like  tliir 
predecessors  in  Asia,  in  Savoy,  and  in  Provence  ;  it  reappead 
in  Bohemia  under  Huss  ;  and  finally  it  triumphed  under  Lut^r 
and  Calvin  over  its  orthodox  persecutors.  We  have  tracecjio 
far  the  fate  of  this  peculiar  sect,  as  in  its  original  honnit 
exercised  no  inconsiderable  influence  over  the  religio-politial 
movements  which  were  proceeding  about  the  same  timejin 
Islam.  I 

During  the  tempestuous  epoch,  when  Chyroseir  the  Paulid'in 
was  devastating  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Byzantine  domini<;S, 
and  had  filled  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor  with  carnage  and  r,n, 
there  lived  at  Ahwaz,  in  Ears,  a  man  who  equalled  Mani  in  le 
versatility  of  his  genius,  the  variety  of  his  information,  andie 
profundity  of  his  knowledge,  and  who  was  destined  to  plajin 
almost  equal  part  in  the  history  of  religion.  AbduUah  |)n 
Maimun  al-Kaddah  has  been  represented  by  his  enemies  ;i  a 
Magian    by   birth  :     whilst   his   disciples    have   declared    m 

1  See  post,  p.  335. 

"  A  hundred  thousand  PauUcians  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  unde  he 
orders  of  the  second  Theodora,  the  mother  of  Manuel,  by  the  sword,  the  gi  et, 
or  the  flames. 


viii.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS     331 

to  be  a  descendant  of  Ali.^  However  that  may  be,  it 
is  clear  that  he  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  House  of 
Mohammed.  Considering  the  disastrous  consequences  which 
directly  or  indirectly  have  flowed  from  his  teachings,  it  was 
impossible  for  even  historians  like  Ibn  Khaldim  ^  to  avoid 
viewing  the  man  and  his  doctrines  with  an  unfavourable  bias. 
They  think  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun  was  animated  by  a  desire  to 
subvert  the  dominion  of  Islam  by  the  same  insidious  means 
which  were  adopted  by  his  great  prototype  against  Christianity. 
Aware  of  the  risk  attendant  upon  an  open  war  against  con- 
stituted authority  so  long  as  the  conscience  of  the  people  and 
temporal  power  were  at  its  back,  he  determined  (they  say)  to 
work  in  secret  like  Mani.  He  accordingly  enveloped  his  system 
in  a  veil  of  mystery,  and,  in  order  to  annihilate  all  positive 
religion  and  authority,  he  resolved  to  divide  his  followers  into 
seven  degrees,  like  the  Pythagoreans.  The  last  degree  incul- 
cated the  vanity  of  all  religion, — the  indifference  of  actions, 
which,  according  to  him,  are  neither  visited  with  recompense 
nor  chastisement,  either  now  or  hereafter.  He  appointed 
emissaries  whom  he  despatched  to  enlist  disciples,  and  to 
initiate  them  according  to  their  capacity  in  some  or  all  of  the 
degrees.  The  pretensions  of  the  son  of  Isma'il  served  them  as 
a  poUtical  mask  ;  whilst  working  ostensibly  for  him,  they  were 
secretly,  but  in  reality,  the  apostles  of  impiety. ^ 

Shahristani's  account,^  however,  of  the  tenets  of  the  sect  is 
in  a  more  philosophical  spirit  ;  whilst  Mohsin  Fani's  description 
in  the  Dabisidn,  derived  from  members  of  the  fraternity,  is 
coloured  with  a  slightly  roseate  hue.  But,  studied  carefully, 
they  render  it  more  than  probable  that  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun 
was  a  materialistic  theist  ;  that  like  Mani,  he  was  fired  with 
the  ambition  of  creating  an  eclectic  naturalism,  which  would 
reconcile  philosophy  with  positive  religion  ;  and  that  his 
degrees  of  initiation  were  analogous  to  the  mystical  degrees  of 
the  Sufis.     It  is  evident  from  what  Mirkhond  states  that  the 

*  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun  is  stated  to  have  been  at  one  time  in  the  service  of 
Imam  Ja'far  as  S&dik. 

•Pronounced  in  Arabic  Ibn  (u)  Khaldun  ;   in  Persian,  Ibn  (i)  Khaldfln. 
•Nuwairi,  Journal  Asiatique,  vol.  iv.  p.  298. 

*  Shahristani,  part  i.  p.  147. 


332  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  il. 

Egyptian  Fatimides  adopted  most  of  their  mystical  doctrines 
from  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun.^ 

Abdullah  proceeded  from  Ahwaz  to  Basra,  and  thence  to 
Syria,  where  he  settled  at  Salemiye.  In  the  course  of  his 
travels  he  came  in  contact  with  the  Paulicians,  and  imbibed 
many  of  their  doctrines.  The  long-continued  struggle  of  the 
Paulicians  with  the  Byzantines,  and  the  success  of  their  pro- 
selytising endeavours,  undoubtedly  influenced  him  in  his 
project  of  religion.  He  moulded  his  doctrines  partly  upon 
those  actually  taught  by  Mani  and  partly  upon  those  of  the 
Moslem  mystics.  Manichaeism  itself  was  essentially  pan- 
theistic, founded  upon  a  substratum  of  Pythagorean  philo- 
sophy, Zervanism,  and  Christianity.  Abdullah's  followers  have 
received  the  designation  of  Bdtinis  or  Esotericians,  on  account 
of  their  claim  to  an  esoteric  insight  into  the  precepts  of  positive 
religion — a  claim  similar  to  that  advanced  by  the  Manichaeans 
and  Paulicians. 

Abdullah  ibn  Maimun  seems  to  have  affirmed  the  eternity  of 
matter.  He  declared  further  "  that  God  is  not  separate  from 
His  manifestations  ;  that  it  cannot  be  predicated  of  him  inde- 
pendently that  He  is  existent  or  non-existent,  omniscient  or 
non-omniscient,  for  to  affirm  regarding  Him  any  of  these  things 
is  to  assume  that  there  is  some  resemblance  between  Him  and 
His  creatures  ;  that  the  First  Cause  evolved  by  a  simple 
command  [amr-i-wdhid) ,  or  a  mere  act  of  volition,  a  Principle 
which  was  embosomed  in  Eternity,  and  is  called  Akl  or  Reason, 
and  this  Principle  evolved  a  subordinate  Principle  called  the 
Nafs  or  soul,  whose  relation  to  the  other  is  that  of  a  child  to  the 
parent  ;  that  the  essential  attribute  of  this  Principle  is  Life, 
as  that  of  Reason  is  Knowledge  ;  that  this  second  Principle  gave 
shape  to  pre-existent  Matter,  the  essential  attribute  of  which 
is  passivity,  and  afterwards  created  Time  and  Space,  the 
elements,  the  planets,  and  the  astral  bodies,  and  all  other 
objects  in  creation  ;  that  in  consequence  of  an  incessant  desire  , 
on  the  part  of  the  Second  Principle  {the  Demiurgtis)  to  raise 

^  The  Egyptian  Fatimides  differed  from  the  general  body  of  the  Isma'ilias 
in  one  essential  feature.  Whilst  the  latter  held  that  Isma'il,  their  last  Imam, 
had  only  disappeared,  and  would  reappear  in  the  fulness  of  time  when  "  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  "  would  be  revealed,  the  Egyptians  taught  that  he  had 
reappeared  in  the  person  of  ObaiduUah  al-Mahdi  and  his  successors. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS     333 

itself  to  the  level  of  the  First  Created  Principle,  it  manifested 
itself  in  matter  in  the  shape  of  human  beings  ;   that  the  aim  of 
all  human  souls  is  to  struggle  upwards  to  the  Creative  Principle 
or  Wisdom  ;  that  the  Prophets  are  embodiments  or  manifesta- 
tions of  that  Principle  to  help  the  human  soul  to  struggle  with 
matter  ;  the  Prophets  are  therefore  called  Ndtik,  (>iL.,  '  speak- 
ing apostles  '  ;   that  they  are  seven  in  number  like  the  planets  ; 
that  the  progress  of  the  world  is  in  cycles,  and  at  the  last  stage 
will  occur  the  Resurrection  (^^t^  c-<iJ ) ,  when  the  sanctions 
of  positive  religion  and  law  will  be  withdrawn,  for  the  motion 
of  the  heavens  and  the  adoption  of  the  precepts  of  religion  are 
for  the  purpose  that  the  Soul  may  attain  Perfection,  and  its 
perfection  consists  in  attaining  to  the  degrees  of  Reason  and 
its  junction  or  assimilation  with  it  in  fact  ;  and  this  is  the  great 
Resurrection   ( ^yS  o^Li  ),   when  all  things,  the  heavens,  the 
elements,  and  organic  substances,  will  be  dissolved  ;    and  the 
earth  will  be  changed,  and  the  heavens  will  be  closed  like  a 
I  written  book,  and  the  good  will  be  differentiated  from  the  bad, 
I  and  the  obedient  from  the  disobedient,  and  the  good  will  be 
i  merged  in  the  Universal  Soul,  and  the  bad  will  join  with  the 
!  Principle  of  Evil ;   thus  from  the  commencement  of  motion  to 
j  its  cessation  (according  to  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun)  is  the  initial 
S  stage   ( \iy)J0 ),    and  from  the  cessation  of  motion  or  activitj'  to 
i  amalgamation  with  infinity  is  the  stage  of  perfection  ;  ^    tliat 

«   ^'l  kJI  ^    J5*JI    ^    ^j^a.'\S\    O^j.sviL.    u-TU'ill   u;>,S.sv;  L$ 
^^A.iJI    i_^j,s\ij    ^Jl.-iJlj    (_>5liv.i))|    .    (^y-^ftiJI    t^i^i.s^;    i^Jai 

J.C  k;l>  j..-^  js  , 


iXij 


«yU^)U      ^M^U     ,       ^''Wl     v-^iiU;     J:^'di     ^^,xi.!\     A^li&/, 
t/5;Vl    j^y'c     (>;V1     Jj^I  ^    ^,$^_<JI    /Mil  ^     >U^i|  ^^.Jo   , 


334  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

all  the  precepts  of  religion  and  law  have  their  measures  "... 
"  and  that  each  letter  and  word  have  two  meanings,  for  every 
revelation  [tanzii)  has  an  interpretation  {tdvil),  and  everything 
visible  has  its  counterpart  in  the  invisible  world  ;  that  know- 
ledge of  truth  cannot  be  acquired  by  reason  but  by  instruction." 
Abdullah  ibn  Maimun's  disciples  developed  his  doctrines  still 
further  by  declaring  that  Resurrection  means  the  Advent  or 
Revelation  of  the  Imam  and  of  a  Heavenly  Kingdom  in  which 
all  the  burdens  of  positive  religion  and  traditions  would  be 
removed  ;  that  deception  in  religion  is  allowable  ;  that  all  the 
precepts  of  the  Koran  have  an  esoteric  sense  ;  that  religion  does 
not  consist  in  external  observances,  but  in  an  inner  sense  and 
feeling  ;  that  every  thing  or  act  which  is  not  injurious  is  lawful ; 
that  fasting  is  nothing  but  keeping  the  secret  of  the  Imam  ; 
that  the  prohibition  against  fornication  implies  that  the 
disciple  must  not  disclose  the  mysteries  of  the  faith  ;  and  that 
zakdt  means  the  giving  of  the  tithes  to  the  Imam  ma'stlm — a 
peculiar  and  fantastical  medley  of  many  cults  and  philosophies, 
and  in  its  tendency  subversive  of  law  and  morality. 

Abdullah  ibn  Maimun  settled  in  Syria,  the  home  of  Christian 
Gnosticism,  where  he  still  further  developed  his  doctrines. 
Here  he  converted  Hamadan,  also  called  Karmath,  whose  name 
has  become  infamous  in  the  annals  of  Islam. 

The  method  of  proselytising  adopted  by  the  followers  of 
Abdullah  ibn  Maimun  was  the  old  Manichaean  one  of  throwing 
the  acolyte  into  a  sea  of  doubt  with  insidious  questions  and 
equivocal  replies,  "  not,"  says  Mohsin  Fani's  informant,  "  with 
any  evil  object,  but  simply  to  bring  the  seeker  after  truth  and 
wisdom  to  the  goal  of  perfection."  ^  The  process  varied  with 
the  religious  standpoint  of  the  person  whom  they  desired  to 

JixiARj    JJsl kI]    ^^^j/.yc.    J    Jxn    ^j^Rill>    j_svJI-  oU*,^ 

etc;  JkxJ 

— Shahristani,  pt.  i.  pp.  148,  I49 
»  Dabistdn,  p.  356. 


|i.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      335 

ivert.  The  Dd'i  ^  (the  missionary)  would  at  first  give  a  tacit 
cognition  of  the  faith  of  the  intended  proselyte,  and  then  by 
insinuation  of  doubt  and  difficulties,  gradually  unsettle  his 
md,  and  end  by  suggesting  as  the  only  possible  solution  the 
iculiar  tenets  of  the  Bdtini  system.  For  example,  if  the  Dd'i 
d  to  proselytise  a  Shiah,  he  would  represent  himself  as  a 
Ivoted  partisan  of  the  House  of  Mohammed.  He  would 
patiate  on  the  cruelty  and  injustice  with  which  they  were 
•ated — on  the  martyrdom  of  Husain  and  the  butchery  of 
irbela  ;  having  thus  prepared  the  way,  he  would  instil  into 
!3  now  receptive  mind  the  esoteric  doctrines  of  the  Bdtinis. 
ihe  had  a  Jew  to  deal  with,  he  spoke  disparagingly  of  the 
ristians  and  the  Musulmans,  and  while  agreeing  with  his 
ended  convert  in  still  looking  forward  to  a  promised  Messiah, 
degrees  persuaded  the  neophyte  that  this  promised  Messiah 
n  be  none  other  than  the  Isma'ilite  Imam.  If  it  was  a  Christian 
lom  he  hoped  to  win  over,  he  enlarged  on  the  obstinacy  of  the 
|ws  and  the  ignorance  of  the  Musulmans,  he  conformed  to  all 
e  chief  articles  of  the  Christian  creed,  at  the  same  time  hinting 
at  they  were  all  symbolic,  and  pointed  to  a  deeper  meaning 
lich  the  Bdtini  system  alone  could  solve.  And  after  the 
,.nd  of  the  neophyte  had  been  so  far  moulded  he  would  suggest 
at  the  Christians  had  misinterpreted  the  doctrine  of  the 
iraclete,  and  that  the  Isma'ilia  Imam  was  the  real  Paraclete. ^ 
-)dullah  ibn  Maimun  also  formulated  in  precise  terms  the 
ictrine  of  takeyye — outward  conformity  with  an  alien 
iigious  belief  or  practice.  It  had  been  in  vogue  among  all 
;;e  Manichaean  sects — not  excepting  the  Paulicians.  It  was 
-introduced  by  Abdullah  ibn  Maimun,  partly  to  escape  per- 
cution,  partly  to  facilitate  the  work  of  proselytism.  Takeyye 
the  natural  defence  of  the  weak  and  suffering  against  the 
rong.  All  people  have  not  the  fibre  of  a  martyr  ;  and  the 
ajority  of  them  have  to  submit  where  they  cannot  oppose. 
:ie  primitive  Christians  had  to  practise  takeyye.  The  Isma'ilias 
.d  special  reasons  for  concealing  their  religious  views  in  all 
untries  within  the  sway  of  the  Abbaside  Caliphs  ;  and  this 
ig-enforced  habit  became  at  last  a  second  nature  with  them, 
lorn  them  the  Shiahs  proper  borrowed  the  practice  of  takeyye. 

^^1^,  one  who  invites.  »  Mani,  in  fact,  claimed  to  be  the  Paraclete, 


336  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


Before  Persia  and  Turkey  had  entered  upon  terms  of  amity  i 
Shiah  was  unable  to  perform  the  Hajj  unless  he  conformed  d 
the  Sunni  rites,  and  takeyye  in  such  cases  was  almost  a  necessy 
with  the  devout  Shiah  wishing  to  visit  the  holy  shrines.  It 
takeyye,  "the  natural  offspring  of  persecution  and  fear,"  ]s 
become  so  habitual  with  the  Persians  that  they  conform  tc  t 
even  in  circumstances  when  there  is  no  necessity.  Tl^ 
practise  it  to  avoid  giving  offence  or  wounding  susceptibilit:;, 
just  as  the  modern  Protestant  shows  a  certain  deference  o 
Romish  rites  in  Catholic  countries. 

Hamadan,  otherwise  called  Karmath,  had  broken  away  frn 
his  master  and  formed  a  sect  of  his  own.  Abdullah  ibn  Main  n 
had  disavowed  the  use  of  force  in  his  proselytism  ;  Karm;h 
advocated  it  as  the  corner-stone  of  his  sect.  Possibly,  ]  e 
Chyroseir,  he  was  driven  to  it  by  the  persecution  of  the  ort  >- 
dox.  He  raised  an  insurrection  in  al-Ahsa  and  al-Bahni. 
The  weakness  of  the  Caliph's  troops  gave  him  the  victcA 
Collecting  a  large  following  he  issued  from  al-Bahrain,  a;l, 
like  the  Paulician  Chyroseir,  marked  his  progress  by  slauglj^r 
and  ruin.  The  Karmathites,  from  their  fastnesses  in  al-Bahij.n 
and  al-Ahsa,  waged  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  a  sanguiniy 
contest  with  the  Pontiffs  of  Bagdad.  They  pillaged  ein 
Mecca,  and  carried  away  the  sacred  stone,  the  symbol  3f 
Abrahamitic  antiquity,  like  the  Wahabis  900  years  later,  n 
this  sacrilege  they  imitated  the  example  of  their  congeners,  le 
Paulicians,  who  had  pillaged  Ephesus,  destroyed  the  sepuk're 
of  St.  John,  and  turned  his  cathedral  into  a  stable  for  m  es 
and  horses.  They  were  destroyed  ultimately  by  the  Ca)h 
Mu'tazid  b'illah. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Karmathites,  Isma'ilism  as 
proscribed  ;  its  votaries  were  placed  under  the  ban,  and  hur  Jd 
like  vermin.  Isma'ilism  had  to  hide  itself  on  all  sides  util 
Obaidullah  al-Mahdi  wrested  Africa  from  the  Abbasides, 

The  Fatimides  of  Egypt  were  grand  supporters  of  lean  ig 
and  science.  Yet  in  their  desire  to  promote  the  diffusioi  ol 
knowledge  among  their  subjects,  they  did  not  ignore  .he 
political  advantages  of  the  propaganda  established  by  AbduaJi 
ibn  Maimun,  whose  esoteric  and  Manichsean  doctrines  ley 
partially  adopted  for  their  own  purposes,     They  establijed 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS     337 

colleges,  public  libraries,  and  scientific  institutes  {Day  id- 
///^Wi?/),  richly  furnished  with  books,  mathematical  instruments, 
to  which  were  attached  numerous  professors  and  attendants. 
Access  to,  and  the  use  of,  these  literary  treasures  were  free  to 
all,  and  writing  materials  were  afforded  gratis. ^  The  Caliphs 
frequently  held  learned  disputations,  at  which  the  professors  at 
these  academies  appeared,  divided  according  to  the  different 
faculties, — logicians,  mathematicians,  jurists,  and  physicians, 
dressed  in  their  Khala',  or  doctoral  mantles.  The  gowns  of  the 
English  universities  still  retain  the  original  form  of  the  Arabic 
Khala'  or  Kaftan. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  thousand  ducats,  raised  by  a 
•carefully  regulated  taxation,  was  the  amount  of  the  annual 
revenue  of  the  institutes,  for  the  salaries  of  the  professors  and 
officials,  for  the  provision  of  the  requisites  for  teaching,  and 
other  objects  of  public  scientific  instruction.  In  these  institutes 
they  taught  every  branch  of  human  knowledge.  To  the  central 
Ddr  ul-hikmat  was  attached  a  grand  Lodge,  where  the  candi- 
dates for  initiation  into  the  esoteric  doctrines  of  Isma'ilism  were 
instructed  in  the  articles  of  the  faith.  Twice  a  week,  every 
Monday  and  Wednesday,  the  Dcl'i  ud-du'dt,  the  Grand  Prior 
of  the  Lodge,  convened  meetings,  which  were  frequented  by 
both  men  and  women,  dressed  in  white,  occupying  separate 
seats.  These  assemblages  were  named  Majdlis  iil-hikmat,  or 
Conferences  of  Wisdom.  Before  the  initiation  the  Dd'i  ud- 
du'dt  waited  on  the  Caliph,  who  was  the  Grand  Master,  and 
'read  to  him  the  discourse  he  proposed  to  deliver  to  the  neo- 
phytes, and  received  his  sign-manual  on  the  cover  of  the 
manuscript. 2  After  the  lecture  the  pupils  kissed  the  hands  of 
the  Grand  Prior,  and  touched  the  signature  of  the  Master 
reverently  with  their  foreheads.  Makrizi's  account  of  the 
different  degrees  of  initiation  adopted  in  this  Lodge  forms  an 
invaluable  record  of  freemasonry.  In  fact,  the  Lodge  at  Cairo 
became  the  model  of  all  the  Lodges  created  afterwards  in 
Christendom.  Abdullah  ibn  Maimiin  had  established  seven 
degrees  of  initiation.  Seven  was  the  sacred  number  :  there 
were  seven  planets,  seven  days  in  the  week,  and  seven  Imams, 
At  Cairo,  where  Egyptian  hierophantism  with  the  old  mystic 
!    ^Makrlzi;  Chrestomathie  Arabe  (De  Sacy),  vol.  i.  p.  158.  *  Makkari. 

S.I.  Y 


338  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  u 

ceremonies  became  superimposed  on  the  Manichaean  foimda 
tion,  the  number  was  increased  to  nine.^  The  first  degree  wa 
the  most  difficult  of  all,  and  required  the  longest  time  to  mouL 
the  mind  of  the  neophyte,  and  incline  him  to  take  that  mos 
solemn  oath  by  which  he  bound  himself  to  the  secret  doctrin 
with  blind  faith  and  unconditional  obedience.  After  this  th 
process  was  simple  enough  :  the  acolyte  was  led  gradually  t 
recognise  all  the  doctrines,  and  to  become  the  instrument  c 
insatiable  ambition. 

The  Grand  Lodges  of  Mahdieh  and  afterwards  of  Caii 
became  thus  the  centres  of  a  vast  and  far-reaching  politic; 
propaganda.  But  the  knowledge  of  the  doctrines  upon  whic 
they  worked  was  confined  to  a  few.     Like  the  mysteries  ( 

^  A  very  good  description  of  the  different  stages  of  initiation  is  given  1 
De  Sacy  in  the  Journal  Asiatiqite,  vol.  iv.  p.  298.  In  order  to  induce  t 
neophyte  to  take  the  oath  of  the  first  degree,  his  mind  was  perplexed  by  t 
Da'i  with  doubts.  The  contradictions  of  positive  religion  and  reason  we 
dwelt  upon,  but  it  was  pointed  out  that  behind  the  apparent  literal  signific 
tion  there  lay  a  deeper  meaning,  which  was  the  kernel,  as  the  words  wt 
mere  husks.  The  curiosity  of  the  novice  was,  however,  not  satisfied  until  i 
had  taken  an  unrestricted  oath  ;  on  this  he  was  admitted  to  the  second  degn; 
This  inculcated  the  recognition  of  divinely-appointed  Imams,  who  were  t' 
source  of  all  knowledge.  As  soon  as  the  faith  in  them  was  well  establishf 
the  third  degree  taught  their  number,  which  could  not  exceed  the  holy  save 
for,  as  God  had  created  seven  heavens,  seven  earths,  seven  seas,  seven  plane, 
seven  colours,  seven  musical  sounds,  and  seven  metals,  so  had  He  appoinli 
seven  of  the  most  excellent  of  His  creatures  as  revealed  Imams  :  these  W"J 
Ali,  Hasan,  Husain,  Ali  II.  (Zain  ul-'Abidin),  Mohammed  al-Bakir,  Ja' ' 
as-Sadik,  and  Isma'il  his  son,  as  the  last  and  seventh.  In  the  fourth  deg  -' 
they  taught  that  since  the  beginning  of  the  world  there  have  been  se\  i 
speaking  apostles  (  {^^^  ).  embodiments  of  the  Logos,  each  of  whom  1,1 
always,  by  the  command  of  Heaven,  altered  the  doctrine  of  his  predecessr; 
each  of  these  had  seven  coadjutors,  who  succeeded  each  other  in  the  ep<  1 
from  one  Natik  to  another,  but  who,  as  they  did  not  manifest  themseh  , 
were  called  Sdmit  (>.;►-< t^  )  or  Silent.  The  seven  Ndtiks  were  Adam,  No  , 
Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  and  Isma'il  (the  son  of  Ja'far  as- Sac ) 
or  Imdm-i-zamdn  (Lord  or  Imam  of  all  times).  Their  seven  colleagues  we 
Seth,  Shem,  Ishmael  son  of  Abraham,  Aaron,  Simeon,  Ali,  and  Mohamr  i 
son  of  Isma'il.  The  object  of  having  a  Sdmit  attached  to  a  Ndtik  was  to  al  v 
a  free  hand  to  the  teachers  and  emissaries  to  put  forward  any  one  they  H  d 
as  the  Sdmit  apostle  of  the  time.  The  fifth  degree  inculcated  that  eacl  if 
the  seven  Sdmits  had  twelve  Nakibs  or  delegates  for  the  extension  of  the  1  e 
faith,  for  the  number  twelve  is  the  most  excellent  after  seven  ;  hence  e 
twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  the  twelve  months,  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  :. 
In  the  sixth  degree,  the  principles  of  IManichaean  philosophy  were  insti  d 
into  the  heart  of  the  neophyte,  and  only  when  he  was  fully  impressed  with  >e 
wisdom  of  those  doctrines  was  he  admitted  to  the  seventh,  where  he  pa;  d 
from  philosophy  to  mysticism.  He  then  became  one  of  the  knowers  ('drij  )• 
In  the  eighth  he  shook  off  the  trammels  of  positive  religion  :  The  "  veil"  iS 
lifted,  and  henceforth  "  everything  was  pure  to  the  pure."  The  tendenc  Jf 
these  doctrines  can  be  better  imagined  than  described. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DR'ISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      339 

Eleiisis,  or  tlie  secret  principles  of  tlie  Templars,  the  Illiiminati, 
and  tlie  Revolutionists  of  France,  they  were  imparted  only  to 
the  adepts — in  whole  or  in  part  ;  wholly  to  those  alone  who 
'were  intended  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  undermining  the 
[power  of  their  enemies.  For  the  masses  and  the  uninitiated, 
the  State-religion  was  Islam,  and  its  moral  precepts  and 
religious  observances  were  enforced  in  all  its  austerity.  Most 
A  the  Caliphs,  especially  al-Muizz,  were  in  their  lives  and 
practice  strict  religionists  and  observers  of  the  duties  enjoined 
by  the  moral  law.^  The  doctors  of  law  and  the  officers  of  State 
ivvere  pious  Moslems.  Nevertheless  the  fact  of  the  existence  of 
li  secret  body  working  on  mysterious  lines  loosened  the  bonds 
bf  society.  The  organisation  of  secret  emissaries  weakened  the 
control  of  the  Abbasides  without  permanently  strengthening 
|:he  hold  of  the  Fatimides  or  extending  their  temporal  power. 
[  The  Fatimides  of  Egypt  have  been  called  the  Western 
{[sma'ilias,  in  contradistinction  to  the  followers  of  Hasan  ibn 
Mohammed  Sabbah  Himyari,  commonly  known  as  Hasan 
Sabbah,  infamous  in  the  history  of  the  West  as  the  founder  of 
the  order  of  the  Assassins, ^  but  known  to  his  followers  as 
'  Syedna,"  "  our  lord."     His  disciples  are  sometimes  designated 

*  Mohsin  Fani  says  : — 

jjjjj        c  ,-i   .ftlii   '^^L  cVi*'*   **A  v-J;*'*  ixU**«kl   i*jl 

Hakim  bi-amr-illah,  the  sixth  Fatimide  Cahph  of  Cairo,  who  is  regarded 
,;ven  at  the  present  day  by  the  Druses  (a  branch  of  the  Isma'ihas)  as  an 
incarnation  of  the  Divinity,  has  been  represented  as  "  a  monster  of  iniquity." 
rtis  was  a  strangely  contradictory  character  ;  and,  as  Makrizi  rightly  thinks, 
'lis  mind  was  probably  affected.  He  was  at  times  atrociously  cruel  ;  at  other 
limes,  a  wise  and  humane  sovereign.  He  abolished  all  distinction  of  race 
ind  creed  in  his  dominions  ;  he  introduced  the  system  of  lighting  up  the  streets 
A  Cairo  for  the  protection  of  wayfarers  ;  he  organised  a  system  of  police  ;  he 
epressed  violence.  For  an  account  of  Hakim  bi-amr-illah,  see  Short  History 
>/  the  Saracens,  p.  602.  It  may  be  noticed,  as  a  remarkable  coincidence,  that 
jivan  the  Terrible,  who  has  been  termed  just  such  another  monster,  was 
egarded  by  the  average  Russian  of  his  day  as  a  monarch  of  singular  force  of 
;;haracter  and  ability.  The  fact  is  that  the  cruelties  practised  by  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza,  by  the  Norman  chief  of  Sicily  who  was  in  the  habit  of  dis- 
bmboweUing  his  victims,  by  the  Popes  Paul  and  Alexander  VI.,  by  the  Kings 
\ii  England,  Richard  and  John,  and  others,  show  only  too  clearly  how  little 
jiiSerence  creed  or  country  is  apt  to  make  in  the  misdeeds  of  irresponsible 
power  joined  to  an  innately  cruel  nature. 

\  *  Sylvestre  de  Sacy  derives  the  name  from  the  word  hashish  (the  Indian 
\^hang)  with  which  Hasan  Sabbah's  followers  drugged  themselves,  and 
phis  derivation  is  now  generally  accepted.  See  Professor  Browne's  Literary 
\Hist.  of  Persia,  vol.  ii.  pp.  204-5.     Mohsin  Fani  describes  this  man's  life  and 


340  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

as  the  Eastern  Isiiia'ilias  or  Alamutias,  or  the  Maldhida 
Kuhistan  ("  the  impious  atheists  "  of  Kiihistan). 

Hasan  was  the  son  of  a  learned  Shiah  doctor,  an  Arab  1 
descent,  as  his  name  betokens,  residing  in  the  city  of  Khoi 
Persia.  He  had  been  carefully  trained  in  all  the  learning  of  1 , 
time.  It  is  said  that  at  one  time  he  was  a  fellow-stude 
of  Nizam  ul-Mulk  (afterwards  the  renowned  minister  of  h) 
Arslan  and  of  Malik  Shah,  the  two  great  Seljukian  so^■ 
reigns  of  the  East)  and  of  the  famous  mystical  poet  On: 
Khayyam.  But  the  story  appears  now  to  be  discredited^ 
Baulked  in  his  ambition  at  the  court  of  MaUk  Shah,  3 
proceeded  to  the  pontifical  court  at  Cairo,  and  was  t\ni 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the  Cairene  Lodge.  Persia  t 
that  time  was  in  the  most  rigid  bonds  of  Sunni  orthodo: , 
the  Seljukian  Sultans  having  always  been  among  the  mrt 
devoted  upholders  of  the  straitest  traditions  of  Asha'ris . 
Hasan  returned  from  Egypt  to  Asia,  and  partly  by  force  ai 
partly  by  fraud  possessed  himself  of  an  almost  impregnae 
fortress  called  in  the  archaic  Persian  or  Pahlavi  Alamut,x 
the  Eagles'  Nest,^  seated  on  one  of  the  most  inaccessie 
mountain-fastnesses  of  Upper  Persia  ;  ^  and  during  the  thir ;- 
five  years  that  he  held  the  dominion  of  that  place,  he  organid 
from  there  a  system  of  terror  throughout  Asia  and  Africa  *  i  d 
Eastern  Europe,  fighting  the  sword  with  the  dagger,  and  ave  ',- 
ing  persecution  with  assassination.  He  himself  was  a  st::;t 
observer  of  all  the  precepts  of  religion,  and  would  not  alw 
drunkenness  or  dancing  or  music  within  the  circuit  of  his  rz. 
His  esotericism  appears  to  have  been  different  from  that  of  ae 

doctrines  according  to  the  Isma'ilias  themselves,  "  as  hitherto  his  life  had  1  Jn 
written  with  the  pen  of  prejudice." 

(_y  /      .  -  «  y       V         «     vy    J'. 

1  Professor  E.  G.  Browne's  Lit.  Hist,  of  Persia,  vol.  ii.  pp. 190-193. 

2  Wassaf,    o-jlii!  i^\xi,\  J\  Jitu  o^|  AaJj 
^  Near  Kazwin. 

*  Wassaf  says  : — 


^ 


•^^  fiy'ij'*'  J^^^ 


j/iii.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      341 

•Vestern  Isma'ilias,  and  is  explained  in  detail  by  Shahristani 
ind  Moshin  Fani,  both  of  whom  speak  of  him  with  some  awe, 
vliich  induces  the  conviction  that  they  were  not  quite  un- 
ipprehensive  of  the  dagger  of  his  Jiddis.^  Leaving  the  mystical 
)ortion  of  his  doctrines  aside,  it  may  be  said  that  he  admitted 
mly  four  degrees  of  initiation.  Those  who  had  obtained  the 
irst  three  degrees  were  named  respectively  Fiddi,  Rafik,  and 
.)d''i, — fellows,  companions,  and  knights, — to  use  the  terms  of 
;.  system  to  which  Hasan's  institution  bears  the  closest  resem- 
plance,  viz.  that  of  the  Templars.  Hasan  was  the  first  Grand 
[iaster  of  this  institution,  though  he  always  paid  a  formal 
fiomage  to  the  Egyptian  Caliphs.  The  fourth  Grand  Master, 
[lasan  bin  Mohammed,  of  the  Alamutia  Lodge,  who,  in  order 
o  further  his  ends,  did  not  hesitate  to  claim  descent  from  the 
I'aliph  Mustansir  billah  of  Cairo  through  his  son  Nizar,  abolished 
,11  the  ordinances  of  religion.  The  Resurrection  had  arrived  ; 
he  revelation  of  the  Imam  had  taken  place  in  his  person  ;  and 
ihe  Kingdom  of  Heaven  was  ushered  in  with  freedom  and 
,cence  from  the  ordinary  trammels  of  the  moral  law.^     This 

'  ^  That  their  apprehensions  were  not  unjustified  will  be  apparent  from  the 
allowing  anecdote  concerning  Imam  Fakhr  ud-din  Razi.  This  learned  Imam 
sed  to  lecture  on  jurisprudence  in  his  native  city  of  Rai  (Rhages).  Once  he 
■ad  occasion  to  denounce  the  Isma'ilias  from  his  professorial  chair.  The  news 
if  this  audacious  conduct  was  carried  to  the  Eagles'  Nest,  and  a  Fidai  was 
Tomptly  deputed  to  bring  the  careless  professor  to  reason.  The  Fidai  on  his 
frrival  at  Rai  entered  himself  as  a  student  in  the  Imam's  college.  For  seven 
aonths  he  waited  for  an  opportunity  to  carry  his  design  into  effect.  At  last 
;ne  day  he  found  the  Imam  alone  in  his  chamber  ;  he  locked  the  door,  and 
iirowing  the  Imam  on  the  ground  pointed  the  dagger  at  his  throat.  "  Why 
lill  me  ?  "  asked  the  frightened  professor.  "  Because  you  have  cursed  the 
isma'ilias,"  answered  the  Fidai.  The  Imam  offered  to  bind  himself  solemnly 
iever  again  to  disparage  the  brotherhood.  The  Fidai  refused  to  accept  the 
mam's  word  unless  he  agreed  to  receive  a  pension  from  the  Grand  Alaster, 
iius  binding  himself  by  the  debt  of  "  bread  and  salt." 

*  Hasan  died  in  508  a.h.  Wassaf,  following  Juwaini,  the  vizier  of  Hulaku 
nd  the  author  of  the  Jahdn-Kusha,  gives  an  extremely  bitter  but  not  unjust 
ccount  of  these  Isma'iUas. 

Id'j'*    »J.i    cjli     /.^/ej/o   jHji«     Jys>.  I y    ^cVx^sxJ  \\ 


fy-^ 

^Ul 

'  o-;^ 

S\'i    \\ 

)  ^ 

:>.«*.i>j 

cy*) 

>**; 

v' 

\yA   *$ 

oij 

342  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  n 

mad  revolutionist  is  known  in  the  history  of  the  Alamiitias  a; 
' ala-Zikrihi-as-Saldm ,  "  may  his  name  be  blessed  " — corruptee 
into  Zikr -US-Sal dm.  From  this  time,  imtil  the  destruction  o 
Alamut,  the  disciples  of  the  two  Hasans  maintained  a  remorse 
less  fight  with  civil  society,  in  which  no  quarter  was  shown  oi 
either  side.  They  were,  in  fact,  the  Nihilists  of  Islam.  Unde 
their  stilettoes  fell  both  Christians  and  Moslems.  They  wer 
attacked  by  Hulaku,  and  after  the  destruction  of  their  fortresse 
in  the  mountains,  they  were  hunted  and  killed  like  vermin. ^ 

From  the  Isma'ilias  the  Crusaders  borrowed  the  conceptioi; 
which  led  to  the  formation  of  all  the  secret  societies,  religiou,' 
and  secular,   of  Europe.     The  institutions  of  Templars  an' 
Hospitallers ;     the    Society    of    Jesus,    founded    by    Ignatiii 
Loyola,  composed  of  a  body  of  men  whose  spirit  of  self-sacrific 
and  devotion  to  their  cause  can  hardly  be  surpassed  in  oi 
times  ;    the  ferocious  Dominicans,  the  milder  Franciscans,- 
may  all  be  traced  either  to  Cairo  or  to  Alamut.     The  Knigh 
Templars  especially,  with  their  system  of  grand  masters,  grar 
priors  and  religious  devotees,  and  their  degrees  of  initiatio 
bear  the  strongest  analogy  to  the  Eastern  Isma'ihas.     Smc 
sections  of  the  Western  Isma'ilias  are  still  to  be  found  in  Yeme 
in  Egypt,  and  Barbary,  where  they  cannot  be  distinguish( 
from  the  general  body  of  Moslems.     On  the  western  coast 
India  there  exists,  however,  a  large  community  called  Khojal 
who   are   the   direct   representatives   of  the   original  Easte 


\ji\.;^i}     ,^,oj    UU    Vi'iy'O    _j     t.i>. 

^1     Jflia.'*     Aftjkli^  ..^     ry^^'.     (^ 

J;y   jh^^  3'  .c^7    ^^-'^^^ 

cJixU;     cly!  y     J^iU;    y^^^ 

u*A.     *— '.^J    >     ti>il^iw     /lUi"       Jlvc       I,JI^      J.LmS     JVC     LU*/    S 

Wagpaf. — ^jIIrS  j-H«*il  i^j  ^J' 

^  For  a  full  account  of  the  Alamutias  and  their  crimes  against  human '. 
see  Von  Hammer's  History  of  the  Assassins,  translated  into  English  by  Wc>. 
Even  the  Christian  sovereigns  frequently  availed  themselves  of  the  service.if 
the  Alamutia  assassins  to  get  rid  of  their  enemies.  Richard  of  England  :d 
Conrad  of  Montferrat  assassinated  by  a  Fiddi  of  Alamiit  ;  and  one  of  e 
Popes  employed  another,  though  unsuccessfully,  to  remove  Frederick  Ban- 
rossa.  After  the  destruction  of  Alamiit,  Rudbar,  and  the  other  castles  of  e 
Assassins,  the  Alamiitias  were  massacred  without  compunction  by  the  Tarts. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      343 

Isma'ilias.  Hindus  by  origin,  they  were  converted  to  Isma'il- 
ism,  in  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  by 
one  Pir  Sadr  ud-din,  an  Isma'ilian  Dd'i.  His  teachings  fitted 
in  with  their  own  religious  conceptions,  for  part  of  the  old  cult 
was  incorporated  with  the  Isma'ilia  doctrines.^ 

The  Kaisdnias  and  Hdshiniias,  both  of  them  exclusively 
political  in  their  character,  but  tinted  by  Magianism,  are  now 
completely  extinct,  and  hardly  require  any  mention. 

The  Ghdllias  or  the  Ghuldt  (Extravagantists),  supposed  by 
Ibn  Khaldun  and  Shaliristani  to  be  a  sect  of  the  Shiahs,  are,  in 
reality,  the  descendants  of  the  old  Gnostics,  whose  Islam  con- 
sisted merely  in  the  substitution  of  Mohammed  or  Ali,  chiefly 
the  latter,  for  Christ.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  Docetes  of  Islam. 
The  Nusairis,  who  believe  in  the  divinity  of  Ali,  the  Ishdkins, 
the  Numdnias,  the  Khitdhias,  and  others,  anthropomorphists, 
behevers  in  incarnations  and  metempsychosis, — represent  the 
notions  which  were  prevalent  among  the  Marcionites,  the 
\'alentinians,  and  the  other  docetic  Christians.  Some  of  these 
have  replaced  the  Christian  triad  by  a  pentad.  These  believe 
that  Mohammed,  Ali,  Fatima,  Hasan,  and  Husain  jointly 
represent  the  Divinity.  A  form  of  Docetism  is  in  vogue  also 
in  Sunnism.  In  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  a  Sunni  Saint  ^ 
occupies  almost  a  similar  place  in  the  popular  faith  to  Jesus 
among  the  Gnostics. 

The  Roushenias,  as  tlieir  name  implies,  were  the  exact 
counterparts  of  the  Illuminati  of  Christendom.  This  sect  had 
its  origin  in  Afghanistan  in  that  dark,  turbulent,  and  san- 
guinary period  which  preceded  the  accession  of  Akbar  to  the 
throne  of  India.  Their  founder,  Bayezid,^  by  birth  an  Afghan, 
but  of  Arab  extraction,  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  great 
natural  abihties  and  extreme  subtlety  of  genius.  In  his  early 
youth  he  acquired  a  taint  of  Manichaeism  from  the  Isma'ilias 

^  Numbers  of  Isma'ilias  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  mountains  of  Gilgat  and 
Hunza. 

*  Sheikh  Abdul  Kadir  Ghilani.  There  are  Sunnis  who  pay  an  extravagant 
veneration,  verging  on  adoration,  to  this  Saint.  He  has  received  the  title 
among  them  of  Ghaus-i-'uzam,  Mahbub-i-Subhani,  Kutb-i-Rabbdni — "  The 
great  Saint,  the  beloved  of  God,  the  Pole-star  of  holiness  "  (see  the  Giildastai- 
Keramat).     Sheikh  Abdul  Kadir  was  a  mystic,  and  a  Fatimide  by  descent. 

!  He  takes  a  high  position  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  mystics  and  the  dervishes ; 

t  see  chapter  xi. 

*      •  Afterwards  called  Mian  Roiishan  Bayczid. 


344  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

who  still  flourished  in  considerable  numbers  in  some  of  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Khorasan.  The  doctrines  which  he 
first  propagated  seem  not  to  have  differed  essentially  from  those 
of  the  Sufis  ;  but  as  he  proceeded  he  diverged  wider  and 
wider  from  the  pale  of  dogmatic  Islam.  As  his  sect  increased 
in  numbers  and  power,  it  assumed  a  political  as  well  as  a 
religious  aspect  ;  and  soon  made  such  formidable  progress 
that,  at  last,  it  embraced  nearly  the  whole  of  Afghanistan. 

The  doctrines  taught  by  Bayezid,  when  examined  critically, 
show  a  superstructure  of  mysticism  and  pantheism  upon  a  basis 
of  Isma'ilism.  The  observant  reader,  however,  will  not  fail  to 
perceive  a  strange  and  fantastic  analogy  between  his  teachings 
and  the  practices  and  theories  of  the  brotherhood  of  Fakirs. 
He  taught  that  God  is  all-pervading,  and  that  all  existing 
objects  are  only  forms  of  the  Deity  ;  that  the  Ptrs  or  rehgious 
teachers  were  the  great  manifestations  of  the  Divinity  ;  that 
the  sole  test  of  right  and  wrong  was  to  follow  the  path  pointed 
out  by  the  Pir,  who  is  the  representative  of  the  Divinity  ;  that 
the  ordinances  of  the  law  have  therefore  a  mystical  meaning, 
and  are  ordained  only  as  the  means  of  acquiring  religious  perfec- 
tion ;  and  that  the  mystic  sense  of  the  law  is  only  attainable  by 
religious  exercises  and  through  the  instructions  of  a  Pir  ;  it 
is  the  source  of  religious  perfection,  and  this  perfection  being 
attained,  the  exterior  ordinances  of  the  law  cease  to  be  binding, 
and  are  virtually  annulled. 

The  Bdtinis,  the  Isma'ilias,  and  all  the  cognate  sects  differ 
from  the  general  body  of  Moslems  in  making /ai^^  the  keystone 
of  their  doctrines.  In  this  they  closely  approach  most  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  of  Christendom.  They  "believe,"  like 
Luther,  in  "justification  by  faith."  Luther  has  strenuously 
inculcated  that  "  faith  in  Christ  "  would  save  all  sinners.  The 
Batinis  and  the  Isma'ilias  with  their  offshoots  made  "  faith" 
or  "  imdn,"  which  included  a  firm  reUance  on  the  divine  Imam, 
an  essential  factor  in  their  creed.  So  long  as  an  individual  was 
blessed  with  imdn,  his  outward  acts  were  immaterial. 

We  now  come  to  the  Shiahs  proper,  the  followers  of  the  Imams 
of  the  house  of  Mohammed,  generally  known  as  the  Ism- 
'Asharias  (the  Duo  decemians) ,  so  named  because  they  accept 
the   leadership  of   twelve    Imams.     The  I snd-' Asharias  hold 


•III.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      345 

hat  the  Imamate  descended  by  express  appointment  in  the 
olio  wing  order  : — 

1.  Ali,  the  Caliph,  usually  styled  Murtaza  Asad-ullah  al- 
rhdlib,  the  Chosen,  the  Lion  of  God,  the  Victorious  (d.  a.h.  40, 
..c.  661). 

2.  Hasan,  styled  Mujtaba,  the  Approved  (a.h.  44,  A.c.  664). 

3.  Husain,  Shahid-i-Kerbela,  the  Martyr  of  Kcrhela  (a.h.  60, 
..c.  679). 

4.  Ali  II.,  surnamed  for  his  piety  Zain  ul-'Abidin,  the  Orna- 
lent  of  the  Pious  (died  a.h.  94,  a.c.  713). 

5.  Mohammed  al-Bdkir,  the  Explainer  of  Mysteries,  or  the 
Profound,  a  man  of  great  learning  and  ascetic  austerity  (born 

.H.  57,  a.c.  676  ;    died  a.h.  113,  a.c.  731). 

6.  Ja'far  as-Sddik,  the  True,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Mohammed 
'-Bdkir.  Ja'far  was  born  in  Medina,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira 
.H.  80  (a.c.  699).  As  a  scholar,  a  litterateur,  and  a  juris- 
onsult,  his  reputation  stands  high  among  all  sects  of  Moslems, 
'is  learning  and  his  virtues,  the  transcendental  purity  and 
uth  of  his  character,  won  him  the  veneration  even  of  the 
lemies  of  his  family.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  his  native 
)wn,  in  the  reign  of  Abu  Ja'far  al-Mansur,  the  second 
bbaside  Caliph,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  148  (a.c.  765). 

7.  Abu' I  Hasan  Musa  al-Kdzim,  the  son  of  Ja'far  as-Sadik, 
as  also  surnamed  al-Abd  iis-Sdleh,  the  Holy  Servant,  on  account 
'■  his  piety  and  "  his  efforts  to  please  God."     He  was  born  at 

edina  in  the  year  129  a.h.  (a.c.  746-747).  He  died  at  Bagdad 
a  the  25th  of  Rajab  183  (ist  September,  799  A.c.)  in  a  prison 
"here  he  was  confined  for  a  number  of  years  by  Harun,  who 
'as  extremely  jealous  of  the  veneration  in  which  the  Imam  was 
hid  in  Hijaz.  De  Sacy  says  Musa  was  put  to  death  secretly  in 
Is  confinement  by  order  of  Harun.  His  sufferings  and  his  pure 
ad  exalted  character  endeared  him  greatly  to  all  classes  of 
I'ople,  and  gained  for  him  the  title  of  Kdzim,  "  the  Patient." 

18.  Ali  III.,  Abu'l  Hasan  Ali,  surnamed  ar-Riza,  the  Accept- 
cle,  for  the  purity  of  his  character.  He  was  a  scholar,  a  poet, 
lid.  a  philosopher  of  the  first  rank.  He  was  born  in  Medina  in 
te  year  153  a.h.  (a.c.  770),  and  died  at  Tus  in  Khorasan  in 
m.202  (a.c.  817).  He  married  a  sister  of  Mamun,  named 
Inm  ul-Fazl. 


346  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ] 

9.  Abu  Ja'far  Mohammed,  surnamed  al-Jawwdd  for  h 
munificence  and  generosity,  and  Taki  for  his  piety.  He  was 
nephew  of  Mamun,  and  was  also  married  to  his  daughter,  name 
Umm  ul-Habib.  He  was  held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  th; 
Caliph  and  his  successor  Mu'tasim  (born  a.h.  195,  a.c.  811  ;  ar 
died  in  a.h.  220,  a.c.  835). 

10.  Ali  IV.,  surnamed  Naki,  the  Pure,  died  a.h.  260,  A.c.  86 

11.  Abu  Mohammed  al-Hasan  ibn  Ali  al-'Askari,  surname 
al-Hddi,  the  Director,  and  called  'Askari  from  his  long  residen( 
under  the  surveillance  of  Mutawakkil  at  Surra  man-Raa  ^  whic 
also  went  by  the  name  of  al-'Askar,  "  the  Encampment."  t 
was  a  man  of  eminent  piety  and  great  nobility  of  character, 
distinguished  poet  and  litterateur.  He  was  born  at  Medir 
A.H.  231  (a.c.  845-6),  and  died  at  al-'Askar  in  a.h.  260  (a. 
874).     He  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  Mutawakkil. 

12.  Mohammed  al-Mahdi  (a.h.  265,  a.c.  878-9).  This  k; 
Imam  disappeared,  according  to  the  Shiah  belief,  in  a  groti! 
at  Surra-man-Raa  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  age.^  He  is  believej 
to  be  still  alive,  and  they  look  forward  with  earnest  anticipatic' 
to  his  reappearance  to  re-establish  the  universal  Caliphate,  ar 
to  restore  the  purity  of  the  human  race.  He  is  styled  the  Ima: 
Ghdih  (the  absent  Imam),  the  Muntazar,  "the  Expected 
and  the  Kdim,  "  the  Living."  ^ 

The  Isna-'Asharias,  now  called  Shiahs  or  Imamias  />( 
excellence,  are  divided  into  two  sub-sects — Usulis  and  Akhbdr 
{i.e.  the  followers  of  principles  and  the  followers  of  traditiom 
There  is  no  difference  between  them  on  the  question  of  tl 
Imamate  or  its  descent  to  the  last  Imam.  But  they  differ  c 
the  amount  of  authority  to  be  attached  to  the  exposition  of  tl 
Mujtahids,  who  call  themselves  the  representatives  of  the  Imar 
The  Usuli  repudiates  entirely  the  authority  of  the  expounde 
of  the  law  to  fetter  his  judgment.  He  contends  that  the  la 
is  clear,  and  that  it  is  his  duty  to  construe  it  for  himself  with  tl 
light  of  reason  and  progress  of  human  thought,  and  not  to  1 

^  a  place  several  days'  journey  to  the  north-west  of  Bagdad. 

*  For  an  account  of  this  pathetic  incident,  see  ante,  p.  123,  and  She 
History  of  the  Saracens  (Macmillan),  p.  295. 

^  Compare  especially  the  belief  of  the  Christadelphians,  according  to  who 
Christ  will  reappear  to  bring  about  an  earthly  kingdom. 


viii.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVLSIONS  AND  SCHISMS      347 

guided  in  his  judgment  by  the  dictates  of  men  as  falhble  as  him- 
self, and  interested  in  maintaining  the  world  in  ignorance.  He 
holds  that  God's  revelations  had  not  the  object  of  hiding  the 
Divine  meaning  in  words  difficult  to  apprehend.  They  were 
addressed  through  his  Prophet  to  humanity  to  apprehend  and 
to  obey.  Thus  God's  teachings  delivered  through  His  Messenger 
do  not  require  the  interpretation  of  priest  or  lawyer.  The 
Akhbari,  on  the  other  hand,  obeys  slavishly  the  expositions  of 
the  Muj tabids. 

According  to  the  L^suli  doctrines,  the  oral  precepts  of  the 
Prophet  are  in  their  nature  supplementar}^  to  the  Koranic 
ordinances,  and  their  binding  effect  depends  on  the  degree  of 
harmony  existing  between  them  and  the  teachings  of  the  Koran. 
Thus,  those  traditions  which  seem  to  be  in  conflict  with  the 
spirit  of  the  Koranic  precepts  are  considered  apocryphal.  The 
process  of  elimination  is  conducted  upon  recognised  principles, 
founded  upon  logical  rules  and  definite  data.  These  rules  have 
acquired  a  distinctive  type  among  the  Mu'tazilas,  who  have 
eliminated  from  the  Hadis  Kudsi  {the  holy  traditions)  such 
alleged  sa^dngs  of  the  Prophet  as  appeared  incompatible  and 
out  of  harmony  with  his  developed  teachings  as  explained  and 
illustrated  by  the  philosophers  and  jurists  of  his  family. 

The  Usulis  divide  the  traditions  under  four  heads,  viz.  : — 
(a)   Sahih,  "  authentic  "  ;     {h)   Hasan,  "  good  "  ;     (c)   Musak, 
"strong";    and    [d)    Za'if,   "weak."     A  hadis  sahih,  or   an 
t  authentic  tradition,  is  one  the  authority  of  which  can  be  con- 
clusively traced  to  the  Aimma-i-Ma'sum  (the  sinless  Imams), 
according  to  the  narration  of  an  Imam  'ddil,  "  a  just  or  trust- 
worthy Imam,"  about  whose  integrity  there  is   a  consensus 
•  among  the  "  masters  of  traditions  "  (arbab-i-hadis) .     The  narra- 
;  tion  must  be  through  a  succession  of  such  'ddils.    A  hadis-hasan, 
;  or  a  good  tradition,  is  one  the  authority  of  which  goes  back, 
like  that  of  the  hadis  sahih,  to  the  Ma'sum  ;   but,  according  to 
I  the  narrative  of  a  venerable  Imam,  in  this  way,  that  although, 
I  in  regard  to  the  narrator  of  it,  the  words  sikah  'ddil,  "  trust- 
worthy and  just,"  have  not  been  used  by  the  historians,  yet 
'  they  have  praised  him  in  other  words.     A  hadis-musak,  or  a 
strong  tradition,  is  one  handed  down  by  people  who  are  acknow- 
ledged to   be   sikah   and  'ddil,   "  virtuous  and  just,"  by  the 


348  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

historians,  though  some  or  all  of  the  narrators  might  not  b 
Imdmias,  "  followers  of  Ali."  A  hadis-za'if,  or  a  weak  tradition 
is  one  which  complies  with  neither  of  these  conditions.  It  i 
only  the  first  three  kinds  of  hadts  that  are  accepted  or  relie( 
upon  by  the  Usulis. 

Again,  a  tradition  before  it  can  be  accepted  must  have  beei 
handed  down  in  regular  succession.  A  tradition  is  in  regula 
succession  when  a  large  number  of  people  in  the  regular  cours( 
of  time  make  the  same  narration  until  it  is  traced  to  the  Ma'sum 
subject  to  the  condition  that  the  number  of  narrators,  in  eacl 
particular  age,  is  so  great  as  to  exclude  the  idea  of  their  having, 
combined  in  telling  a  falsehood.  A  tradition  is  without  C 
regular  succession,  when  the  number  of  narrators  does  not,  iii 
all  or  several  stages,  reach  to  such  a  body  of  witnesses  ;  ano 
this  kind  of  tradition  is  called,  "  in  the  peculiar  idiom  of  th(; 
masters  of  traditions,  the  information  of  one."  ■ 

The  Usuli  exercises  his  own  judgment  in  the  construction  o 
the  law,  and  the  reception,  application,  and  interpretation  of  th(; 
traditions.  He  does  not  consider  himself  bound  to  follow  the 
exposition  of  a  Muj tabid,  if  his  judgment  and  conscience  tel 
him  that  that  exposition  is  against  the  revealed  or  natural  law 
or  justice,  or  reason.  They  protest  against  the  immoderatt] 
number  of  traditions  accepted  by  the  Akhhdris  without  an)! 
criticism,  or  any  application  of  the  rules  of  exegesis.  Th( 
Usulis  represent  the  Broad  Church,  if  not  of  Islam,  at  least  o: 
Shiahism. 

According  to  the  Dabistdn,  the  Akhbdris  derive  their  titk 
from  the  fact  that  they  rely  entirely  upon  akhbdr,  or  traditions 
and  repudiate  ijtihdd  (the  exercise  of  private  judgment),  as  the} 
consider  it  contrary  to  the  practice  of  the  Imams.  The} 
accept  as  authentic  whatever  tradition  happens  to  be  current 
if  only  it  is  labelled  with  the  name  of  an  Imam  or  of  the  Prophet 
It  is  enough  that  it  is  called  a  hadis  ;  it  becomes  ipso  facta^^ 
authentic  in  their  eyes,^  and  further  inquiry  is  not  required  tc| 
test  the  source  from  which  it  emanates.  It  need  not  be  saidj 
that  under  colour  of  this  easy  principle  a  vast  number  of  tradi-' 
tions  and  maxims  have  become  incorporated  with  the  Islami( 

^  Adilla-i-Kati',  conclusive  evidence,  which  admits  of  no  questioning,  anc 
requires  no  exercise  of  judgment. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      349 

teachings  which  have  Uttle  in  common  with  them.  The  ancient 
faitli  had  never  completely  died  out  of  the  hearts  of  the  masses, 
and  it  was  impossible  that  with  the  growth  of  a  national  Church 
many  of  the  old  thoughts  should  not  find  expression  in  new  and 
more  approved  garbs.  Gobineau  has,  somewhat  harshly,  but 
not  quite  without  reason,  charged  ultra-Akhbarism  with  having 
converted  the  great  hero  of  Islam  into  an  Ormuzd,  and  his 
descendants  into  Amshaspands. 

Akhbarism  is  the  favourite  creed  of  the  uneducated,  who 
require  a  leading  string  for  their  guidance,  or  of  the  half- 
educated  Mullas.  LTsulism  finds  acceptance  among  the 
most  intellectual  classes  of  the  people  and  the  most 
learned  of  the  clergy.  One  of  the  most  notable  advocates  of 
the  Usuli  doctrines  within  recent  times  was  Mulla  Sadra  ^ 
(Mohammed  bin  Ibrahim),  a  native  of  Shiraz,  and  probably  the 
ablest  scholar  and  dialectician  of  his  time.  He  was  the  reviver 
of  philosophy  and  humanitarian  science  among  the  Persians. 
From  the  fall  of  the  Buwaihs  to  the  rise  of  the  Safawis,  Iran 
had  remained  under  a  cloud.  Patristic  orthodoxy  had  pro- 
scribed philosophy  and  science  ;  the  very  name  of  Avicenna 
had  become  hateful,  and  his  works  were  publicly  burnt.  During 
these  centuries  many  Mazdeistic  traditions  dressed  in  Islamic 
garb  naturally  had  found  acceptance  among  the  uneducated 
classes.  The  true  Fatimide  scholars  had  retired  into  seclusion, 
and  a  body  of  ecclesiastics  strongly  imbued  with  national  pre- 
dilections and  prejudices  had  sprung  up  to  maintain  the  people 
in  ignorance.  Mulla  Sadra  had  thus  to  contend  against  a  clergy 
as  tenacious  of  their  rights  as  those  of  Christendom,  and  as 
ready  to  take  offence  at  the  slightest  approach  to  an  attack  on 
their  preserve  of  orthodoxy.  But  Mulla  Sadra  was  gifted  with 
great  perseverance  and  tact,  and  succeeded  after  considerable 
difficulty  in  reviving  the  study  of  philosophy  and  science. 
Usulism  came  to  the  front  once  more.  Its  philosophical  counter- 
part, Mu'tazilaism,  is  unquestionably  the  most  rationalistic  and 
liberal  phase  of  Islam.  In  its  liberalism,  in  its  sympathy  with 
all  phases  of  human  thought,  its  grand  hopefulness  and  ex- 
pansiveness,  it  represents  the  ideas  of  the  philosophers  of  the 
House  of  Mohammed  who  reflected  the  thoughts  of  the  Master. 

^  Mulla  Sadra  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Shah  Abbas  IJ. 


350  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

The  political  factions  which  have  hitherto  kept  the  Shiahs 
divided  among  themselves  are  disappearing,  and  the  rest  of  the 
sects  are  fast  merging  into  the  Isna-'Asharias.  The  Shiahs 
of  Persia,  Arabia,  West  Africa,  and  India  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  this  sect.  Isnd-'Ashanaism  has  thus  become  synony- 
mous with  Shiahism. 

Like  the  Akhbaris,  the  Sunnis  base  their  doctrines  on  the 
entirety  of  the  traditions.  But  they  differ  from  them  in  accept- 
ing such  only  of  the  traditions  as  can  stand  the  test  of  certain 
rules  of  criticism  peculiar  to  their  school.  In  this  they  approach 
the  Usulis.  They  regard  the  concordant  decisions  of  the 
successive  Caliphs  and  of  the  general  assemblies  {Ijmd'-ul-  . 
Ummat)  as  supplementing  the  Koranic  rules  and  regulations,  ; 
and  as  almost  equal  in  authority  to  them.  i 

The  Sunnis  are  divided  into  several  sub-sects,  each  differing  , 
from  the  other  on  various  points  of  dogma  and  doctrine.  These  i 
minor  sectarian   differences   have   often   given   rise   to  great  i 
bitterness  and  persecutions.     In  the  main,  however,  they  are 
agreed  on  the  fundamental  bases  of  their  doctrines  and  laws, 
deriving  them  from  four  unvarying  sources,  viz.  : — (i)   The  j 
Koran  ;  (2)  The  Hadis  or  Sunnat  (traditions  handed  down  from  1 
the  Prophet)  ;    (3)  The  Ijmd'-td-Ummat  (concordance  among  1 
the  followers)  ;    and  (4)   The  Kiyds  (private  judgment).     The  j 
Hadis  {pi.  Ahddis)  embraces  (a)  all  the  words,  counsels,  and  , 
oral  precepts  of  the  Prophet  [Kawl)  ;   {h)  his  actions,  his  works,  ' 
and  daily  practice  {Fi'l)  ;  (c)  and  his  silence  [Taknr),  implying 
a  tacit  approbation  on  his  part  of  any  individual  act  committed 
by  his  disciples.     The  rules   deduced  from  these  subsidiary ; 
sources  vary  considerably  in  respect  of  the  degree  of  authority 
which  is  attached  to  them.     If  the  rules,  or  traditional  precepts, 
are  of  public  and  universal  notoriety  {Ahddis-i-Mutawdtireh) , 
they  are  regarded  as  absolutely  authentic  and  decisive.     If  the 
traditions,   though  known   publicly  by   a  great   majority  of  \ 
people,  do  not  possess  the  character  of  universal  notoriety,  they  >j 
are  designated  Ahddis-i-Mashhtlra,  and  stand  next  in  rank  tOj 
the  Ahddis-i-Mutawdtireh  ;    whilst  the  Akhhdr-i-wdhid,  which  = 
depend  for  their  authenticity  upon  the  authority  of  isolated 
individuals,  have  little  or  no  value  attached  to  them.     Thus 
every  tradition  purporting  to  be  handed  down  by  the  con- 


:iii.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      351 

emporarics  and  companions  of  the  PropJiet,  regardless  of  their 
ictual  relationship  to  liim,  is  considered  to  be  authentic  and 
genuine,  provided  certain  arbitrary  conditions  framed  with  the 
;iew  of  testing  the  value  of  personal  testimony  are  complied 
vith.  The  expression  Ijmd'-ul-Ummat  implies  general  con- 
:ordance.  Under  this  collective  name  are  included  all  the 
ipostolic  laws,  the  explanations,  glosses,  and  decisions  of  the 
eading  disciples  of  the  Prophet,  especially  of  the  first  four 
Caliphs  (the  Khulafdi  Rdshidin),  on  theological,  civil,  and 
;riminal  matters. 

Since  the  eighth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  however,  all 
:hese  sources  of  law  and  doctrine  have  been  relegated  to  the 
iomain  of  oblivion.  And  each  sect  has  followed  blindly  its 
)wn  doctors  in  the  interpretation  of  the  law  and  the  exposition 
A  doctrines.  This  is  called  Taklid.  No  man  is  considered 
'  orthodox  "  unless  he  conforms  to  the  doctrines  of  one  or 
:he  other  of  the  principal  doctors. 

The  four  most  important  persuasions  or  sects  ^  among  the 
nmnis  are  designated  Hanafi,  Shafe'i,  Maliki,  and  Hanbali, 
ifter  their  respective  founders. 

Abu  Hanifa,^  who  gave  his  name  to  the  first  school,  was  born 
n  the  year  80  of  the  Hegira,  during  the  reign  of  Abdul  Malik 
bn  Merwan.  He  was  educated  in  the  Shiah  school  of  law,  and 
■eceived  his  first  instructions  in  jurisprudence  from  Imam 
Ja'far  as-Sadik,  and  heard  traditions  from  Abu  Abdullah  ibn 
d-Mubarak  and  Hamid  ibn  Sulaiman.  Abu  Hanifa  often 
juotes  the  great  Shiah  Imam  as  his  authority.  On  his  return 
:o  his  native  city  of  Kufa,  though  he  continued  to  remain  a 
:ealous  and  consistent  partisan  of  the  house  of  Ali,  he  seceded 
rom  the  Shiah  school  of  law  and  founded  a  system  of  his  own, 
liverging  completely  in  many  important  points  from  the 
loctrines  of  the  Shiahs  ;  and  yet,  so  close  is  the  resemblance 
)etween  his  exposition  of  the  law  and  their  views,  that  there  is 
10  reason  for  doubt  as  to  the  source  from  which  he  derived  his 
)riginal  inspiration.  The  latitude  which  he  allows  to  private 
udgment  in  the  interpretation  of  the  law  seems  to  be  unques- 
ionably  a  reflex  of  the  opinions  of  the  Fatimide  doctors.     He 

1  Called  the  Mazdhib-arba'a. 

*  Abu  Hanifa  an-No'man  ibn  Thabit  (a.c.  699-769). 


352  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

is  called  by  his  followers  the  Iindiii-ul-Na'zaui  (the  great  Imam) 
He  died  in  the  year  a.h.  150.  The  doctrines  taught  by  him  ard 
in  force  among  the  major  portion  of  the  Indian  Musulmans 
among  the  Afghans,  Turkomans,  almost  all  Central  Asiar 
Moslems,  the  Turks,  and  the  Egyptians.  His  school  owns  b} 
far  the  largest  number  of  followers. 

The  founder  of  the  second  school  was  (Abu  Abdullah)  Malil^ 
ibn  Anas,  who  died  in  the  year  a.h.  179,  in  the  Caliphate  0. 
Harun  ar-Rashid. 

Shafe'i  was  the  originator  of  the  third  school.  He  was  borrj 
at  Ghazza  in  Syria,  in  the  same  year  in  which  Abu  Hanifa  died: 
He  died  in  Egypt  in  the  year  a.h.  204  (a.c.  819),  during  thC 
Caliphate  of  Mamun.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  the  Fatimid( 
Imam  Ali  ibn  Musa  ar-Riza.  Shafe'i's  doctrines  are  generall}, 
followed  in  Northern  Africa,  partially  in  Egypt,  in  Southen; 
Arabia,  and  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  and  among  the  Musulmansj 
of  Ceylon.  His  followers  are  also  to  be  found  among  the; 
Borahs  ^  of  the  Bombay  Presidency.  ; 

The  fourth  school  was  originated  by  Ibn-Hanbal.  H( 
flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Mamun  and  his  successor  Mu'taj 
sim  b'illah.  These  two  Caliphs  were  Mu'tazilas.  Ibn-Hanbal':! 
extreme  fanaticism,  and  the  persistency  with  which  he  tried  t(' 
inflame  the  bigotry  of  the  masses  against  the  sovereigns,  brough 
him  into  trouble  with  the  rulers.  He  died  in  the  odour  of  grea 
sanctity  in  the  year  a.h.  241.  Ibn-Hanbal  and  his  patristicisn 
are  responsible  for  the  ill-success  of  Mamun  in  introducing  tb-! 
Mu'tazfla  doctrines  throughout  the  empire,  and  for  the  frequen 
outbursts  of  persecution  which  deluged  the  Mohammedan  worI( 
with  the  blood  of  Moslems. 

I  have  in  another  place  ^  described  the  legal  difference 
of  the  various  Sunni  schools ;  their  doctrinal  divergence 
run  into  the  minutiae  of  the  ceremonials  of  worship,  unneces 
sary  to  detail  in  a  work  intended  for  the  general  student, 
It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  Hanbahtes  were  the  mosij 
pronounced  anthropomorphists.  To  them  God  was  a  beinj, 
in  the  similitude  of  man  enthroned  in  heaven.  Amonn 
the  other  sects  the  conceptions  varied  considerably  accordinjj 

1  These  Borahs  are  partly  Shafe'is  and  partly  Isma'ilias  of  the  Egyptian  typ( 
*  "Mohammedan  Law." 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      353 

to  the  age  and  the  people.  Anthropomorphism  was,  how- 
ever, the  predominating  element.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
Hanafism  was  originally  the  most  liberal  of  these  sects, 
whilst  Shafe'ism  and  Malikism  were  both  exclusive  and 
harsh  in  their  sympathies  and  ideas.  With  the  advance 
of  time,  and  as  despotism  fixed  itself  upon  the  habits  and 
customs  of  the  people,  and  the  Caliph  or  sovereign  became  the 
arbiter  of  their  fate  without  check  or  hindrance  from  juris- 
consult or  legist,  patristicism  took  hold  of  the  mind  of  all  classes 
of  society.  The  enunciations  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
became  law.  The  Hanafis,  who  styled  themselves,  and  were 
styled  by  their  brethren  of  the  rival  schools,  ahl-ur-rai  w'al 
kiyds,  "  people  of  judgment  and  analogy,"  in  contradistinction 
to  the  others,  who  were  called  ahl-id-hadis ,  traditionists  par 
excellence,  have  long  ceased  to  exercise  their  judgment  in 
the  domains  of  law  or  doctrine.  What  has  been  laid  down 
by  the  Fathers  is  unchangeable,  and  beyond  the  range  of 
discussion.  The  Faith  may  be  carried  to  the  land  of  the 
Esquimaux,  but  it  must  go  with  rules  framed  for  the  guidance 
of  Irakians  ! 

Patristicism  has  thus  destroyed  all  hope  of  development 
in  the  Sunni  fold.  But  its  endeavours  to  ensure  uniformity 
of  faith  and  practice  have  led  within  the  last  hundred  years  to 
two  notable  revolts  within  the  bosom  of  the  Sunni  Church. 
Wahabism,  which  made  its  appearance  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  derived  its  breath  from  the  Desert. 
Ghair-mukallidism  springs  from  the  innermost  recesses  of 
the  human  heart,  seeking  an  escape  from  the  strait-laced 
Pharisaism  of  the  established  Church.  The  Ghair-mukallid  is 
a  non-conformist,  though  he  has  been  wrongly  and  unjustly 
confounded  with  the  Wahabis.  He  is  undoubtedly  more 
philosophical  and  rationalistic  than  the  followers  of  the  other 
denominations  of  Sunnism.  Narrow,  no  doubt,  admittedly 
hmited  and  unsympathetic  in  its  scope,  Ghair-Mukallidism  is 
nevertheless  the  one  movement  in  the  Sunni  Church  which 
contains  great  promise  for  the  future. 

The  dispute  which  ushered  in  the  Reformation  in  Europe  has 
already  commenced  among  the  Hanafis,  and  is  sure  before  long 
to  make  itself  felt  among  all  sects  and  schools  of  Moslems. 


354  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  u 

Does  the  translation  of  the  Koran  stand  on  the  same  footin. 
as  the  Arabic  Koran  ;  are  prayers  offered  in  the  vulgar  tongue 
in  the  tongue  of  the  worshipper  ignorant  of  Arabic,  as  meri 
torious  as  those  offered  in  the  language  of  Hijaz — such  are  th 
questions  which  are  now  agitating  the  Moslem  world  in  India 
The  controversy  has  already  caused  much  bitterness  and  give: 
rise  to  a  few  anathemas  on  the  side  of  the  orthodox,  and  th 
reformers  may  well  be  congratulated  that  the  movement  whid 
they  have  set  on  foot  is  conducted  under  a  neutral  Government 
To  the  old  plea,  which  vested  interests  have  always  urge( 
against  every  innovation,  the  leaders  of  the  reform  answer  by 
asking.  Is  Arabic  the  sole  language  which  God  understands  ' 
If  not,  what  is  the  purpose  of  the  prayer  instituted  by  th 
Prophet  ?  If  it  is  to  bring  the  worshipper  nearer  to  God,  and  t'i 
purify  and  ennoble  his  heart,  then  how  can  he  feel  the  elevatin;' 
effect  of  prayer  if  he  only  mumbles  what  he  cannot  understand 
From  reason  they  appeal  to  the  example  of  the  Prophet,  wh 
allowed  his  Persian  converts  to  offer  their  prayers  in  their  ow: 
tongue.^  This  movement,  still  unknown  to  Europeans,  con 
tains  the  germ  of  great  development.  It  is  the  beginnin, 
of  the  Reformation.  Hitherto  the  theologians  of  Islam,  lik 
the  Christian  clergy  in  the  Middle  Ages,  have  exercised,  throug" 
the  knowledge  of  a  language  not  known  to  the  masses  or  th 
sovereigns,  a  dominating  influence.  Once  the  principle  fc 
which  the  reformers  are  working  is  accepted,  the  prescription 
framed  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  of  the  Christian  ert; 
for  people  utterly  apart  from  the  culture  and  civilisation  c 
the  present  day,  will  have  to  be  understood  and  explained  wit 
the  light  of  a  thousand  years. 

Khawdrijism  has  been  often  regarded  as  a  branch  of  Sunnisn 
though  in  reality  it  came  into  existence  long  before  the  foundc 
tions  of  the  Sunni  Church  were  laid.  The  refractory  troop: 
who  had  forced  the  Caliph  Ali  to  abandon  the  fruits  of  th 
well-earned  victory  at  Siffin,  and  who  afterwards  rose  in  anr 
against  him  at  Nahrwan,  were  the  first  to  receive  the  name  c 
Khawdrij  (deserters  or  rebels).  Shahristani  has  given  a  ver 
lucid  account  of  this  insurrection.  These  were  the  men  wh 
were  most  eager  in  referring  to  arbitration  the  dispute  of  th 

^  See  ante,  p.  i86. 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      355 

arch-rebel  Mu'awiyah  with  the  CaHph.  They  had  forced  upon 
their  chief,  against  his  own  judgment,  Abu  Musa  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  House  of  Mohammed  ;  but  no  sooner  had  the 
terms  been  settled  than  these  soldier-theologians,  these 
Covenanters  of  Islam,  fell  into  a  hot  controversy  amongst 
themselves  about  the  sinfulness  of  submitting  any  cause  to 
human  judgment.  In  order  to  prevent  the  spectacle  of  Moslems 
slaughtering  each  other  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  Ali  retired 
to  Kufa  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army,  leaving  a  small 
detachment  at  Dumat  ul-Jandal  to  await  the  result  of  the 
arbitration.  The  rebels  to  the  number  of  twelve  thousand 
deserted  the  Caliph  at  Kufa,  and,  retiring  to  Nahrwan,  took 
up  a  formidable  position  from  which  they  threatened  the 
Caliphate.  With  the  repugnance  to  shed  blood  which  was  ever 
the  distinguishing  trait  in  Ali's  character,  he  besought  them 
repeatedly  to  return  to  their  allegiance.  In  reply  they 
threatened  him  with  death.  Human  patience  could  not  bear 
this  contumacy  longer.  They  were  attacked  and  defeated  in 
two  successive  battles.  A  few  of  the  rebels  escaped,  says 
Shahristani,  and  betaking  themselves  to  al-Bahrain,  that 
harbour  of  refuge  for  all  the  free  lances  of  Islam,  spread  their 
noxious  doctrines  among  the  wild  inhabitants  of  that  tract. 
They  reappeared  in  the  time  of  Abdul  Malik,  who  drove  them 
back  into  their  fastnesses  in  al-Ahsa  and  al-Bahrain.  They 
issued  again  under  Merwan  II.,  and  spread  themselves  in 
Yemen,  Hijaz,  and  the  Irak.  They  were  attacked  and  defeated, 
and  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Oman,  where  they  have  remained 
settled  ever  since.  Under  the  Abbasides  they  spread  their 
doctrines  among  the  Berbers  of  Africa,  whom  they  raised 
repeatedly  against  the  Pontiffs  of  Bagdad.  The  Khawarij  are 
the  Calvinists  of  Islam.  Their  doctrines  are  gloomy  and 
morose,  hard  and  fanatical.  They  are  strict  predestinarians. 
They  do  not  accept  the  Imamate  of  any  of  the  Caliphs  after 
Omar,  their  own  chiefs  being,  according  to  them,  the  lawful 
Imams.  They  differ  from  the  other  Sunnis,  in  maintaining  that 
it  is  not  requisite  for  a  person  to  be  either  a  Koreishite  or  a  free 
man  for  election  as  Imam  of  the  Moslems.  Slaves  and  non- 
Koreishites  were  eligible  for  the  Imamate  equally  with  Kor- 
eishites  and  free  men.     According  to  Shahristani,  the  Khawarij 


356  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

are  divided  into  six  groups,  the  most  important  of  whom  are 
the  Azdrika  (the  followers  of  Abu  Rashid  Nafe  ibn  Azrak)  ; 
the  Ihddhia  (the  followers  of  Abdullah  ibn  Ibadh,  who  appeared 
in  the  reign  of  Merwan  II.,  the  last  of  the  Ommeyyades)  ; 
the  Nejdat  Azdna  (the  followers  of  Nejdat  ibn  'Amir)  ;  the 
Ajdrida  (of  Abdul  Karim  bin  'Ajrad)  ;  and  the  Sufdruz 
Ziadia. 

Of  these,  the  Azdrika  are  the  most  fanatical,  exclusive,  and 
narrow.  According  to  them,  every  sect  besides  their  own  is 
doomed  to  perdition,  and  ought  to  be  forcibly  converted  or 
ruthlessly  destroyed.  No  mercy  ought  to  be  shown  to  any 
infidel  or  Mushrik  (an  expansive  term,  including  Moslems, 
Christians,  and  Jews).  To  them  every  sin  is  of  the  same 
degree  :  murder,  fornication,  intoxication,  smoking,  all  are 
damning  offences  against  religion.  Whilst  the  other  Moslems, 
Shiah  as  well  as  Sunni,  hold  that  every  child  is  born  into  the 
world  in  the  faith  of  Islam, ^  and  remains  so  until  perverted  by 
education,  the  Azraki  declares  that  the  child  of  an  infidel  is 
an  infidel.  The  orthodox  Christian  maintains  that  every  child 
who  is  not  baptized  is  doomed  to  perdition  ;  the  Khariji,  likej 
the  Christian,  declares  that  every  child  who  has  not  pronounced! 
the  formula  of  the  Faith  is  beyond  the  pale  of  salvation.  Thei 
Azdrika  were  destroyed  by  Hajjaj  ibn  Yusuf  ;  but  their; 
sanguinary,  fierce,  and  merciless  doctrines  found  expression 
nine  centuries  later  in  Wahabism. 

The  Ihddhia  were  decidedly  less  fanatical.  They  were,  foi 
the  most  part,  settled  in  Oman,  and  are  still  to  be  found  in  tht 
principality  of  Muscat.  The  Azdrika,  and  afterwards  the 
Wahabis,  were  at  deadly  feud  with  the  Ibddhias. 

According  to  them,  the  general  body  of  Moslems  are  un 
believers,  but  not  Mushrik  (polytheists),  and  that  consequentl) 
they  can  intermarry  with  them.  They  differ  from  the  Azdrik 
in  this  and  in  other  respects.  They  accept  the  evidence  o 
Moslems  against  their  people  ;  hold  that  the  taking  of  the  good:, 
of  the  Moslems  except  in  time  of  war,  is  unlawful,  and  "  proi| 
nounce  no  opinion,"  says  Shahristani,  "  on  the  infidelity  of  thf' 
children  of  infidels  "  ;   but  they  agree  with  their  brethren,  th( 

.'  ^luiii  %jki  ^ic  jj^  jy^^  J$ 


\nu.    THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS     357 

Azdrika,  in  denouncing  and  anathematising  the  cliief  com- 
panions of  the  Prophet  (the  AsIidb-i-Kabai). 

The  I  bad  hi  as  have  held  Oman  until  now.  Sore  pressed  by 
the  Wahabis,  they  have  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  power 
on  the  coast  of  Eastern  Arabia,  but  they  seem  to  be  fast  merging 
into  the  general  body  of  Sunnis. 

The  Wahabis  have  been  depicted  in  rather  favourable  colours 
by  Mr.  Palgrave,  in  his  Travels  in  Central  Arabia,  but,  in  fact, 
they  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  Azdrika,  who,  after 
their  defeat  by  Hajjaj  ibn  Yusuf,  had  taken  refuge  in  the 
recesses  of  Central  Arabia.  Abdul  Wahab's  doctrines  bear  the 
closest  resemblance  to  those  held  so  fiercely  by  the  followers  of 
Nafe  ibn  al-Azrak.  Like  them,  the  Wahabis  designate  all 
other  Moslems  as  unbelievers,  and  permit  their  despoilment 
and  enslavement.  However  commendable  their  revolt  against 
the  anthropolatrous  usages  in  vogue  among  the  modern 
Moslems,  their  views  of  religion  and  divine  government,  like 
those  of  the  Ikhwdn  of  the  present  day  in  Nejd,  are  intensely 
morose  and  Calvinistic,  and  in  absolute  conflict  with  progress 
and  development. 

Babism,  wliich  made  its  appearance  in  Persia  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  has  been  represented  in  widely 
divergent  colours.  According  to  the  Moslem  authorities,  it  is 
nothing  but  a  new  form  of  Mazdakism,  an  Eastern  socialistic 
communism.  Its  mixed  gatherings  of  men  and  women  are 
regarded  in  the  same  light  as  the  ancient  Agapo'-  of  the  primitive 
Christians  were  considered  by  the  followers  of  the  older  faiths. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  European  scholar  ^  of  great  research  and 
learning,  who  has  studied  the  religious  literature  of  the  Babis, 
and  mixed  familiarly  with  them,  represents  Babism  as  the 
latest  expression  of  an  eclectic  evolution  growing  out  of  the 
innate  pantheism  of  the  Iranian  mind. 

During  the  reign  of  Mohammed  Shah,^  the  h^^pocrisy  and 
vices  of  the  national  clergy,  says  this  writer,  had  reached 
such  a  pitch  that  a  change  was  inevitable.  The  pohtical 
and  social  condition  of  the  people  was  deplorable.     In  this 

^  Gobineau. 

-  The  third  Kajar  King  of  Persia,  who  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  grandfather,  Fathi  Ali  Shah. 


358  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

state   of   affairs  a   young   Mullah   of   Shiraz,   Mirza  All   Mo- 
hammed, supposed  to   be  a  Fatimide  by  descent,  who  had 
studied   much,    had    travelled    a   great    deal    and    made    the 
pilgrimage  to  the  holy  cities,  and  had  for  many  years  resided 
in  Arabia   and    Syria,  began   to  preach   a   social   and   moral 
reform.     He  denounced  the  hypocrisy  of  the  ordinary  mullahs, 
and  their  reception  of  the  most  doubtful  traditions  to  justify 
practices   condemned   by   Islam.     His   words   struck   a   sym- 
pathetic chord  in  minds  already  prepared  for  the  reception  of 
his  views,  and  evoked  extraordinary  enthusiasm.     He  obtained 
numerous  disciples,   among  them  a  young  lady  of  Kazwin, 
whose  learning  and  eloquence  supplied  a  powerful  support  to 
his  cause.     She  is  venerated  now  as  Kurrat-ul-'Ayn,  "  Light  of 
the  Eyes."     Mirza  Ali  Mohammed,  either  carried  away  by  the, 
enthusiasm  of  his  followers,  or  unhinged  by  his  own  exaltation,  | 
in  a  fit  of  pantheistical  insanity,  assumed  the  title  of  Bab ' 
Hazrat-i-d'ala,  and  styled  himself  a  part  of  the  Divinity.     His 
followers  rose  in  arms  against  the  constituted  authorities  and 
failed.     The  fanaticism  of  the  clergy  and  political  expediency 
gave  rise  to  a  persecution,  for  which  even  Gobineau  thinks  thei 
Babis  were  primarily  responsible.     The  Bab  was  killed  withj 
most   of   his   prominent    disciples.     But   his   teachings   have! 
survived.     His  social  precepts  are  said  by   Gobineau  to  bCj 
much  in  advance  of  the  received  doctrines.     He  attached  great 
importance   to   the   marriage-relations,    and   during  the  con-, 
tinuance  of  the  first  marriage  he  allowed  the  taking  of  a  second! 
wife  only  under  certain  conditions.     He  absolutely  interdicted 
concubinage,  forbade  divorce,  and  allowed  the  appearance  of 
women  in  public.     The  custom  of  seclusion,  as  Gobineau  justly 
observes,  creates  infinite  disorders,  and  exercises  a  pernicious 
influence  on  the  early  education  of  children.     The  usage  itself 
does  not  depend  on  any  religious  prescription,  it  is  simply  a 
convenience.     The  ancient  kings  of  Persia  observed  it  as  a  sign 
of  grandeur,  and  the  Moslem  sovereigns  and  chiefs  imitated 
their  example,  and  adopted  the  custom.     Among  the  Arabs 
the  women  of  the  tribes  are  perfectly  free  to  move  about  as 
they  wish.     The  ladies  of  the  Prophet's  family  conversed  with 
the  disciples,  received  their  visits,  and  often  shared  in  the 
repasts  of  the  men.     Mirza  Ali  Mohammed  therefore,  says 


VIII.     THE  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  AND  SCHISMS      359 

Gobineau,  made  no  innovation  in  endeavouring  to  free  women 
from  the  bondage  of  a  mischievous  custom.  His  rehgious 
doctrines  are  essentially  pantheistic,  and  his  code  of  morals, 
far  from  being  lax,  is  strict  and  rigid. ^ 

i  Some  Moslem  writers  have  divided  the  religious  sects  into 
two  comprehensive  groups,  viz.  the  Ahl-ul-hdtin,  the  Intiii- 
iionalists,  and  the  Ahl-uz-zdhir ,  those  who  look  into  the  meaning  of 
■precepts,  and  those  who  look  only  to  the  literal  sense.  The  Ahl-nl- 
bdtin,  however,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Bdtinis. 
The  Ahl-ul-bdtin  include  the  mystical  Sufis,  the  philosophical 
mutakallimtn,  and  the  Idealists  in  general,  "  all  those,"  to  use 
ithe  words  of  Zamakhshari's  comment,  "  who  strive  to  implant 
!in  their  hearts  the  roots  of  divine  perfection,"  who  strive  and 
litruggle  to  attain  the  highest  standard  of  human  excellence, 
md  who,  whilst  conforming  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  law, 
oerceive  in  them  the  divine  intent  to  promote  concord  and 
larmony  among  the  races  of  the  earth,  peace  and  goodwill 
imong  mankind. 2 

*  The  most  recent  account  of  this  remarkable  religious  movement,  from 
he  Babi  point  of  view,  is  to  be  found  in  Professor  E.  G.  Browne's  New  History 
•f  the  Bab,  which  purports  to  be  a  translation  of  a  Babi  work  called  Tdrikh-i- 
'adid.  Professor  Browne's  Introduction  is  extremely  interesting.  From  the 
^drikh  one  can  picture  the  fascinating  personality  of  Knrrat-td-'Ayn  ;  see 
vppendix  III.  This  great  scholar  has  given  to  the  world  in  his  new  work, 
ailed  Materials  for  the  Study  of  the  Babi  Religion,  considerable  additional 
nformation  regarding  its  development  and  diffusion.  Bahaism,  its  latest 
)hase,  which  flourishes  chiefly  in  the  United  States  of  America,  appears  to 
;iave  largely  assimilated  the  doctrines  of  Christian  Science. 

^  See  post,  chap.  xi. 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC   SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

WE  have   already  referred  to  the  Arabian   Prophet's 
devotion  to  knowledge  and  science  as  distinguishing 
him  from  all  other  Teachers,  and  bringing  him  into 
the  closest  affinity  with  the  modern  world  of  thought.     Medina, 
the  seat  of  the  theocratic  commonwealth  of  Islam,  had,  afteij 
the  faU  of  Mecca,  become  the  centre  of  attraction,  not  to  the! 
hosts  of  Arabia  only,  but  also  to  inquirers  from  abroad.     Here 
flocked  the  Persian,  the  Greek,  the  Syrian,  the  Irakian,  and 
African  of  diverse  hues  and  nationalities  from  the  north  and 
the  west.     Some,  no  doubt,  came  from  curiosity,  but  most 
came  to  seek  knowledge  and  to  listen  to  the  words  of  the  Prophet 
of  Islam.     He  preached  of  the  value  of  knowledge  :    "  Acquirt 
knowledge,  because  he  who  acquires  it  in  the  way  of  the  Lord 
performs  an  act  of  piety  ;   who  speaks  of  it,  praises  the  Lord 
who  seeks  it,  adores  God  ;    who  dispenses  instruction  in  it 
bestows  alms  ;    and  who  imparts  it  to  its  fitting  objects,  per- 
forms  an  act  of  devotion  to  God.     Knowledge  enables  ite 
possessor  to  distinguish  what  is  forbidden  from  what  is  not 
it  lights  the  way  to  Heaven  ;   it  is  our  friend  in  the  desert,  oui 
society  in  solitude,  our  companion  when  bereft  of  friends  ;   ii| 
guides  us  to  happiness  ;    it  sustains  us  in  misery  ;    it  is  ouij 
ornament  in  the  company  of  friends  ;    it  serves  as  an  armouij 

1  The  translation  of  this  Hadis  is  given  in  the  text  :    "  Acquire  knowledge 
etc." 


IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      361 

against  our  enemies.  With  knowledge,  the  servant  of  God 
rises  to  the  heights  of  goodness  and  to  a  noble  position, 
associates  with  sovereigns  in  this  world,  and  attains  to  the 
perfection  of  happiness  in  the  next."  ^ 

He  would  often  say,  "  the  ink  of  the  scholar  is  more  holy 
than  the  blood  of  the  martyr  "  ;  and  repeatedly  impress  on  his 
disciples  the  necessity  of  seeking  for  knowledge  "  even  unto 
China."  ^  "  He  who  leaves  his  home  in  search  of  knowledge, 
walks  in  the  path  of  God."  "  He  who  travels  in  search  of 
knowledge,  to  him  God  shows  the  way  to  paradise."  ^ 

The  Koran  itself  bears  testimony  to  the  supreme  value  of 
learning  and  science.  Commenting  on  the  Surat-nl-'alak* 
Zamakhshari  thus  explains  the  meaning  of  the  Koranic  words  : 
"  God  taught  human  beings  that  which  they  did  not  know,  and 
this  testilieth  to  the  greatness  of  His  beneficence,  for  He  has 
given  to  His  serv^ants  knowledge  of  that  which  they  did  not 
know.  And  He  has  brought  them  out  of  the  darkness  of 
ignorance  to  the  light  of  knowledge,  and  made  them  aware  of 
the  inestimable  blessings  of  the  knowledge  of  writing,  for  great 
benefits  accrue  therefrom  which  God  alone  compasseth  ;  and 
without  the  knowledge  of  writing  no  other  knowledge  {'iilum) 
could  be  comprehended,  nor  the  sciences  placed  within  bounds, 
nor  the  history  of  the  ancients  be  acquired  and  their  sayings 
be  recorded,  nor  the  revealed  books  be  written  ;  and  if  that 
knowledge  did  not  exist,  the  affairs  of  religion  and  the  world, 
^■^1 J  (^"^i  jr*l.  could  not  be  regulated." 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Islamic  Dispensation,  the  Arab  world, 
properly  so  called,  restricted  within  the  Peninsula  of  Arabia 
and  some  outlying  tracts  to  the  north-west  and  the  north-east, 
had  shown  no  signs  of  intellectual  growth.  Poetry,  oratory, 
and  judicial  astrology  formed  the  favourite  objects  of  pursuit 
among  the  pre-Islamic  Arabs.  Science  and  literature  pos- 
sessed no  votaries.  But  the  words  of  the  Prophet  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  awakened  energies  of  the  race.     Even  within 

'Tradition  from  the  Bihdr-ul-Anwdr  of  Mulla  Bakir  ibn  Mohammed  Taki 
al-majlisi,  vol.  i.  chap,  on  Knowledge,  handed  down  by  the  Imam  Ja'far 
as-Sadik,  also  quoted  from  Mu'az  ibn-Jabal  in  the  Mustatraf,  chap.  iv.  ;  also 
in  the  Kashf  iiz-Zunun  of  Haji  Khalifa,  Fluegel's  ed.  p.  44. 

-  Misbah  nsh-Shartat.  ^  Jdnti'  ul-Akhbdr. 

*  Koran,  sura  xcvi.  :   see  also  other  suras. 


362  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  r 

his  lifetime  was  formed  the  nucleus  of  an  educational  institution 
which  in  after  years  grew  into  universities  at  Bagdad  an( 
Salerno,  at  Cairo  and  Cordova,  Here  preached  the  Maste 
himself  on  the  cultivation  of  a  holy  spirit  :  "  One  hour' 
meditation  on  the  work  of  the  Creator  [in  a  devout  spirit]  i 
better  than  seventy  years  of  prayer."  ^  "To  listen  to  thi 
instructions  of  science  and  learning  for  one  hour  is  more  meri 
torious  than  attending  the  funerals  of  a  thousand  martyrs- 
more  meritorious  than  standing  up  in  prayer  for  a  thousan( 
nights  ;  "  "To  the  student  who  goes  forth  in  quest  of  know 
ledge,  God  will  allot  a  high  place  in  the  mansions  of  bliss  ;  evenj 
step  he  takes  is  blessed,  and  every  lesson  he  receives  has  it;; 
reward  ;  "  "  The  seeker  of  knowledge  will  be  greeted  in  Heaver! 
with  a  welcome  from  the  angels  ;  "  "to  listen  to  the  words  o 
the  learned,  and  to  instil  into  the  heart  the  lessons  of  sciences 
is  better  than  religious  exercises,  .  .  .  better  than  emancipatin^i 
a  hundred  slaves ;  "  "  Him  who  favours  learning  and  thij 
learned,  God  will  favour  in  the  next  world  ;  "  "He  who  honourii 
the  learned  honours  me."  Ali  lectured  on  branches  of  learning; 
most  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  infant  commonwealth.  Amon^' 
his  recorded  sayings  are  the  following  :  "  Eminence  in  scienct! 
is  the  highest  of  honours  ;  "  "He  dies  not  who  gives  life  t( 
learning ;  "   "  The  greatest  ornament  of  a  man  is  erudition." 

Naturally  such  sentiments  on  the  part  of  the  Master  and  thd 
chief  of  the  Disciples  gave  rise  to  a  liberal  policy,  and  animatec 
all  classes  with  a  desire  for  learning.  The  art  of  Kufic  writing' 
which  had  just  been  acquired  by  a  disciple  at  Hira,  furtherec 
the  primitive  development  of  the  Moslems.  It  was,  however* 
pre-eminently  an  age  of  earnestness  and  faith,  marked  by  the 
uprise  of  the  soul  against  the  domination  of  aimless,  lifelessj 
philosophy.  The  practice  of  religion,  the  conservation  of  2' 
devotional  spirit,  and  the  special  cultivation  of  those  branches 
of  learning  which  were  of  practical  value  in  the  battle  of  every- 
day life,  were  the  primary  objects  of  the  Moslem's  attention.    , 

The  age  of  speculation  was  soon  to  commence  ;  its  germs  werCj 
contained  in  the  positive  precepts  of  the  Master  ;  and  even; 
whilst  he  was  working,  the  scholarly  Disciple  was  thinking. 
The  Master  had  himself  declared  that  whosoever  desired  tc 

'  J  ami'  itl-Akhbar. 


X.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      363 

ealise  the  spirit  of  his  teachings  must  hsten  to  the  words  of  the 
>cholar.^  Who  more  able  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  tJie  Master's 
vords  than  Ah,  the  beloved  friend,  the  trusted  Disciple,  the 
ievoted  cousin  and  son  ?  The  gentle,  calm  teachings  instilled 
n  early  life  into  the  young  mind  bore  their  fruit. 

In  spite  of  the  upheaval  of  the  Arab  race  under  the  early 
\iliphs,  literature  and  arts  were  by  no  means  neglected  in  the 
netropolis  of  primitive  Islam.  Ali  and  Ibn  Abbas,  his  cousin, 
^ave  public  lectures  on  poetry,  grammar,  history,  and  mathe- 
natics  ;  others  taught  the  art  of  recitation  or  elocution  ; 
vhilst  some  gave  lessons  in  caligraphy, — in  ancient  times  an 
n valuable  branch  of  knowledge. 

On  Osman's  tragical  death  the  Scholar  was  called  by  the 
•oice  of  the  people  to  the  helm  of  the  State.  During  his  retire- 
nent  Ali  had  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Master's 
)recepts  by  the  light  of  reason.  "But  for  his  assassination," 
o  quote  the  language  of  a  French  historian,  "  the  Moslem 
vorld  might  have  witnessed  the  realisation  of  the  Prophet's 
eachings,  in  the  actual  amalgamation  of  Reason  with  Law, 
md  in  the  impersonation  of  the  first  principles  of  true  philosophy 
n  positive  action."  The  same  passionate  devotion  to  know- 
edge  and  learning  which  distinguished  Mohammed,  breathed 
n  every  word  of  his  Disciple.  With  a  liberality  of  mind — far 
)eyond  that  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived — was  joined  a  sincere 
levoutness  of  spirit  and  earnestness  of  faith.  His  sermons, 
aithfully  preserved  by  one  of  his  descendants,  and  his  litanies 
)r  psalms,  portray  a  devout  uplooking  toward  the  Source  of 
VU  Good,  and  an  unbounded  faith  in  humanity.  The  accession 
)f  the  Ommeyyades  to  the  rulership  of  Islam  was  a  blow  to 
he  progress  of  knowledge  and  liberalism  in  the  Moslem  world, 
iheir  stormy  reigns  left  the  nation  little  leisure  to  devote  to 
he  gentler  pursuits  of  science  ;  and  to  this,  among  the 
overeigns,  was  joined  a  characteristic  idolatry  of  the  past, 
lieir  thoughts  were  engrossed  by  war  and  politics.  During 
he    comparatively    long    rule    of   a   century,    the    House    of 

'    V-^  J'^  C^^^  '^'^i^^  ^Jl 
"  I  am  the  city  of  learning,  .'Mi  is  its  gate." 


364  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

Ommeyya  produced  only  one  man  devoted  to  the  cultivatioi 
of  letters  ;  and  this  man  was  Abii  Hashim  Khalid  ibn  Yezid 
"  the  philosopher  of  the  Merwanian  family,"  ^  as  he  has  beei 
called,  who  was  set  aside  from  the  succession  on  account  of  hi 
learning. 

The  jealous  suspicion  and  the  untiring  animosity  of  th 
children  of  Abu  Sufian  and  Hind  had  obliged  the  descendant 
of  the  Prophet  to  live  a  life  of  humble  retirement.  "  In  th«! 
night  of  misery  and  unhappiness  "  they  followed  truly  an( 
faithfully  the  precepts  of  their  ancestor,  and  found  consolatio: 
in  intellectual  pursuits.  Their  ardent  love  of  knowledge,  thai 
passionate  devotion  to  the  cause  of  humanity, — their  spiri 
looking  upwards  far  above  the  literalness  of  common  interpreta 
tions  of  the  law, — show  the  spirituality  and  expansiveness  c 
Islam. 2  The  definition  by  the  Imam  Ja'far  as-Sadik  of  science 
or  knowledge  gives  some  idea  of  their  faith  in  the  progress  0 
man  :  "  The  enlightenment  of  the  heart  is  its  essence  ;  Trut! 
its  principal  object  ;  Inspiration,  its  guide  ;  Reason,  it 
accepter  ;  God,  its  inspirer  ;  and  the  words  of  man  its  utterer." 

Surrounded  by  men  whom  love,  devotion,  and  sympathj 
with  their  patience  had  gathered  around  them,  the  earl;* 
descendants  of  the  Prophet  were  naturally  more  or  less  in 
fluenced  by  the  varied  ideas  of  their  followers.  Yet  thai 
philosophy  never  sinks  to  that  war  of  words  without  life  an^ 
without  earnestness  which  characterised  the  schools  of  Athen 
or  Alexandria  under  the  Ptolemies. 

But  though  literature  and  philosophy  were  at  a  discoun 
among  the  rulers,  the  example  of  the  Imams  naturally  exercise 
no  small  influence  on  the  intellectual  activity  of  the  Arabs  an 
the  subject  races.  Whilst  the  Ommeyyades  discouraged  th 
peaceful  pursuits  of  the  mind,  the  children  of  Fatima,  wit 
remarkable    liberalism,    favoured    learning.     They    were   no 

^  M&hhaz-i-'ul'Hm  of  Moulvi  Syed  Keramat  Ali.  This  learned  scholar  w; 
nearly  forty  years  curator  of  the  Imambara  at  Houghly. 

2  See  the  Hadis-i-Ihlilaj,  from  the  Imam  Ali  bin-Musa  ar-Raza,  reporte^ 
by  Mufazal  bin-Omar  Joufi,  Bihar  ul- Anwar.  j 

3  Tarikh  ul-Hukama,  by  Jamal  ud-din  al-Kifti,  founded  upon  another  wor' 
bearing  the  same  name,  by  Shihab  ud-din  Suhrwardi  ;  Shihab  ud-din  was  ;| 
Platonist — an  Ishraki — an  idealist,  and  was  condemned  and  put  to  death  U) 
the  orthodox  synod  in  the  reign  of  Saladin's  son.  Compare  the  first  Khutb 
of  the  Nahj-ul-Baldghat,  and  the  traditions  on  knowledge  in  the  BihAr  ul-Anwa 


X.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      365 

ievotcd  to  the  past, — the  salaf  was  not  their  guide.  Witli 
he  Master's  precepts  to  light  their  path,  they  kept  in  view  the 
ievelopment  of  humanity,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the 
■ultivation  of  science  and  learning  in  all  its  branches.  Like 
he  Master  and  the  early  Caliphs,  the  "  Philosophers  of  the 
rlcuse  of  Mohammed  "  ^  received  with  distinction  the  learned 
nen  whom  the  fanatical  persecution  of  Justinian's  successors 
Irove  for  refuge  into  foreign  lands.  The  academies  of  philo- 
sophy and  medicine,  founded  by  the  Nestorians  at  Edessa  and 
S'isibis,  had  been  broken  up  ;  its  professors  and  students  were 
efugees  in  Persia  and  Arabia.  Many  betook  themselves — as 
:heir  predecessors  had  done  before,  in  the  time  of  the  Prophet 
md  the  Caliph  Abu  Bakr — to  Medina,  which,  after  its  sack  by 
:he  Ommeyyades,  had  again  gathered  round  Ja'far  as-Sadik 
a  galaxy  of  talented  scholars.  The  concourse  of  many  and 
v'aried  minds  in  the  City  of  the  Prophet  gave  an  impetus  to  the 
:ultivation  of  science  and  literature  among  the  Moslems.  From 
Medina  a  stream  of  unusual  intellectual  activity  flowed  towards 
Damascus.  Situated  on  the  northern  confines  of  the  Arabian 
Desert,  along  the  trade-route  from  Mecca  and  Medina  to  Syria, 
Damascus  had  been  associated  from  ancient  times  with  the 
3mmeyyades  ;  and  the  Syrian  Arabs  were  closely  allied  by 
interest  and  kinship  to  the  family  whom  they  had  assisted  to 
,?levate  to  the  rulership  of  Islam.  The  Ommeyyades  had 
QaturaUy  fixed  upon  this  city  as  the  seat  of  their  empire  ;  and 
though  shunned  with  horror  by  the  devout  Moslems,  it  formed 
the  gathering  place  for  the  representatives  of  the  many  races 
who  had  come  under  the  sway  of  Islam.  The  controversies  of 
Greek  and  Saracen  furnished  a  strong  incentive  to  the  study  of 
dialectics  and  Greek  philosophy  ;  and  the  invention  of  the 
diacritical  and  vowel  points  furthered  the  cultivation  of 
grammar  and  philology.  At  this  time  flourished  two  Christian 
writers  of  note,  who,  fleeing  before  their  orthodox  persecutors, 
had  taken  shelter  in  Damascus.  These  were  Johannes  Damas- 
:enus  and  Theodorus  Abucara.  Their  polemical  writings 
igainst  the  Moslems,  their  rationalistic  and  philosophical 
disputes  with  their  own  orthodox  brethren,  joined  to  the 
influence    of    the    Medinite    school,    which    flourished    under 

1  Mdkhaz-i-'Ulilm. 


366  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ] 

Mohammed  al-Bakir  andja'far  as-Sadik,  soon  led  to  the  growl 
of  philosophical  tendencies  among  the  Saracens.  For  centurii 
Greek  philosophy  had  been  known  to  the  Persians  and  tl 
Arabs  ;  the  Nestorians  had  spread  themselves  in  the  dominioi 
of  the  Chosroes  since  the  beginning  of  Justinian's  reign,  but 
was  not  until  all  the  varied  elements  had  been  fused  into  a 
organic  whole  by  Islam  that  Greek  science  and  culture  exercise, 
any  real  effect  on  the  intellectual  development  of  Western  Asi;' 
It  was  towards  the  close  of  the  Ommeyyade  rule  that  sever; 
Moslem  thinkers  came  into  prominence,  whose  lectures  o 
subjects  then  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  the  people  attracte 
great  attention.  And  their  ideas  and  conceptions  material) 
moulded  the  thoughts  of  succeeding  generations. 

It  was  in  the  second  century,  however,  that  the  literary  an 
scientific  activity  of  the  Moslems  commenced  in  earnest,  an 
the  chief  impulse  to  this  was  given  by  the  settlement  of  tl: 
Arabs  in  towns.  Hitherto  they  had  lived  in  camps  isolate! 
from  the  races  they  had  subjugated.  Osman  had  laid  a  pn] 
hibition  on  their  acquiring  lands  in  the  conquered  countrie! 
or  contracting  marriages  with  the  subject  nations.  The  objec] 
of  this  policy  was  apparent  ;  it  has  its  parallel  in  the  historl 
of  all  nations,  ancient  and  modern.  In  British  India  and  ii 
French  Algeria  it  is  still  in  force.  During  the  whole  period  i] 
the  Ommeyyade  rule  the  Arabs  had  constituted  the  dominai 
element, — the  aristocratic  military  caste  amongst  their  subject 
The  majority  of  them  were  occupied  in  warlike  pursuits.  Tl 
gentler  avocations  of  learning  and  science  were  left  to  tl 
suspected  Hashimis  and  the  children  of  the  Ansar, — to  tl 
descendants  of  Ali,  Abu  Bakr,  and  Omar.  The  Arabs  ha 
carried  with  them  into  distant  regions  the  system  of  clienta^ 
which  had  existed  in  Arabia,  as  it  had  existed  among  tl 
Romans,  from  ancient  times.  Clientage  afforded  to  tl 
subjects  protection  and  consideration  ;  to  the  conqueror 
the  additional  strength  gained  by  numbers.  Thus,  both  in  tl 
East  and  in  the  West,  the  leading  families  allied  themselves  wit^ 
members  of  the  prominent  desert  clans,  and  became  the  maulc\ 
or  clients,  not  freedmen,  as  has  been  incorrectly  supposed,  «j 
their  conquerors.  To  these  clients,  besides  the  Hashimito' 
and  the  children  of  the  Ansar  and  Muhajirin,  such  as  ha 


IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      367 

survived  the  sack  of  Medina,  was  left  scholarship  and  the 
cultivation  of  arts  and  sciences  during  the  Ommeyyade  rule. 
With  the  rise  of  the  Abbasides  commenced  a  new  era.  They 
rose  to  power  with  the  assistance  of  the  Persians  ;  and  they 
relied  for  the  maintenance  of  their  rule  more  upon  the  attach- 
ment of  the  general  body  of  their  subjects,  than  the  fickle 
affection  of  the  military  colonists  of  Arabia.  Abu'l  Abbas 
Saffah  held  the  reins  of  government  for  but  two  years.  His 
brother  and  successor,  al-Mansiir,  though  cruel  in  his  treatment 
of  the  Fatimides,  was  a  statesman  of  the  first  rank.  He 
organised  the  State,  established  a  standing  army  and  a  corps 
of  police,  and  gave  firmness  and  consistency  to  the  system  of 
administration.  The  Arabs  had  hitherto  devoted  themselves 
almost  exclusively  to  the  profession  of  arms  ;  the  method  of 
government  adopted  by  al-Mansur  gave  a  new  bent  to  their 
genius.  They  settled  in  cities,  acquired  landed  properties,  and 
devoted  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  letters  with  the  same 
ardour  which  they  had  displayed  in  the  pursuit  of  war. 

The  rich  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Euphrates,  watered  by  the 
two  great  rivers  of  Western  Asia,  has,  from  the  most  ancient 
times,  been  the  seat  of  empire  and  the  centre  of  civilisation. 
It  was  in  this  region  that  Babylon,  Ctesiphon,  and  Seleucia 
had  risen  successively.  Here  existed  at  this  epoch  Basra  and 
Kufa,  with  their  unruly  and  volatile  inhabitants.  Basra 
and  Kiifa  had,  from  the  first  conquest  of  the  Moslems, 
formed  important  centres  of  commercial  activity.  The  latter 
city  was  at  one  time  the  seat  of  government.  To  Basra 
and  Kufa  had  come  all  the  active  spirits  of  the  East,  who 
either  could  not  or  would  not  go  to  the  depraved  capital 
of  the  Ommeyyades.  For  the  Abbasides,  Damascus  had  not 
only  no  attraction,  but  was  a  place  of  peril  ;  and  the  uncertain 
and  fickle  temperament  of  the  people  of  Basra  and  Kufa 
made  those  cities  undesirable  as  the  seat  of  government.  Al- 
Mansijr  cast  about  for  a  site  for  his  capital,  and  at  last  fixed 
upon  the  locality  where  Bagdad  now  stands — a  six  days'  journey 
by  river  from  Basra. 

Bagdad  is  said  to  have  been  a  summer  retreat  of  Kesra 
Anushirvan,  the  famous  monarch  of  Persia,  and  derived  from 
his  reputation  as  a  just  ruler  the  name  it  bears, — the  "  Garden 


368  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

of  Justice."  With  the  disappearance  of  the  Persian  monarch 
had  disappeared  the  famous  Garden  where  the  Lord  of  Asi 
dispensed  justice  to  his  multitudinous  subjects  ;  traditioi 
however,  had  preserved  the  name.  The  beautiful  site,  centr; 
and  salubrious,  attracted  the  eyes  of  Mansur,  and  the  glorioi 
city  of  the  Caliphs  arose,  like  the  sea-goddess  issuing  from  th 
waves,  under  the  magic  wand  of  the  foremost  architects  of  tl: 
day. 

The  Bagdad  of  Mansur  was  founded  in  the  year  145  of  th; 
Hegira  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris.  Soon,  howeve' 
another  city — a  new  Bagdad — sprang  up  on  the  eastern  ban 
under  the  auspices  of  the  heir-apparent,  the  Prince  Imperial  ( 
the  Caliphate,  who  afterwards  assumed  the  title  of  al-Mahd 
This  new  city  vied  in  the  splendour  of  its  structures  with  tl 
beauty  and  magnificence  of  the  Mansurieh.  In  the  days  of  ii 
glory,  before  the  destroying  hordes  of  Chengiz  sweeping  ove 
Western  Asia  had  engulfed  in  ruin  every  vestige  of  Saracen 
civilisation,  Bagdad  presented  a  beautiful  and  imposir; 
appearance — a  fit  capital  for  the  Pontiffs  of  Islam. ^  ; 

The  beauty  and  splendour  of  the  city,  before  its  sack  by  ttj 
Mongols,  have  been  immortalised  in  glowing  lines  by  Anwari-: 
most  brilliant  of  panegyrists  : —  ^ 

"  Blessed  be  the  site  of  Bagdad,  seat  of  learning  and  art — 
None  can  point  in  the  world  to  a  city  equal  to  her, 
Her  suburbs  vie  in  beauty  with  the  blue  vault  of  heaven. 
Her   climate  in  quality  equals  the  life-giving  breezes  < 

heaven, 
Her  stones  in  their  brightness  rival  gems  and  rubies, 

^  For  a  description  of  Bagdad  under  the  Abbasides,  see  Shoyt  History 
the  Saracens  (Macmillan) ,  p.  444. 

2  This  English  rendering  gives  an  inadequate  idea  of  the  beauty  of  t 
original : — 


>*' 

J^i 

o-^ 

jIjxj 

^"' 

,i  l-i^i. 

;^^  ^U^  J^^  ;j 

j>fc^j 

^^^^ 

^i^ 

^; 

Ux^ 

jifi*^   c'^^ 

JI- 

,\  .1,- 

J:ji  u 

^r^' 

-'  c^jr- 

^ 

.A^j 

y  ^',- 

/-:rV 

'  ji-  ^^ 

x^  «.< 

■J*     w: 

— i-^livj 

IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      369 

Her  soil  in  beneficence  has  the  fragrance  of  the  amber, 
The  morning  breeze  has  imparted  to  the  earth  the  freshness 

of  Tiiha  (the  tree  of  Paradise), 
And  the  winds  have  concealed  in  her  water  the  sweetness 

of  Kausar  (the  spring  of  Eden) , 
The  banks  of  the  Tigris  with  their  beautiful  damsels  surpass 

(the  city  of)  Khullakh} 
The  gardens  filled  with  lovely  nymphs  equal  Cashmere, 
And  thousands  of  gondolas  on  the  water, 
Dance  and  sparkle  hke  sunbeams  in  the  sky." 

Its  designation  of  the  City  of  Peace,  Ddr  us-Saldm,  was 
derived  from  a  prophecy  made  by  the  astronomer-royal  Nou- 
bakht,  that  none  of  the  Caliphs  would  die  within  the  walls  of  the 
city,  and  the  strange  fulfilment  of  this  prognostication  in  the 
case  of  thirty-seven  Pontiffs.  The  great  number  of  holy  men 
who  have  found  their  last  resting-place  within  or  about  its 
walls,  and  whose  tombs  are  objects  of  veneration  to  all  Moslems, 
gave  to  Bagdad  the  title  of  Bulwark  of  the  Holy.  Here  are  the 
mausoleums  of  the  greatest  Imams  and  the  most  pious  Sheikhs. 
Here  reposes  the  Imam  Musa  al-Kazim,  and  here  lie  buried 
Abu  Hanifa,  the  Sheikhs  Junaid,  Shibh,  and  Abdul  Kadir 
Ghilani,  the  chiefs  of  the  Sufis. 

In  the  midst  of  the  monuments  of  the  Imams  and  Sheikhs 
;stood  those  of  the  Caliphs  and  their  consorts.  Of  the  numerous 
academies,  colleges,  and  schools  which  filled  the  city,  two 
institutions  surpassed  all  others  in  importance  by  their  wealth 


/   AJI 

r     jixc 

^<\^ 

A** 

^s^f^a'x^i 

^.,^ 

o,l> 

^^Hivj 

1        Ai 

"^J^ 

L.^ 

jiyi      C^;X ». 

^^;^ 

A.  _ 

-^v 

'.- 

'^^ 

.  i**. 

-■J^y' 

*_ 

-^-^ 

;U$ 

r-s 

^,,.U 

^h^> 

<^ 

x», 

c^^i- 

S\   ^.  j4      JX 

X    J^xi 

.>^ 

0;;; 

;'/* 

),1     ,^A«.     .J      IwV i/l.J     *.i      V_J^ft..« 


u'-^' 


•  A  city  in  Cathay  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  women. 
S.I.  2  A 


370  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

and  the  number  of  their  students.  These  were  the  Nizamie] 
and  Mustansarieh  ;  the  first  estabhshed  in  the  first  half  of  th 
fifth  century  of  the  Hegira  by  Nizam  ul-Mulk,  the  great  Vizie 
of  Malik  Shah,  Sultan  of  the  Seljuks  ;  and  the  second,  buil 
two  centuries  later,  by  the  Caliph  Al-Mustansir  b'illah. 

"  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,"  says  the  historian  of  Culture  unde 
the  Caliphs,  "  that  the  sovereign  who  makes  us  forget  some  c 
the  darker  sides  of  his  nature  by  his  moral  and  mental  quahtia' 
also  gave  the  impetus  to  the  great  intellectual  movement  whic 
now  commenced  in  the  Islamic  world."  ^  It  was  by  Mansur' 
command  that  literary  and  scientific  works  in  foreign  language 
were  first  translated  into  Arabic.  Himself  no  mean  scholar  an 
mathematician  he  had  the  famous  collections  of  Indian  fabk 
(the  Hitopadesa),  the  Indian  treatise  on  astronomy  called  th 
Siddhanta,  several  works  of  Aristotle,  the  Almagest  of  Claudir 
Ptolemy,  the  books  of  Euclid,  as  well  as  other  ancient  Greel 
Byzantine,  Persian,  and  Syrian  productions,  translated  int 
the  language  of  the  Arabs.  Mas'udi  mentions  that  no  soont 
were  these  translations  published  than  they  were  studied  wit 
much  avidity.  Mansur's  successors  were  not  only  wan 
patrons  of  the  learned,  who  flocked  to  the  metropolis  from  a 
quarters,  but  were  themselves  assiduous  cultivators  of  eveii 
branch  of  knowledge.  Under  them  the  intellectual  develojl 
ment  of  the  Saracens,  in  other  words  of  the  conglomerate  rac(' 
of  the  vast  empire  which  constituted  the  Cahphate,  proceeds 
with  wonderful  rapidity. 

Each  great  nation  of  the  world  has  had  its  golden  ag 
Athens  had  her  Periclean  era  ;  Rome,  her  Augustan  age  ;  s 
too,  had  the  Islamic  world  its  epoch  of  glory  ;  and  we  may  wii 
justice  look  upon  the  period  which  elapsed  from  the  accessic 
of  Mansur  to  the  death  of  Mu'tazid-b'illah,  with  only  a  bri 
intermission  during  the  reign  of  Mutawakkil,  as  an  epoch 
equal,  if  not  of  superior  greatness  and  magnificence.  Und 
the  first  six  Abbaside  Caliphs,  but  especially  under  Mamu 
the  Moslems  formed  the  vanguard  of  civilisation.  Tl 
Saracenic  race  by  its  elastic  genius  as  well  as  by  its  centr 
position, — with  the  priceless  treasures  of  dying  Greece  ai 
Rome  on  one  side,  and  of  Persia  on  the  other,  and  India  ai 

1  Kremer,  Cidturgeschichte  des  Orients  tinter  den  Chalifen,  vol.  ii.  p.  412. 


IX.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      371 

China  far  away  sleeping  the  sleep  of  ages, — was  pre-eminently 
fitted  to  become  the  teacher  of  mankind.  Under  the  inspiring 
influences  of  the  great  Prophet,  who  gave  them  a  code  and  a 
nationality,  and  assisted  by  their  sovereigns,  the  Saracens 
caught  up  the  lessons  of  wisdom  from  the  East  and  the  West, 
combined  them  with  the  teachings  of  the  Master,  and  "  started 
from  soldiers  into  scholars."  "  The  Arabs,"  says  Humboldt, 
"  were  admirably  situated  to  act  the  part  of  mediators,  and  to 
influence  the  nations  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Guadalquivir 
and  Mid-Africa.  Their  unexampled  intellectual  activity  marks 
a  distinct  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  world." 

Under  the  Ommeyyades  we  see  the  Moslems  passing  through 
a  period  of  probation,  preparing  themselves  for  the  great  task 
they  were  called  upon  to  undertake.  Under  the  Abbasides 
we  find  them  the  repositories  of  the  knowledge  of  the  world. 
Every  part  of  the  globe  is  ransacked  by  the  agents  of  the  Caliphs 
for  the  hoarded  wealth  of  antiquity  ;  these  are  brought  to  the 
capital,  and  laid  before  an  admiring  and  appreciating  public. 
Schools  and  academies  spring  up  in  every  direction  ;  public 
Ubraries  are  established  in  every  city  free  to  every  comer  ;  the 
great  philosophers  of  the  ancient  world  are  studied  side  by  side 
with  the  Koran.  Galen,  Dioscorides,  Themistius,  Aristotle, 
Plato,  Euclid,  Ptolemy,  and  Apollonius  receive  their  due  meed 
Df  appreciation.  The  sovereigns  themselves  assist  at  literary 
meetings  and  philosophical  disquisitions.  For  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  humanity  a  religious  and  autocratic  government 
s  observed  to  ally  itself  with  philosophy,  preparing  and 
participating  in  its  triumphs. 

!  Every  city  in  the  empire  sought  to  outrival  the  other  in  tlie 
cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  And  governors  and 
provincial  chiefs  tried  to  emulate  the  sovereign.  Travelling  in 
search  of  knowledge  was,  according  to  the  precept  of  the  Master, 
I  pious  duty.  From  every  part  of  the  globe  students  and 
-cholars  flocked  to  Cordova,  to  Bagdad,  and  to  Cairo  to  listen 
o  the  words  of  the  Saracenic  sages.  Even  Christians  from 
remote  corners  of  Europe  attended  Moslem  colleges.  Men  who 
)ecame  in  after-Hfe  the  heads  of  the  Christian  Church, ^  acquired 
heir  scholarship  from  Islamic  teachers.     The  rise  of  Cairo 

^  Such  as  Gerbert,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  who  studied  in  Cordova. 


■^12  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  n. 

under  al-Muizz  li-din-illah  added  a  spirit  of  rivalry  to  the 
patronage  of  learning  on  the  part  of  the  Caliphs  of  the  Houses 
of  Abbas  and  Fatima.  Al-Muizz  was  the  Mamun  of  the  West 
— the  Maecenas  of  Moslem  Africa,  which  then  embraced  the 
whole  of  the  continent  from  the  eastern  confines  of  Egypt  to 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  borders  of  the  Sahara.  During 
the  reign  of  al-Muizz  and  his  first  three  successors,  the  arts  and 
sciences  flourished  under  the  especial  and  loving  protection  of 
the  sovereigns.  The  free  university  of  Cairo,  the  Ddy-ul-Hikmat 
— Scientific  Institute — established  by  al-Muizz,  "anticipated 
Bacon's  ideal  with  a  fact."  The  Idrisides  at  Fez,  and  the 
Moorish  sovereigns  in  Spain,  outvied  each  other  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  arts  and  letters.  From  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  far  away  even  to  the  Pacific,, 
resounded  the  voice  of  philosophy  and  learning,  under  Moslem 
guidance  and  Moslem  inspiration.  And  when  the  House  of 
Abbas  lost  its  grasp  on  the  empire  of  the  East,  the  chiefs  who 
held  the  reins  of  government  in  the  tracts  which  at  one  time 
were  under  the  undivided  temporal  sway  of  the  Caliphs,| 
extended  the  same  protection  to  science  and  literature  as  the' 
Pontiffs  from  whom  they  still  derived  their  title  to  sovereignty. 
This  glorious  period  lasted,  in  spite  of  the  triumph  of  patris- 
ticism  and  its  unconcealed  jealousy  towards  scientific  and 
philosophical  pursuits,  until  the  fall  of  Bagdad  before  the 
Tartar  hordes.  But  the  wild  savages  who  overturned  the 
Caliphate  and  destroyed  civilisation,  as  soon  as  they  adoptee 
Islam,  became  ardent  protectors  of  learning  ! 

What  was  the  condition  of  learning  and  science  in  Christen 
dom  at  this  epoch  ?  Under  Constantine  and  his  orthodo 
successors  the  ^Esclepions  were  closed  for  ever  ;  the  public 
libraries  established  by  the  liberality  of  the  pagan  emperon 
were  dispersed  or  destroyed  ;  learning  was  "  branded  as  magi( 
or  punished  as  treason  "  ;  and  philosophy  and  science  wen 
exterminated.  The  ecclesiastical  hatred  against  human  learn 
ing  had  found  expression  in  the  patristic  maxim,  "  Ignoranci 
is  the  mother  of  devotion  "  ;  and  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
the  founder  of  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  gave  effect  to  thi 
obscurantist  dogma  by  expelling  from  Rome  all  scientific 
studies,  and  burning  the  Palatine  Library  founded  by  Augustu 


IX.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      373 

Caesar.  He  forbade  the  study  of  the  ancient  writers  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  He  introduced  and  sanctified  the  mythologic 
Christianity  which  continued  for  centuries  the  predominating 
creed  of  Europe,  with  its  worship  of  rehcs  and  the  remains  of 
saints.  Science  and  hterature  were  placed  under  the  ban  by 
orthodox  Christianity,  and  they  succeeded  in  emancipating 
themselves  only  when  Free  Thought  had  broken  down  the 
barriers  raised  by  orthodoxy  against  the  progress  of  the  human 
mind. 

Abdullah  al-Mamiin  has  been  deservedly  styled  the  Augustus 
of  the  Arabs.  "  He  was  not  ignorant  that  they  are  the  elect 
of  God,  his  best  and  most  useful  servants,  whose  lives  are 
devoted  to  the  improvement  of  their  rational  faculties  .  .  .  that 
the  teachers  of  wisdom  are  the  true  luminaries  and  legislators 
of  the  world."  ^ 

!  Mamun  was  followed  by  a  brilliant  succession  of  princes  who 
Continued  his  work.  Under  him  and  his  successors,  the  prin- 
:ipal  distinguishing  feature  of  the  school  of  Bagdad  was  a  true 
and  strongly  marked  scientific  spirit,  which  dominated  over  all 
its  achievements.  The  deductive  method,  hitherto  proudly 
:'egarded  as  the  invention  and  sole  monopoly  of  modern  Europe, 
.vas  perfectly  understood  by  the  Moslems.  "  Marching  from 
ihe  known  to  the  unknown,  the  school  of  Bagdad  rendered  to 
tself  an  exact  account  of  the  phenomena  for  the  purpose  of 
■ising  from  the  effect  to  the  cause,  accepting  only  what  had 
Deen  demonstrated  by  experience  ;  such  were  the  principles 
:aught  by  the  (Moslem)  masters."  "  The  Arabs  of  the  ninth 
:entury,"  continues  the  author  we  are  quoting,  "  were  in  the 
Dossession  of  that  fecund  method  which  was  to  become  long 
ifterwards,  in  the  hands  of  the  moderns,  the  instrument  of 
heir  most  beautiful  discoveries." 

Volumes  would  be  required  to  enumerate  the  host  of  scientific 
ind  learned  men  who  flourished  about  this  epoch,  all  of  whom 
lave,  in  some  way  or  other,  left  their  mark  on  the  history  of 
)rogress.  Mashallah  and  Ahmed  ibn  Mohammed  al-Neha- 
^endi,  the  most  ancient  of  the  Arab  astronomers,  Hved  in  the 
eign  of  Mansur.  The  former,  who  has  been  called  the  Phcenix 
'f  his  time  by  Abu'l  Faraj,  wrote  several  valuable  treatises  on 

*  Abu'l  Faraj. 


374  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

the  astrolabe  and  the  armiUary  sphere,  and  the  nature  anc 
movements  of  celestial  bodies — works  which  still  evoke  th( 
admiration  of  scientists.  Ahmed  al-Nehavendi  wrote  from  hi; 
own  observations  an  astronomical  table,  al-Mustamal,  whicl 
formed  a  decided  advance  upon  the  notions  of  both  the  Greek; 
and  the  Hindus.  Under  Mamun,  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy  was 
re-translated,  and  the  Verified  Tables  prepared  by  famou; 
astronomers  like  Send  ibn  Ali,  Yahya  ibn  Abi-Mansur,  anc 
Khalid  ibn  Abdul  Malik.  Their  observations  connected  witl 
the  equinoxes,  the  eclipses,  the  apparitions  of  the  comets,  anc 
other  celestial  phenomena,  were  valuable  in  the  extreme,  anc 
added  greatly  to  human  knowledge. 

Mohammed  ibn  Musa  al-Khwarizmi  made  a  new  translation 
under  the  orders  of  Mamun,  of  the  Siddhanta,  or  the  Indiai 
Tables,  with   notes   and   observations.     Al-Kindi   wrote  tw( 
hundred   works   on   various   subjects — arithmetic,    geometry 
philosophy,   meteorology,   optics   and   medicine.     Thoroughly- 
versed  in  the  language  of  the  Greeks,  he  derived  from  the  schooli 
of  Athens  and  Alexandria  part  of  the  information  which  h' 
embodied   in   his   invaluable    treatises.     "  His   works,"   say 
Sedillot,   "  are  full  of  curious  and  interesting  facts."     Abu 
Ma'shar  (corrupted  by  the  Europe  of  the  Middle  Ages  int' 
Albumazar)  made  the  celestial  phenomena  his  special  study 
and  the  Zij-abt-Ma'shar,  or  the  Table  of  Abu-Ma 'shar,  ha 
always  remained  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  astronomical  know 
ledge.     The  discoveries  of  the  sons  of  Musa  ibn  Shakir,^  wh 
flourished  under  Mamun  and  his  two  immediate  successon 
especially  with  respect  to  the  evaluations  of  the  mean  movemen 
of  the  sun  and  other  astral  bodies,  are  almost  as  exact  as  th 
latest  discoveries  of  Europe.     They  ascertained  with  wonderfi 
precision,    considering    the    appliances    they    possessed,    th 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  marked  for  the  first  time  th 
variations  in  the  lunar  altitudes.     They  also  observed  an' 
determined  with  remarkable  accuracy  the  precession  of  th 
equinoxes,  and  the  movements  of  the  solar  apogee  (which  wer 
utterly  unknown  to  the  Greeks).     They  calculated  the  size  c 
the  earth  from  the  measurement  of  a  degree  on  the  shor 
of  the  Red  Sea — this  at  a  time  when  Christian  Europe  wa 

^  Mohammed,  Ahmed,  and  Hasan. 


:ix.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      375 

asserting  the  flatness  of  the  globe.  Abu'l  Hasan  invented  the 
telescope,  of  which  he  speaks  as  ''  a  tube  to  the  extremities  of 
which  were  attached  diopters."  These  "  tubes  "  were  improved 
and  used  afterwards  in  the  observatories  of  Maragha  and  Cairo 
with  great  success.  Al-Nairezi  and  Mohammed  ibn  Isa  Abii 
Abdullah  continued  the  great  work  of  Musa  ibn  Shakir's  sons.^ 
By  the  time  al-Batani  appeared,  the  Moslems  had  evolved  from 
the  crude  astronomy  of  the  ancients  a  regular  and  harmonious 
science.  1  Al-Batani, ^  though  surpassed  by  his  successors, 
occupies  a  high  position  among  astronomers,  and  a  competent 
judge  pronounces  his  role  to  be  the  same  among  the  Saracens 
as  that  of  Ptolemy  among  the  Greeks.  His  Astronomical 
Tables,  translated  into  Latin,  furnished  the  groundwork  of 
astronomy  in  Europe  for  many  centuries.  He  is,  however, 
best  known  in  the  history  of  mathematics  as  the  introducer  of 
the  sine  and  co-sine  instead  of  the  chord  in  astronomical  and 
trigonometrical  calculations. 

,  Among  the  numerous  astronomers  who  lived  and  worked  in 
Bagdad  at  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  the  names  of  two  men, 
AH  ibn  Amajur  and  Abu'l  Hasan  Ali  ibn  Amajur,  generally 
known  as  Banu-Amajur,  stand  prominently  forward.  They 
are  noted  for  their  calculation  of  the  lunar  movements. 

Owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  central  power,  and  an  increasing 
inability  to  maintain  the  sway  of  the  Caliphate  in  outlying  and 
distant  parts,  there  arose  on  the  confines  of  the  empire,  towards 
the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  several  quasi-independent  chiefs. 
Spain  had  been  lost  to  the  Abbasides  at  the  commencement  of 
their  rule  ;  about  this  period  the  Bani-Idris  established  them- 
selves at  Fez,  the  Bani-Rustam  at  Tahart,  and  the  Bani- 
Aghlab  at  Kairowan  in  Africa.  Soon,  however,  the  whole  of 
the  northern  part  of  that  continent  was  brought  under  the 
domination  of  the  Bani-Fatima,  and  then  another  era  of  glory 
for  arts  and  literature  commenced.  Fez,  Miknasa,  Segelmessa, 
Tahart,  Tlemcen,  Kairowan,  but  above  all,  Cairo,  became 
centres  of  culture  and  learning.     In  Khorasan  the  Taherides, 

*  For  their  names,  see  ante,  p.  374.  Mohammed  ibn  Musa  ibn  Shakir  died 
in  A.H.  259  (a.c.  873). 

-  Abu  Abdullah  Mohammed  ibn  Jabir  ibn  Sinan  al-Batani  was  a  native  of 
Ilarran,  died  ah.  317  (a.c.  929-30). 


376  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

in  Transoxiana  the  Samanides,  the  Buyides  in  Tabaristan  an^ 
afterwards  in  Persia  and  Bagdad,  as  mayors  of  the  palace; 
extended  a  lavish  patronage  to  scientists  and  scholars.  Abdij 
Rahman  Sufi,  one  of  the  most  brilHant  physicists  of  the  ag( 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Buyide  Ameer  'Azud  ud-Dowlfj 
deservedly  called  the  second  Augustus  of  the  Arabs.  Abdt! 
Rahman  improved  the  photometry  of  the  stars.  'Azud  uc 
Dowla,^  himself  a  scholar  and  a  mathematician,  welcomed  t 
his  palace  as  honoured  guests  the  learned  men  who  flocked  t; 
Bagdad  from  every  part  of  the  globe,  and  took  part  in  theil 
scientific  controversies.  Ja'far,  the  son  of  the  Caliph  Muktai 
b'illah,  made  important  observations  regarding  the  errati 
movements  of  comets,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  them  ;  an 
other  princes  cultivated  the  sciences  side  by  side  with  thai; 
subjects.  : 

Under  the  Buyides  flourished  a  host  of  astronomen 
physicists,  and  mathematicians,  of  whom  only  two  need  b 
mentioned  here,  Al-Kohi  and  Abu'1-Wafa.  Al-Kohi  studied  an! 
wrote  on  the  movements  of  the  planets  His  discoveries  cor.; 
cerning  the  summer  solstice  and  the  autumnal  equinox  adde' 
materially  to  the  store  of  human  knowledge.  Abu'1-Wafa  waj 
born  in  939  A.c.  at  Buzjan  in  Khorasan  ;  he  established  himseJ 
in  Irak  in  959,  where  he  applied  himself  chiefly  to  mathematicj 
and  astronomy.  His  Zij-ush-Shdmil  {the  Consolidated  or  Generc\ 
Table)  is  a  monument  of  industry  and  keen  and  accuratj 
observation.  He  introduced  the  use  of  the  secant  and  thj 
tangent  in  trigonometry  and  astronomical  observations.  "  Bu! 
this  was  not  all,"  says  M.  Sedillot  ;  "  struck  by  the  imperfec' 
tion  of  the  lunar  theory  of  Ptolemy,  he  verified  the  ancien' 
observations,  and  discovered,  independently  of  the  equation  c 
the  centre  and  the  eviction,  a.  third  inequality,  which  is  no  othe! 
than  the  variation  determined  six  centuries  later  by  Tych 
Brahe."  ^ 

Under  the  Fatimides  of  Egypt,  Cairo  had  become  a  neMJ 
intellectual  and  scientific  centre.     Here  flourished,  in  the  reigni 

1  To  'Azud  ud-Dowla  (Malik  Fanakhusru)  Bagdad  owed  several  hospital; 
for  the  sick  and  refuges  for  orphans.  He  built  magnificent  mausoleums  ove 
the  tombs  of  Ali  and  Husain  at  Najaf  and  Kerbela.  He  rendered  navigabi 
the  river  which  flows  by  Shiraz  by  erecting  the  famous  dyke  called  Bend-emir 

*  Abu'l  Wafa  died  in  a.h.  387  (a.c.  997). 


I IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      377 

of  Aziz  b'illah  ^  and  Hakim  bi-amr-illah,  one  of  the   master- 
spirits of  the  age,  Ibn  Yunus,-  the  inventor  of  the  pendulum 
'and  the  measurement  of  time  by  its  oscillations.     He  is,  how- 
;ever,  famous  for  his  great  work  named  after  his  patron  and 
I  sovereign,  Zij-ul-Akhar-al-Hdkimi,  which  soon  displaced  the 
iwork  of  Claudius  Ptolemy.     It  was  reproduced  among  the 
I  Persians   by   the   astronomer-poet    Omar    Khayyam    (1079)  ; 
among  the  Greeks,  in  the  Syntax  of  Chrysococca  ;   among  the 
Mongols   by   Nasir  ud-din   Tusi,   in   the   Zij-il-Khdni  ;     and 
among  the  Chinese,  in  the  astronomy  of  Co-Cheou-king  in  1280  ; 
and  thus  what  is  attributed  to  the  ancient  civilisation  of  China 
;is  only  a  borrowed  light  from  the  Moslems.^ 
!     Ibn  Yunus  died  in  1009,  and  his  discoveries  were  continued 
by  Ibn  un-Nabdi,  who  lived  in  Cairo  in  1040,  and  Hasan  ibn 
Haitham,  commonly  called  in  Europe  Alhazen,  and  famous  for 
the  discovery  of  atmospheric  refraction.     He  flourished  about 
ithe  end  of  the  eleventh  century,   and   was   a  distinguished 
astronomer  and  optician.     He  was  born  in  Spain,  but  resided 
chiefly  in  Egypt.     He  is  best  known  in  Europe  by  his  works 
ton  optics,  one  of  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin  by 
,  Risner.     He   corrected   the   Greek   misconception   as   to   the 
i  nature  of  vision,  and  demonstrated  for  the  first  time  that  the 
I  rays  of  light  come  from  external  objects  to  the  eye,  and  do  not 
issue  forth  from  the  eye,  and  impinge  on  external  things.     He 
determined  the  retina  as  the  seat  of  vision,  and  proved  that  the 
impressions  made  upon  it  were  conveyed  along  the  optic  nerves 
to  the  brain.     He  explained  the  phenomena  of  a  single  vision 
by  the  formation  of  visual  images  on  symmetrical  portions  of 
the  two  retinas.     He  discovered  that  the  refraction  of  light 
varies  with  the  density  of  the  atmosphere,  and  that  atmospheric 
density  again  varies  with  the  height.     He  explained  accurately 
and  clearly  how  in  consequence  of  this  refraction,  astral  bodies 
;are  seen  before  they  have  actually  risen  and  after  they  have 
iset,   and   demonstrated   that    the    beautiful   phenomenon   of 

'  '  'Aziz  b'illah  was  one  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  Egypt  ever  had.  "  He 
loved  his  people  as  they  loved  him."  He  was  married  to  a  Christian  lady, 
whose  brothers,  Jeremiah  and  Arvenius,  held  the  posts  of  patriarchs,  one  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  other  of  Alexandria.  Both  of  them  belonged  to  the 
orthodox  or  melkite  sect. 

■  See  Appendix  TTI.  '^  S6dillot. 


378  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

twilight  was  due  to  the  effect  of  atmospheric  refraction  com 
billed  with  the  reflecting  action  of  the  air  upon  the  course  o 
the  rays  of  hght.  In  his  book  called  the  Balance  of  Wisdom  \\< 
discusses  dynamical  principles,  generally  supposed  to  be  thi 
monopoly  of  modern  science.  He  describes  minutely  th 
connection  between  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  and  it 
density,  and  how  material  objects  vary  in  weight  in  a  ran 
and  in  a  dense  atmosphere.  He  discusses  the  submergence  o 
floating  bodies,  and  the  force  with  which  they  rise  to  thi 
surface  when  immersed  in  light  or  heavy  media  ;  he  full\ 
understands  the  principle  of  gravitation,  and  recognises  gravitjj 
as  a  force.  He  knows  correctly  the  relation  between  tho 
velocities,  spaces,  and  times  of  falling  bodies,  and  has  van. 
distinct  ideas  of  capillary  attraction. ^  j 

In  Spain  the  same  activity  of  mind  was  at  work  from  th(i 
Pyrenees  to  the  Straits  :  Seville,  Cordova,  Granada,  Murcia' 
Toledo,  and  other  places  possessed  their  public  libraries  an( 
colleges,  where  they  gave  free  instruction  in  science  and  letters 
Of  Cordova,  an  English  writer  speaks  thus  :  "  Beautiful  a 
were  the  palaces  and  gardens  of  Cordova,  her  claims  to  admira 
tion  in  higher  matters  were  no  less  strong.  The  mind  was  a: 
lovely  as  the  body.  Her  professors  and  teachers  made  her  th( 
centre  of  European  culture  ;  students  would  come  from  al 
parts  of  Europe  to  study  under  her  famous  doctors,  and  ever 
the  nun  Hroswitha  far  away  in  her  Saxon  convent  of  Ganders 
heim,  when  she  told  of  the  martyrdom  of  Eulogius,  could  no 
refrain  from  singing  the  praises  of  Cordova,  '  the  brightes  i 
splendour  of  the  world.'  Every  branch  of  science  was  seriousljl 
studied  there,  and  medicine  received  more  and  greater  additionij 
by  the  discoveries  of  the  doctors  and  surgeons  of  Andalusia  thar| 
it  had  gained  during  all  the  centuries  that  had  elapsed  since  th( 
days  of  Galen.  .  .  .  Astronomy,  geography,  chemistry,  natura 
history,  all  were  studied  with  ardour  at  Cordova  ;  and  as  fo; 
the  graces  of  literature  there  never  was  a  time  in  Europe  whei 
poetry  became  so  much  the  speech  of  everybody — when  peoplt 

1  The  annalist  'Ayni  says  that  at  this  period  the  pubHc  Hbrary  of  Cairo  con 
tained  over  two  miUion  books,  of  which  six  thousand  treated  exclusively  Ojj 
mathematics  and  astronomy.  I  have  only  mentioned  a  few  of  the  name.-' 
among  the  thousands  of  mathematicians  and  physicists  who  flourished  durinf' 
this  epoch,  when  the  scientific  spirit  of  Islam  was  at  its  zenith. 


IX.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      379 

of  all  ranks  composed  those  Arabic  verses  which  perhaps 
suggested  models  for  the  ballads  and  canzonettes  of  the  Spanish 
minstrels  and  the  troubadours  of  Provence  and  Italy.  No 
speech  or  address  was  complete  without  some  scrap  of  verse, 
improvised  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  by  the  speaker  or  quoted 
by  memory  from  some  famous  poet."  ^  To  these  we  may  add 
the  words  of  Renan  :  "  The  taste  for  science  and  literature 
liad,  by  the  tenth  century,  established,  in  this  privileged 
comer  of  the  world,  a  toleration  of  which  modern  times  hardly 
offer  us  an  example.  Christians,  Jews,  and  Musulmans  spoke 
the  same  tongue,  sang  the  same  songs,  participated  in  the  same 
literary  and  scientific  studies.  All  the  barriers  which  separated 
the  various  peoples  were  effaced  ;  all  worked  with  one  accord 
in  the  work  of  a  common  civilisation..  The  mosques  of  Cordova, 
where  the  students  could  be  counted  by  thousands,  became  the 
active  centres  of  philosophical  and  scientific  studies."  ^ 

The  first  observatory  in  Europe  was  built  by  the  Arabs. 
The  Giralda,  or  tower  of  Seville,  was  erected  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  great  mathematician  Jabir  ibn  Afiah  in 
1190  A.c.  for  the  observation  of  the  heavens.  Its  fate  was  not 
a  httle  characteristic.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  it  was 
turned  into  a  belfry,  the  Spaniards  not  knowing  what  else  to 
do  with  it  ! 

Omar  ibn  Khaldun,  Ya'kub  ibn  Tarik,  Muslimah  al-Maghr'ibi, 
and  the  famous  Averroes  (Abu'l  Walid  Mohammed  ibn  Rushd) 
are  some  of  the  physicists  whom  we  may  mention  here.  Nor  was 
Western  Africa  inactive  during  this  period  :  Ceuta  and  Tangier, 
Fez,  and  Morocco,  rivalled  Cordova,  Seville,  and  Granada  ; 
their  colleges  sent  out  able  professors,  and  numerous  learned 
works  testified  to  the  indefatigable  ardour  of  the  Moslem  mind 
in  all  departments  of  learning. 

The  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  saw  a  great  change 
in    the    political    condition    of    Central    Asia.      The    rise    of 

'  Stanley  Lane-Poole,  The  Moors  in  Spain,  p.  144.  For  a  full  account  of 
Cordova,  see  Short  History  of  the  Saracens  (Macmillan),  p.  515. 

'Renan,  Averroes  et  Averroism,  p.  4.  The  golden  age  of  literature  and 
science  in  Spain  was  under  Hakam  al-Mtistansir  b'illdh  who  died  in  976  a.c. 
The  catalogue  of  his  library  consists  of  forty-four  quartos.  He  employed 
agents  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  to  procure  for  him,  at  any  price,  scientific 
works,  ancient  and  modern.  He  paid  to  Abu'l  Faraj  al-Isphahani  1000  dinars 
of  gold  for  the  first  copy  of  his  celebrated  Anthology  {Kifah  ul-Aghdni). 


38o  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

Mahmud/  the  great  Ghaznavide  conqueror,  Yemin  ud-Dowl^ 
and  Amin  iil-Millat,  "  right  hand  of  the  empire  "  and  "  custodial 
of  the  Faith,"  brought  Transoxiana,  Afghanistan,  and  Persi 
under  the  sovereignty  of  Ghazni.     He  collected  round  him 
body  of  scholars  and  Utterateurs  who  shed  a  glorious  lustre  o| 
his  brilliant  reign.    Attached  to  the  renovated  "  orthodoxy  "  c! 
al-Asha'ri,  and  consequently  piously  inimical  to  the  rationalist! 
school  of  thinkers,  chary  in  his  munificence  to  the  poets  wh 
made  his  name  famous  in  the  annals  of  the  world,  he  yet  haj 
the  genius  to  perceive  the  merits  of  men  like  Abu  Raiha\ 
Mohammed  ibn  Ahmed  al-Beiruni,  philosopher,  ma thematiciarj 
and  geographer.     Firdousi,  the  prince  of  poets,  Dakiki,  ari'' 
Unsuri.     Al-Beiriini's  mind  was  encyclopaedic.     His  work  o: 
astronomy,  entitled  after  his  patron  Sultan  Ma.su' d,^  al-Kdnm 
al-Mas'udi,  Canon  Masudicus,  is  a  monument  of  learning  ani 
research.     He  travelled  into  India,  and  studied  the  languag 
of  the  Hindus,  their  sciences,  their  philosophy  and  literature 
and  embodied  his  observations  in  a  work  which  has  recentl; 
been  furnished  to  us  in  an  English  garb.     The  philosophica 
and  scientific,  not  to  say  sympathetic,  spirit  which  animate 
al-Beiruni  in  the  treatment  of  his  subject  is  in  marked  contras 
to  the  mode  still  in  vogue  among  Western  nations,  and  servcj 
as  an  index  to  the  intellectual  character  of  Islam.     The  IvSiKa 
of  al-Beiruni  shows  the  extent  to  which  the  Moslems  had  utilise(| 
the  treasures  of  Greek  learning,  and  turned  them  to  fruitfui 
purposes.     Besides  these  two  great  works,  he  wrote  on  mathe 
matics,    chronology,    mathematical    geography,    physics,    and 
chemistry.  I 

Al-Beiruni  communicated  to  the  Hindus  the  knowledge  o' 
the  Bagdadian  school  in  return  for  their  notions  and  traditions 
He  found  among  them  the  remains  of  Greek  science,  which  ha( 
been  transported  to  India  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christiai 
era,  or  perhaps  earlier,  during  the  existence  of  the  Graeco^j 
Bactrian  dynasties.  The  Hindus  do  not  seem  to  have  possessec! 
any  advanced  astronomical  science  of  their  own  ;    for,  had  itj 

^  A.c.  996-1030.  -  The  son  and  successor  of  the  Conqueror. 

3  Fi't  Tahkik  ma  li'l  Hind  ;  see  Short  History  of  the  Saracens  (Macmillan)* 
p.  463.  Another  remarkable  work  of  his  is  the  Asdr  nl-B&kieh  or  the  Vestige? 
of  the  Past,  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Sachau.  j 


IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      381 

been  otherwise,  we  doubtless  would  have  heard  about  it,  as 
Sedillot  rightly  observes,  from  the  Greek  writers  of  the  times 
of  Alexander  and  the  Seleucidae.  They,  like  the  Chinese, 
borrowed  most  of  their  scientific  ideas  from  foreign  sources, 
and  modified  them  according  to  their  national  characteristics, 
I  Under  the  successors  of  Mahmud  learning  and  arts  flourished 
abundantly.  The  rise  of  the  Seljukides  and  their  grand  muni- 
ficence towards  scholarship  and  science  rivalled  that  of  the 
golden  days  of  the  Abbaside  rule.  Tughril,  Alp  Arslan,  Mahk 
Shah,  and  San  jar  were  not  only  remarkable  for  the  greatness 
of  their  power,  the  clear  comprehension  of  what  constituted  the 
welfare  of  their  subjects,  but  were  equally  distinguished  for 
their  intellectual  gifts  and  ardent  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of 
learning.  Jaldl  nd-din  Malik  Shah  ^  and  his  vizier,  Khwaja 
Hasan  Nizam  ul-Mulk,^  collected  round  them  a  galaxy  of 
astronomers,  poets,  scholars,  and  historians.  The  astronomical 
observations  conducted  in  his  reign  by  a  body  of  savants,  with 
Omar  Khayyam  and  Abdur  Rahman  al-Hazini  at  their  head, 
led  to  the  refonn  of  the  Calendar  which  preceded  the  Gregorian 
by  six  hundred  years  and  is  said  by  a  competent  authority  to 
be  even  more  exact. ^  The  era  which  was  introduced  upon  these 
observations  was  named  after  Malik  Shah,  the  Jaldlian. 
I  The  destructive  uiroads  of  the  Christian  marauders  who 
called  themselves  Crusaders  was  disastrous  to  the  cause  of 
learning  and  science  in  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 
Barbarous  savages,  hounded  to  rapine  and  slaughter  by  crazy 
priests,  they  knew  neither  mercy  for  the  weakness  of  sex  or 
age,  nor  the  value  of  letters  or  arts.  They  destroyed  the 
splendid  library  of  Tripoli  without  compunction  ;  they  reduced 
to  ashes  many  of  the  glorious  centres  of  Saracenic  culture  and 
arts.  Christian  Europe  has  held  up  to  obloquy  the  apocryphal 
destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library,  which  had  already  been 
burned  in  the  time  of  Juhus  Caesar,  but  it  has  no  word  of  blame 
for  the  crimes  of  her  Crusaders  five  centuries  later.  The 
calamities  inflicted  by  the  Crusaders  were  lasting  in  their 
effect  ;  and  in  spite  of  the  endeavours  of  Saladin  and  his  sons 
to  restore  the  intellectual  life  of  Syria,  it  has  remained  dead 
from  that  day  to  this. 

'  1073-1092  A.c.  2  i.e.  the  Administrator  of  the  Empire.  '  Sedillot. 


382  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

In  the  interval  which  elapsed  between  the  rise  of  Mahm  1 
and  the  fall  of  Bagdad,  there  flourished  a  number  of  phi- 
sophers  and  scientists,  among  whom  shine  the  great  Avicen  i 
{Abu  AH  Husain  Ibn-Sina),i  Fath  ibn  Nabeghah  Khakar^ 
Mubashshar  ibn  Ahmed, ^  and  his  son  Mohammed.* 

The  eruption  of  the  Mongols  upon  the  Saracenic  world  m 
not  like  the  invasion  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  northeji 
barbarians.  These  had  proceeded  slowly  ;  and  in  their  coi- 
paratively  gradual  progress  towards  the  heart  of  the  empi: 
they  had  become  partially  softened,  and  had  to  some  exte; 
cast  off  their  pristine  ferocity.  The  case  was  otherwise  wi 
the  hordes  of  the  devastator  Chengiz.  They  swept  like  ov€ 
whelming  torrents  over  Western  Asia.  Wherever  they  we 
they  left  misery  and  desolation.^  Their  barbarous  campaig. 
and  their  savage  slaughters  put  an  end  for  a  time  to  t];; 
intellectual  development  of  Asia.  But  the  moment  the  wi; 
savages  adopted  the  religion  of  the  Prophet  of  Arabia  a  chanj 
came  over  them.  From  the  destroyers  of  the  seats  of  learnii 
and  arts  they  became  the  founders  of  academies  and  tl 
protectors  of  the  learned.  Sultan  Khoda-Bendah  (Uljait 
Khan),  sixth  in  descent  from  Chengiz,  was  distinguished  ft 
his  attainments  and  his  patronage  of  the  sciences.  But  tl 
fearful  massacres  which  the  barbarians  had  committed  amor 
the  settled  and  cultured  population  of  the  towns  destroys 
most  of  the  gifted  classes,  with  the  result  that,  though  the  grej 
cities  like  Bokhara  and  Samarcand  rose  again  into  splendou 
they  became,  nevertheless,  the  seats  of  a  narrower  culture,  moi 
casuistical  and  theological  than  before.  And  yet  the  Mongo 
protected  philosophers  like  Nasir  ud-din  Tusi,  Muwayya 
ud-din  al-Orezi  of  Damascus,  Fakhr  ud-din  al-Maraghi,  Molj 
ud-din  al-Maghribi,  Ali  Shah  al-Bokhari,  and  many  otherl 
The  successors  of  Hulaku  tried  thus  to  restore  to  Islam  whc' 
their  ancestor  had  destroyed.  Whilst  the  Mongols  in  Persi 
were  employed  in  making  some  amends  to  civilisation,  Kubkii 
Khan  transported  to  China  the  learning  of  the  Arabs.     Cc' 

1  Died  in  1037  a.c.  -  Died  in  1082  a.c. 

^  Died  in  1135  a.c.  '  Died  in  1193  a.c.  j 

5  For  a  full  account  of  the  havoc  and  ruin  caused  by  the  Tartars,  see  SAoJJ 
History  of  the  Saracens,  pp.  391-400. 


[X.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      383 

Cheou-king  received  in  1280  from  Jamal  ud-din  the  tables  of 
Ibn-Yunus,  and  appropriated  them  for  Chinese  purposes. 

Ibn-Shathir,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Mohammed  ibn  Kalaim, 
the  Mameluke  sovereign  of  Egypt,  developed  still  further  the 
nathematical  and  astronomical  sciences.  And  now  arose  on 
the  eastern  horizon  the  comet-like  personality  of  Timur. 
■'  From  his  throne  in  Samarcand  this  Titan  of  the  fourteenth 
bentury  called  into  being  the  greatest  empire  ever  seen  in 
A.sia,  and  seemed  to  extinguish  in  his  one  resistless  will  the 
mmemorial  antagonism  of  Iran  and  Turan."  He  was  a  patron 
of  science  and  poetry,  himself  fond  of  the  society  of  the  scholars 
md  artists  of  his  day,  an  author,  as  well  as  a  legislator  of  no 
iiean  order. ^  Magnificent  colleges,  splendid  mosques,  vast 
ibraries,  testified  to  the  taste  for  letters  of  this  remarkable  man. 
His  vast  system  of  colonisation  filled  the  great  cities  of  Eastern 
Asia,  especially  Samarcand,  with  the  splendour  of  all  the  arts 
md  sciences  known  to  the  West.  Timur  established  "  the  most 
briUiant  empire  known  to  the  history  of  Islam,  except  that 
of  the  Ommeyyads  in  Spain,  and  that  of  the  first  Abbasides 
in  Arabistan."  Jami,  master  of  sciences  ;  Suhaili,  translator 
of  Pilpay  ;  Ali  Sher  Ameer,  were  some  of  the  men  who  shed 
lustre  on  the  reigns  of  his  successors.  The  college  founded  by 
his  consort,  Bibi  Khanam,  and  known  by  her  name,  stiU  strikes 
the  observer  as  one  of  the  most  imposing  and  most  beautiful 
products  of  Saracenic  architecture.  Timur's  son.  Shah  Rukh 
Mirza,  imitated  his  father  in  the  cultivation  and  patronage  of 
arts  and  letters.  His  peaceful  reign  of  nearly  half  a  century 
was  remarkable  for  high  intellectual  culture  and  scientific 
^tudy.  When  he  transported  his  government  from  Samarcand 
to  Herat,  the  former  city  lost  none  of  its  splendour.  Ulugh 
Beg,  his  son,  charged  with  the  government  of  Transoxiana, 
maintained  the  literary  and  scientific  glories  of  Samarcand. 
Himself  an  astronomer  of  a  high  rank,  he  presided  at  tlie 
observations  which  have  immortalised  his  name.  The  tables 
in  which  those  observations  were  embodied  complete  the  cycle 
of  Arabian  thought.  Ulugh  Beg  is  separated  by  only  a  century 
and  a  half  from  Kepler,  the  founder  of  modern  astronomy. 

1  The  MalJAzat-i-Timikri  ("  The  Institutes  of  Timur  ")  are  couched  in  the 
style  of  the  old  Assjaian  and  Kyanian  monarchs. 


384  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

It  was,  however,  not  astronomy  only  which  the  Mosleir. 
cultivated  and  improved.  Every  branch  of  higher  mathf 
matics  bears  traces  of  their  genius.  The  Greeks  are  said  t 
have  invented  algebra,  but  among  them,  as  Oelsner  has  justl 
remarked,  it  was  confined  to  furnishing  amusement  "  for  th 
plays  of  the  goblet."  The  Moslems  applied  it  to  higher  pu] 
poses,  and  thus  gave  it  a  value  hitherto  unknown.  Undt 
Mamun  they  had  discovered  the  equations  of  the  secon 
degree,  and  very  soon  after  they  developed  the  theory  c 
quadratic  equations  and  the  binomial  theorem.  Not  onl 
algebra,  geometry,  and  arithmetic,  but  optics  and  mechanic 
made  remarkable  progress  in  the  hands  of  the  Moslems.  The 
invented  spherical  trigonometry  ;  they  were  the  first  to  appl 
algebra  to  geometry,  to  introduce  the  tangent,  and  to  sub 
stitute  the  sine  for  the  arc  in  trigonometrical  calculatiom 
Their  progress  in  mathematical  geography  was  no  less  remarl 
able.  The  works  of  Ibn-Haukal,  of  Makrizi,  al-Istakhr 
Mas'iidi,  al-Beiruni,  al-Kumi  and  al-Idrisi,  Kazwini,  Ibn  u 
Wardi,  and  Abu'l  Feda,  show  what  the  Saracens  attained  i! 
this  department  of  science,  called  by  them  the  rasm-ul-an\ 
At  a  time  when  Europe  firmly  believed  in  the  flatness  of  th 
earth,  and  was  ready  to  burn  any  foolhardy  person  who  though, 
otherwise,  the  Arabs  taught  geography  by  globes. 

The  physical  sciences  were  as  diligently  cultivated.  Th 
method  of  experimentation  was  substituted  for  theorising  ;  an 
the  crude  ideas  of  the  ancients  were  developed  into  positiv 
sciences.^  Chemistry,  botany,  geology,  natural  history,  amon 
others  occupied  the  attention  and  exercised  the  energies  of  th 
ablest  men.  j 

Chemistry,  as  a  science,  is  unquestionably  the  invention  c' 
the  i\Ioslems.  Abu  Musa  Jabir  (the  Geber  of  Chris tia 
writers)  ^  is  the  true  father  of  modern  chemistry.  "  Hi 
name  is  memorable  in  chemistry,  since  it  marks  an  epoch  i 
that  science   of  equal  importance   to   that   of   Priestley  anvl 


1  Humboldt  calls  the  Arabs  the  real  founders  of  the  physical  sciences. 

^  Abu  Musa  Jabir  ibn  Hayyan  was  a  native  of  Tarsus.  Ibn  Khallikan  sa} 
"  Jabir  compiled  a  work  of  two  thousand  pages  in  which  he  inserted  th 
problems  of  his  master  (the  Imam)  Ja'far  as-Sadik  which  formed  five  hundre 
treatises  "  ;    see  also  the  Tdrikh-nl-Hiikama. 


X.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      385 

.avoisier."  He  was  followed  by  others,  whose  originahty  and 
ndustry,  profoundness  of  knowledge,  and  keenness  of  observa- 
ion,  evoke  the  astonishment  of  students,  and  make  them 
ook  with  regret  upon  the  inertness  of  the  latter-day  Moslem. 
The  science  of  medicine  and  the  art  of  surgery,  the  best  index 

0  a  nation's  genius  and  a  severe  test  to  the  intellectual  spirit 
)f  a  faith,  were  developed  to  the  highest  degree.  Medicine  had 
mdoubtedly  attained  a  high  degree  of  excellence  among  the 
jreeks,  but  the  Arabs  carried  it  far  beyond  the  stage  in  which 
heir  predecessors  in  the  work  of  civilisation  had  left  it,  and 
)rought  it  close  to  the  modern  standard.  We  can  give  here 
)ut  a  small  conception  of  the  work  done  by  the  Saracens  for 
.everal  centuries  in  this  department  of  human  study,  and  in 
he  development  of  the  natural  sciences. 

The  study  of  medical  substances,  the  idea  of  which  struck 
Dioscorides  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  is,  in  its  scientific  form, 

1  creation  of  the  Arabs.  They  invented  chemical  pharmacy, 
ind  were  the  first  founders  of  those  institutions  which  are  now 
:alled  dispensaries.^  They  established  in  every  city  pubHc 
lospitals,  called  Ddr  ush-Shifa,  "  the  house  of  cure,"  or  Mdri- 
tdn  (an  abbreviation  of  Mmdristan,  "  the  patient's  house  ") 
ind  maintained  them  at  the  expense  of  the  State. 

The  names  of  the  Arab  physicians  in  the  biographical 
lictionary  of  Abu  Usaibi'a  fill  a  volume.  Abu  Bakr  Mohammed 
bn  Zakaria  ar-Razi  (known  to  mediaeval  Europe  as  Rhazes), 
vho  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  ^  Ali  ibn- 
\.bbas,3  Avicenna  (x\bu  AH  Husain  ibn-Sina),  Albucasis  (Abu'l 

^  The  persons  in  charge  of  the  dispensaries  were  under  the  control  of  Govern- 
lent.  The  price  and  quality  of  medicine  were  strictly  regulated.  Many 
ispensaries  were  maintained  by  the  State.  There  were  regular  examinations 
3r  physicians  and  pharmacists,  at  which  licences  were  given  to  passed 
andidates.  The  licence-holders  were  alone  entitled  to  practise.  Compare 
Cremer  and  Sedillot. 

*  This  great  physician,  surnamed  Razi,  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  Rai 
incient  Rhages),  filled  successively  the  office  of  principal  of  the  public 
ospitals  at  Rai,  Jund  Shapur,  and  Bagdad.  He  wrote  the  Hdwt,  which 
edillot  calls  "  un  corpus  medical  fort  estime."  His  treatises  on  smallpox 
nd  measles  have  been  consulted  by  the  physicians  of  all  nations.  He  intro- 
uced  the  use  of  minor atives,  invented  the  seton,  and  discovered  the  nerve 
f  the  larynx.  He  wrote  two  hundred  medical  works,  some  of  which  were 
ubUshed  in  Venice  in  1510.     Ar-Razi  died  in  a.h.  311  (a.c.  923-4)- 

^  Ali  ibn-Abbas  flourished  fifty  years  later  than  Rhazes.  He  published  a 
ledical  work,'consisting^of^twenty  volumes,  on  the  theory  and  practice  of 
S.I.  "  2  B 


386  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Kasim  Khalaf  ibn  Abbas),  Aven-Zoar  ^  (Abu  Merwan  iii. 
Abdul  Malik  ibn  Zuhr),  Averroes  (Abu'l  Walid  Mohammed  i|. 
Riishd),^  and  Aben-Bethar  (Abdullah  ibn  Ahmed  ibn  Ali  / 
Beithdr,  the  veterinary),^  are  some  of  the  most  brilliant  and  mc 
distinguished  physicians  who  have  left  an  enduring  impressi. 
on  the  world  of  thought.  Albucasis  was  not  only  a  physicii 
but  a  surgeon  of  the  first  rank.  He  performed  the  most  diffici : 
surgical  operations  in  his  own  and  the  obstetrical  departmei, 
In  operations  on  women,  we  are  informed  by  him,  in  whi. 
considerations  of  delicacy  intervened,  the  services  of  proper 
instructed  women  were  secured.  The  ample  description  he  h. 
left  of  the  surgical  instruments  employed  in  his  time  gives  . 
idea  of  the  development  of  surgery  among  the  Arabs.*  Avicen  l 
was  unquestionably  the  most  gifted  man  of  his  age  ;  a  ui' 
versalist  in  genius,  and  encyclopaedic  in  his  writings,  . 
philosopher,  mathematician,  astronomer,  poet,  and  physicis, 
he  has  left  his  influence  impressed  on  two  continents,  and  wl 
deserves  the  title  of  Aristotle  of  the  East.  In  spite  of  patris-; 
jealousy,  his  philosophic  ideas  exercised  an  undisputed  sway  1" 
several  centuries  in  the  schools  of  the  East  as  well  as  of  Euroj, 
Avicenna  is  commonly  known  in  Asia  as  the  Sheikh  par  excellen. 

medicine,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  Buyide  Ameer  'Azud  ud-dowla.  This  w( : 
was  translated  into  Latin  in  1227,  and  printed  at  Lyons  in  1523  by  Micl 
Capella.  Ali  ibn- Abbas  corrected  many  of  the  errors  of  Hippocrates  i  I 
Galen. 

^  Ibn  Zuhr  or  Aven-Zoar  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  physici;  > 
of  his  age.  Born  at  Penaflor,  he  entered,  after  finishing  his  medical  eI 
scientific  studies,  the  service  of  Yusuf  bin  Tashhn,  the  great  Almorav : 
monarch  of  Africa,  who  covered  the  rising  physician  with  honours  and  ricl . 
Ibn  Zuhr  joined,  like  Albucasis,  the  practice  of  medicine  with  surgery.  ! 
was  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  bronchotomy,  with  exact  indicationsf 
the  luxations  and  fractures,  and  discovered  several  important  maladies  wi 
their  treatment.  His  son  followed  in  his  father's  steps  and  was  the  cli 
surgeon  and  physician  of  Yusuf  bin  Tashfin's  army. 

^  Averroes  was  the  Avicenna  of  the  West.  His  life  and  writings  have  b  1 
given  to  the  world  by  Renan.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Ibn  Zuhr,  Ibn  B« . 
and  Ibn  Tufail.  Of  Averroes  and  his  contemporaries  we  shall  have  to  sp' : 
in  the  next  chapter. 

Besides  these  may  be  mentioned  Abu'l  Hasan  ibn  Tilmiz,  author  of  Ah  ■ 
lihi  ;  Abu  Ja'far  Ahmed  ibn  Mohammed  at-Talib,  who  wrote  on  pleur', 
etc.  ;    and  Hibatulla. 

^  Al-Beithar  travelled  all  over  the  East  to  find  medicinal  herbs,  on  whii 
he  wrote  an  exhaustive  treatise.  The  Arab  physicians  introduced  the  use  f 
the   rhubarb,   cassia,    senna,   camphor,   the   pulp  of   the   tamarind    [tarn 

^-hindi — Indian  date),  etc. 

*  In  lithotomy  he  was  equal  to  the  foremost  surgeons  of  modern  times, 


IX.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      387 

He  was  born  in  the  year  980  A.c.  at  a  village  called  Afshanah.  in 
Transoxiana,  of  which  place  his  father  was  the  governor.  He 
finished  his  medical  studies  in  Bokhara  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 
when  commenced  an  extraordinary  political  and  philosophical 
career.  His  tenacity  in  refusing  the  liberal  offers  of  Mahmud 
the  Conqueror  to  join  his  service  led  to  his  expulsion  from  the 
Ghaznavide  dominions.  He  soon  became  the  vizier  of  Shams 
ud-dowla,  Ameer  of  Hamadan,  and  afterwards  of  'Ala  ud-dowla, 
Ameer  of  Isphahan,  where  he  pursued  his  scientific  and 
philosophical  studies,  and  wrote  his  great  works,  the  Kdnun 
and  the  Arjuza,  afterwards  the  foundation  of  all  medical 
knowledge. 

The  Greeks  possessed  crude  notions  of  anatomy,  and  their 
knowledge  of  pharmacy  was  restricted  within  a  very  narrow 
compass .  The  Moslems  developed  both  anatomy  and  pharmacy 
into  positive  sciences.  The  wide  extent  of  the  empire  enabled 
researches  and  investigations  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
with  the  result  that  they  enriched  the  existing  pharmacopoeia 
by  innumerable  and  invaluable  additions.  Botany  they 
advanced  far  beyond  the  state  in  which  it  had  been  left  by 
Dioscorides,  and  augmented  the  herbalogy  of  the  Greeks  by 
the  addition  of  two  thousand  plants.  Regular  gardens  existed 
both  in  Cordova  and  Bagdad,  at  Cairo  and  Fez  for  the  education 
of  pupils,  where  discourses  were  delivered  by  the  most  learned 
in  the  sciences. 

Ad-Damiri  (Aldemri)  is  famous  in  the  Moslem  world  for  his 
history  of  animals — a  work  which  forestalled  Button  by  seven 
hundred  years. 

Geology  was  cultivated  under  the  name  of  'Ilm-i-Tashrih-ul- 
Arz,  "  the  science  of  the  anatomy  of  the  earth." 

The  superiority  of  the  Moslems  in  architecture  requires  no 
I  comment,  for  the  glorious  remains  of  Saracenic  art  in  the  East 
and  in  the  West  still  evoke  the  admiration  of  the  modern  world. 
Their  religion  has  been  charged  with  their  backwardness  in 
painting  and  sculpture,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
prohibition  contained  in  the  Koran  is  similar  to  the  Levitical 
commandment.  It  was  but  a  continuation  of  the  Mosaic  Law, 
which  had  so  effectually  suppressed  the  making  of  "  graven 
images  "  among  the  Jews,  and  its  signification  rests  upon  the 


388  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

inveterate  idolatry  of  the  pre-Islamite  Arabs.  To  the  early 
Moslems,  therefore,  painting  and  statuary  were  odious  and 
unlawful,  as  emblematic  of  heathenism,  and  this  deeply 
implanted  iconoclasm  undoubtedly  saved  them  from  relapsing, 
as  other  nations  had  done,  into  idolatry.  But  with  the  gradual 
development  of  the  primitive  commonwealth  into  a  civilised 
and  cultured  empire,  and  with  the  ascendency  of  learning  and 
science,  the  Moslems  grasped  the  spirit  of  the  prohibition,  and 
cast  off  the  fetters  of  a  narrow  literalism.  No  doubt  the  spirit 
of  rationalism,  which  so  deeply  influenced  the  early  Abbaside 
and  Spanish  Caliphs,  was  the  actual  cause  of  the  impetus 
given  by  them  to  art.  Hence  throughout  the  Moslem  world 
a  taste  for  painting  and  sculpture  arose  simultaneously  with 
the  progress  of  literature  and  science.  The  palaces  of  the 
CaHphs,  the  mansions  of  the  sovereigns  who  followed  in  their 
footsteps,  and  the  houses  of  the  grandees  were  decorated  with 
pictures  and  sculptures. 

To  the  Prophet's  prohibition  of  graven  images  or  painting  in 
mosques  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  art  of  arabesque— 
which  possesses  such  peculiar  charm  in  the  decoration  oi. 
Oriental  buildings,  and  which  has  been  widely  adopted  by 
Western  art.  With  the  gradual  enlightenment  of  the  Moslems 
by  contact  with  the  arts  of  other  nations,  animals  and  flowers, 
birds  and  fruits  were  introduced  into  arabesque  ;  but  the 
figures  of  animated  beings  were  throughout  absolutely  inter- 
dicted in  the  decoration  of  places  of  worship.  In  purity  oi 
form  and  simplicity  of  outline,  in  the  gracefulness  of  design 
and  perfection  of  symmetry,  in  the  harmony  of  every  detail, 
in  the  exquisiteness  of  finish  and  sublimity  of  conception, 
Moslem  architecture  is  equal  to  any  in  the  world,  and  the 
chaste  and  graceful  ornamentation  with  which  so  many  of 
the  grandest  monuments  are  adorned,  indicates  a  refinement  of 
taste  and  culture  surpassing  any  of  the  great  monumental 
relics  of  ancient  Greece  or  modern  Europe.  Another  branch 
of  Moslem  decorative  art  is  that  of  ornamental  writing,  which 
is  so  often  utilised  with  remarkable  effect  in  the  adornment  of 
mosques,  mausolea,  and  palaces,  where  whole  chapters  of  the 
Koran  are  carved  or  inlaid  round  domes  and  minarets,  doors 
and  arches,  testifying  to  the  same  religious  earnestness,  yet  in 


IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      389 

a  purely  monotheistic  spirit,   as   the  pictures  of  saints  and 
martyrs  which  decorate  Christian  churches. 

Before  the  promulgation  of  Islam  the  profession  of  music 
among  the  Arabs  was  confined  to  the  slaves  of  both  sexes 
imported  from  Syria  and  Persia,  or  to  the  class  of  hetairai 
called  Kydn.  The  Prophet  had  discountenanced,  for  obvious 
moral  reasons,  the  songs  and  dances  of  these  degraded  women. 
But  under  the  Abbasides  and  the  Spanish  Arab  kings,  when 
'  music  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  and  its  cultivation 
was  recognised  as  an  art,  a  love  for  music  spread  among  all 
classes  of  society.  A  large  literature  grew  up  on  the  subject  ; 
songs  were  collected  and  classified  according  to  their  melodies 
and  keys,  and  the  musical  instruments  of  the  ancients  were 
improved  and  new  ones  invented.  The  sharp  conflict  between 
Rationalism  and  Patristicism,  between  Idealism  and  Literalism, 
which  marked  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  drove  this 
sweetest  of  arts  back  into  the  arms  of  the  servile  classes  or 
forced  it  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the  chapels  of  the  dervishes. 

A  large  general  literature  existed  on  the  subject  of  com- 
merce, agriculture,  handicraft  and  manufacture,  the  latter 
I  including  every  conceivable  subject,  from  porcelain  to  weapons 
1  of  war. 

I  In  historical  research  the  Moslems  have  not  been  behind  any 
( other  nation,  ancient  or  modern.  At  first  attention  was  devoted 
■  chiefly  to  the  history  of  the  Prophet,  but  soon  the  primitive  idea 
widened  into  a  broad  conception.  Archaeology,  geography,  and 
ethnology  were  included  in  history,  and  the  greatest  minds 
applied  themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  this  captivating  branch  of 
study.  Between  the  simple  work  of  Ibn-Ishak  and  the  universal 
history  of  Ibn-Khaldun  there  is  a  great  difference,  but  the 
intervening  space  is  occupied  by  a  host  of  writers,  the  product 
of  whose  labours  supplies  some  index  to  the  intellectual  activity 
of  the  Saracenic  nations  under  the  inspiration  of  Islam. 
i  Balazuri,  who  died  in  279  a.h.  (a.c.  892),  was  born  at  Bagdad, 
■where  he  hved  and  worked.  His  "  Conquest  of  the  Countries  " 
[Futuh  iil-Bulddn)  is  written  in  admirable  style,  and  marks  a 
distinct  advance  of  the  historical  spirit. 

Hamadani,  who  flourished  towards  the  end  of  the  third  and 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  of  the  Hegira,  gave  to  the 


390  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

world  a  comprehensive  history  of  Southern  Arabia,  with  ai 
account  of  its  tribes,  its  numerous  remains  of  interest,  wit! 
explanations  of  their  inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  ethnograph; 
and  geography  of  Yemen.  It  is,  however,  in  the  monumenta 
works  of  Mas'udi,  of  al-Beiruni,  of  Ibn  ul-Athir,  of  Tabari,  c 
Ibn-Khaldun,  called  by  Mohl  the  Montesquieu  of  Islam,  c 
Makrizi,  Makkari,  Abu'lfeda,  Nuwairi,  and  Mirkhond  that  th 
mental  vigour  of  the  Moslem  races  in  this  department  of  know 
ledge  is  found  in  full  play.  These  men  were  not  speciaUst 
only ;  they  were  encyclopaedists — philosophers,  mathema 
ticians,  geographers,  as  well  as  historians.  Mas'udi  was  . 
native  of  Bagdad,  but  by  descent  a  Northern  Arab,  who  in  hi 
early  youth  travelled  and  saw  the  greater  part  of  the  Moham 
medan  world.  He  first  went  to  India,  visited  Multan  an 
Mansura,  then  travelled  over  Persia  and  Kerman,  again  wen 
to  India,  remained  for  some  time  at  Cambay  (Kambaja)  an>j 
the  Deccan,  went  to  Ceylon,  sailed  from  there  to  Kambal.] 
(Madagascar),  and  went  from  there  to  Oman,  and  perhaps  eve: 
reached  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula  and  China.  He  ha' 
travelled  far  in  Central  Asia,  and  reached  the  Caspian  Sec- 
After  finishing  his  travels,  he  lived  for  some  time  in  Tiberia, 
and  Antioch,  and  afterwards  took  up  his  abode  in  Basralj 
where  he  first  published  his  great  work,  called  the  Muruj-u: 
Zahah  (»-**<iJ|  ^jy).  Afterwards  he  removed  to  Fostc 
(old  Cairo),  where  he  published  the  Kitdh  ut-Tanhth,  and  latf 
the  Mirdt-uz-Zamdn,  or  the  Mirror  of  the  Times,  a  voluminoi 
work,  which  is  only  partially  preserved. ^  In  the  Muruj-u. 
Zahah  (the  "  Golden  Meadows  ")  "he  tells  the  rich  experienc( 
of  his  life  in  the  amiable  and  cheerful  manner  of  a  man  wh 
had  seen  various  lands,  experienced  life  in  all  its  phases,  an 
who  takes  pleasure,  not  only  in  instructing,  but  in  amusin 
his  reader.  Without  burdening  us  with  the  names  of  tl 
authorities,  without  losing  himself  in  long  explanations,  1 
delights  in  giving  prominence  to  that  which  strikes  him  i 
wonderful,  rare,  and  interesting,  and  to  portray  people  an 
manners  with  conciseness  and  anecdotic  skill." 

^  I  am  told  that  the  Library  in  Vienna  contains  a  historical  work  by  tl 
same  author  consisting  of  some  thirty  volumes  which  bears  the  name  of  t) 
Ahhbar-uz-Zamcin.     Perhaps  this  is  the  same  work  as  Mirat-tiz-Zaman. 


IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      391 

Tabari  (Abu  Ja'far  Mohammed  ibn  Jarir),  surnamed  the  Livy 
of  the  Arabs,  who  died  in  Bagdad  in  922  A.c,  brought  his  work 
down  to  the  year  302  of  the  Hegira  (914  A.c.) .  It  was  continued 
to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  by  al-Makin  or  Elmacin. 

Ibn  ul-Athir  (^J/i^ji),  surnamed  Izz  ud-din,  "glory  of 
religion,"  was  a  native  of  Jazireh-bani-Omar,  in  Irak,  but 
resided  chiefly  at  Mosul,  where  his  house  was  the  resort  of  the 
most  distinguished  scholars  and  savants  of  the  time.  His 
universal  history,  known  as  the  al-Kdmil,  which  ends  with  the 
year  1231  a.c,  may  be  compared  with  the  best  works  of 
modern  Europe. 

Makrizi  ^  (Taki  ud-din  Ahmed)  was  a  contemporary  of  Ibn- 
Khaldun.  His  works  on  Egypt  furnish  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
political,  religious,  social,  commercial,  archseological,  and 
administrative  condition  of  the  country. 

Abu'lfeda,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned  as  a  geographer, 
was  the  Prince  of  Hamah  at  the  commencement  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  Distinguished  alike  in  the  pursuit  of  arms 
as  in  letters,  gifted  with  eminent  qualities,  he  occupies  a 
prominent  place  among  the  scholars  and  scientists  of  the  East. 
The  portion  of  his  great  work  which  deals  with  the  political  and 
literary  history  of  Islam,  and  its  relations  to  the  Byzantines 
from  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  century,  is  extremely  valuable, 

Ibn  Khaldun  flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  Born  in  Tunis  in  1332,  he  was  in  the  midst  of 
all  the  revolutions  of  which  Africa  was  the  theatre  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  His  magnificent  history  is  preceded  by  a 
Prolegomena,  in  itself  a  store-house  of  information  and  philo- 
sophical dissertation.  In  the  Prolegomena  he  traces  the  origin 
of  society,  the  development  of  civilisation,  the  causes  which  led 
to  the  rise  and  fall  of  kingdoms  and  dynasties  ;  and  discusses, 
among  other  questions,  the  influence  of  climate  on  the  formation 
of  a  nation's  character.     He  died  in  the  year  1406  a.c. 

The  Arabs  invented  the  mariner's  compass,  and  voyaged  to 
all  parts  of  the  world  in  quest  of  knowledge  or  in  the  pursuit  of 
commerce.  They  established  colonies  in  Africa,  far  to  the 
south  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  on  the  coasts  of  India,  and  on 
the  Malayan  Peninsula.     Even  China  opened  her  barred  gates 

^  Died  in  1442  a.c. 


392  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i] 

to  Moslem  colonists  and  mercenaries.  They  discovered  th 
Azores,  and,  it  is  even  surmised,  penetrated  as  far  as  America 
Within  the  confines  of  the  ancient  continents  they  gave  ai 
unprecedented  and  almost  unparalleled  impulse  in  even 
direction  to  human  industry.  The  Prophet  had  inculcatec 
labour  as  a  duty  ;  he  had  given  the  impress  of  piety  to  industria 
pursuits  ;  he  had  recommended  commerce  and  agriculture  a 
meritorious  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord.  These  precepts  had  thei 
natural  result  ;  the  merchants,  the  traders,  the  industria 
classes  in  general,  were  treated  with  respect  ;  and  governors 
generals,  and  savants  disdained  not  to  call  themselves  by  th( 
title  of  their  professions.  The  peace  and  security  with  whicl 
caravans  travelled  the  empire  ;  the  perfect  safety  of  the  roads 
the  cisterns,  and  tanks,  and  reservoirs,  and  rest-houses  whicl: 
existed  everywhere  along  the  routes — all  aided  in  the  rapiq 
development  of  commerce  and  trade,  and  arts  and  manuf acturesij 
The  Arabs  covered  the  countries  where  they  settled  witli 
networks  of  canals.  To  Spain  they  gave  the  system  of  irriga' 
tion  by  flood-gates,  wheels,  and  pumps.  Whole  tracts  of  lane- 
that  now  lie  waste  and  barren  were  covered  with  olive  groves  | 
and  the  environs  of  Seville  alone,  under  Moslem  rule,  containeci 
several  thousand  oil-factories.  They  introduced  the  stapkj 
products,  rice,  sugar,  cotton,  and  nearly  all  the  fine  garden  ancj 
orchard  fruits,  together  with  many  less  important  plants,  sucli 
as  ginger,  saffron,  myrrh,  etc.  They  opened  up  the  mines  oii 
copper,  sulphur,  mercury,  and  iron.  They  established  th(; 
culture  of  silk,  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  other  textikj 
fabrics  ;  of  porcelain,  earthenware,  iron,  steel,  and  leather,| 
The  tapestries  of  Cordova,  the  woollen  stuffs  of  Murcia,  the 
silks  of  Granada,  Almeria,  and  Seville,  the  steel  and  gold  wori 
of  Toledo,  the  paper  of  Salibah  were  sought  all  over  the  world ' 
The  ports  of  Malaga,  Carthagena,  Barcelona,  and  Cadiz  were] 
vast  commercial  emporiums  for  export  and  import.  In  thf' 
days  of  their  prosperity  the  Spanish  Arabs  maintained  a, 
merchant  navy  of  more  than  a  thousand  ships.  They  had 
fictories  and  representatives  on  the  Danube.  With  Con- 
stantinople they  possessed  a  great  trade,  which  ramified  fronij 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  intc; 
the  interior  of  Asia,  and  reached  the  ports  of  India  and  China 


IX.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      393 

and  extended  along  the  African  coast  as  far  as  Madagascar. 
"In  the  midst  of  the  tenth  centiir}^  when  Europe  was  about 
in  the  same  condition  that  Caffraria  is  now,  enhghtened  Moors, 
hke  Abul  Cassem,  were  writing  treatises  on  the  principles  of 
trade  and  commerce."  In  order  to  supply  an  incentive  to 
commercial  enterprise,  and  to  further  the  impulse  to  travel, 
geographical  registers,  gazetteers,  and  itineraries  were  pub- 
lished under  the  authority  of  Government,  containing  minute 
descriptions  of  the  places  to  which  they  related,  with  par- 
ticulars of  the  routes  and  other  necessary  matters.  Travellers 
like  Ibn-i-Batuta  visited  foreign  lands  in  quest  of  information, 
iand  wrote  voluminous  works  on  the  people  of  those  countries, 
[on  their  fauna  and  flora,  their  mineral  products,  their  climatic 
and  physical  features,  with  astonishing  perspicacity  and  keen- 
ness of  observation. 

The  love  of  learning  and  arts  was  by  no  means  confined  to 
one  sex.  The  culture  and  education  of  the  women  proceeded 
on  parallel  lines  with  that  of  the  men,  and  women  were  as  keen 
in  the  pursuit  of  literature  and  as  devoted  to  science  as  men. 
They  had  their  own  colleges  ;  ^  they  studied  medicine  and 
jurisprudence,  lectured  on  rhetoric,  ethics,  and  bdlcs-lcUres, 
and  participated  with  the  stronger  sex  in  the  glories  of  a 
splendid  civilisation.  The  wives  and  daughters  of  magnates 
,and  sovereigns  spent  their  substance  in  founding  colleges  and 
endowing  universities,  in  establishing  hospitals  for  the  sick, 
refuges  for  the  homeless,  the  orphan,  and  the  widow. ^ 

The  division  and  jealousy  of  the  Arab  tribes,  which  had 
prevented  the  assimilation  and  fusion  of  their  several  dialects, 
had  nevertheless  conduced  to  the  enrichment  of  the  national 
anguage  as  spoken  in  Hijaz,  and  the  annual  conflux  of  people 

i    ^  One  well-known  institution  of  this  kind  was  established  in  Cairo  in  684  a.h. 

by  the  daughter  of  the  Mameluke  Sultan  Malik  Taher. 

■    *  Zubaida,  the  wife  of  Harun,  founded  several  such  refuges  ;  and  the  hospital 

puilt  by  the  wife  of  'Azud  ud-dowla  rivalled  her  husband's.     The  daughter  of 

Malik  Ashraf,  known  as  the  Khatun,  erected  a  splendid  college  at  Damascus. 

\nother  college  was  founded  by  Zamurud  Khatun,  wife  of  NSsir  ud-dowla  of 

rlems. 

Many  Moslem  ladies  were  distinguished  in  poetry.  Fatima,  the  Prophet's 
laughter,  holds  a  high  rank  among  poets.  So  does  the  daughter  of  Aurangzeb, 
Uh  un-nisa,  surnamed  Makhji.  When  Urquhart  travelled  in  Turkey,  three 
)f  the  most  celebrated  living  poets  were  ladies,  and  one  of  them,  Pcrishek 
Xhanam,  acted  as  private  secretary  to  Sultan  Mustafa. 

i 


394  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

at  Okaz,  with  the  periodical  contest  of  the  poets,  had  imparb. 
to  it  a  regularity  and  polish.  But  it  was  the  Koran — "  a  bo4 
by  the  aid  of  which  the  Arabs  conquered  a  world  greater  th; 
that  of  Alexander  the  Great,  greater  than  that  of  Rome,  ai 
in  as  many  tens  of  years  as  the  latter  had  wanted  hundreds 
accomplish  her  conquests  ;  by  the  aid  of  which  they  alone 
all  the  Shemites  came  to  Europe  as  kings,  whither  the  Phoei 
cians  had  come  as  tradesmen,  and  the  Jews  as  fugitives 
captives  ;  came  to  Europe  to  hold  up,  together  with  the 
fugitives,  the  light  to  humanity  ; — they  alone,  while  darkne 
lay  around,  to  raise  up  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  Hell 
from  the  dead,  to  teach  philosophy,  medicine,  astronomy,  ai. 
the  golden  art  of  song  to  the  West  as  to  the  East,  to  staTid  j 
the  cradle  of  modern  science,  and  to  cause  us  late  epigoni  f- 
ever  to  weep  over  the  day  when  Granada  fell,"  ^ — it  was  tl 
book  which  fixed  and  preserved  for  ever  the  Arabic  tongue  , 
all  its  purity.  The  simple  grandeur  of  its  diction,  the  chas!: 
elegance  of  its  style,  the  variety  of  its  imageries,  the  rap 
transitions,  Uke  flashes  of  lightning,  which  show  the  moral 
teaching,  the  philosopher  theosophising,  the  injured  patri 
denouncing  in  fervent  expressions  the  immorality  and  degrad 
tion  of  his  people,  and  withal  the  heavenly  Father  calling  bai 
through  His  servant  His  erring  children, — all  mark  its  uniqi 
character  among  reUgious  records.  And  the  awe  and  venei* 
tion  with  which  the  greatest  poets  of  the  day  listened  to  : 
teachings,  show  how  deeply  it  must  have  moved  the  peop; 
Delivered  at  different  times, — in  moments  of  persecution  aij. 
anguish,  or  of  energetic  action,  or  enunciated  for  purposes  | 
practical  guidance, — there  is  yet  a  vitahty,  an  earnestness  ai' 
energy  in  every  word,  which  differentiates  it  from  all  otb 
Scriptures.  Lest  it  be  thought  we  are  biassed  in  our  opinic 
we  give  the  words  of  the  great  orientalist  whom  we  have  alrea( 
quoted  :  "  Those  grand  accents  of  joy  and  sorrow,  of  love,  ai 
valour,  and  passion,  of  which  but  faint  echoes  strike  on  o. 
ears  now,  were  full-toned  at  the  time  of  Mohammed  ;  and  if 
had  not  merely  to  rival  the  illustrious  of  the  illustrious,  b| 
excel  them  ;  to  appeal  to  the  superiority  of  what  he  said  ai 
sang  as  a  very  sign  and  proof  of  his  mission  .  .  .     The  poe 

*  Deutsch. 


Itx.       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      393 

before  him  had  sung  of  love  .  .  .  Antara,  himself  the  hero  of 
the  most  famous  novel,  sings  of  the  ruin,  around  which  ever 
^over  lovers'  thoughts,  of  the  dwelling  of  Abla,  who  is  gone, 
and  her  dwelling-place  knows  her  not.  Mohammed  sang  none 
:)f  these.  No  love-minstrelsy  his,  not  the  joys  of  this  world, 
nor  sword  nor  camel,  not  jealousy  or  human  vengeance,  not 
the  glories  of  tribe  or  ancestors,  nor  the  unmeaning,  swiftly 
and  forever-extinguished  existence  of  man,  were  his  themes. 
He  preached  Islam.  And  he  preached  it  by  rending  the  skies 
iibove  and  tearing  open  the  ground  below,  by  adjuring  heaven 
and  hell,  the  Hving  and  the  dead." 

Another  great  writer  speaks  of  the  Koran  in  the  following 
terms  :  "If  it  is  not  poetry, — and  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  it 
be  or  not, — it  is  more  than  poetry.  It  is  not  history,  nor 
biography.  It  is  not  anthology,  like  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  ;  nor  metaphysical  dialectics,  like  the  Buddhist  Sutras  ; 
nor  sublime  homiletics  like  Plato's  conferences  of  the  wise 
and  foolish  teachers.  It  is  a  prophet's  cry,  Semitic  to  the  core  ; 
yet  of  a  meaning  so  universal  and  so  timely  that  all  the  voices 
of  the  age  take  it  up,  willing  or  unwilling,  and  it  echoes  over 
palaces  and  deserts,  over  cities  and  empires,  first  kindling  its 
chosen  hearts  to  world-conquest,  then  gathering  itself  up  into 
a  reconstructive  force  that  all  the  creative  light  of  Greece  and 
Asia  might  penetrate  the  heavy  gloom  of  Christian  Europe, 
when  Christianity  was  but  the  Queen  of  Night."  ^ 

In  general  literature,  embracing  every  phase  of  the  human 
intellect,  ethics,  metaphysics,  logic,  rhetoric,  the  Moslem 
writers  may  be  counted  by  hundreds.  In  poetry,  the  fertility 
of  the  Moslem  mind  has  not  been  yet  surpassed.  From  Mutan- 
abbi  the  Arab  (not  to  go  back  to  the  poets  who  flourished  in 
the  time  of  the  Prophet)  to  Hali  the  Indian,  there  is  an  endless 
succession  of  poets.  Mutanabbi  flourished  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Ameer  Saif  ud-dowla  (Abu'l 
Hasan  Ali  bin  Hamdan).  He  was  followed  by  Ibn-Duraid,^ 
Abu-Ula,3  Ibn  Faridh,*  Tantarani,^  and  others.  The  Spanish 
Arabs  were  nature's  poets  ;  they  invented  the  different  kinds 
'of  poetry,  which  afterwards  were  adopted  as  models  by  the 

*  Johnson.  2  Died  in  a.c.  933.  '  Died  in  a.c.  1057. 

*  Died  in  a.c.  1255.  ^  Died  in  A.c.  1092. 


396  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

Christian  nations  of  southern  Europe.  Among  the  great  per, 
who  flourished  in  Spain  the  name  of  Ahmed  ibn  Mohamm. 
(Abu-Omar)  1  is  the  most  famous.  We  have  already  mention 
the  poets  who  lived  under  Mahmud  ;  Firdousi,  who  broug 
back  to  life  the  dead  heroes  of  Iran,  rivals  the  fame  of  t 
sovereign  whom  first  he  praised  and  afterwards  satirise 
Under  the  later  Ghaznavides  and  the  Seljukides  flourished  t 
lyric  poets  Suzeni,^  the  creator  of  the  Persian  metrical  systei 
and  Watwat  ;  the  panegyrists  Anwari,^  Khakani/  and  Zal 
Faryabi ;  ^  the  great  mystics,  Sanai,*'  whose  Hadika  is  valu( 
wherever  the  Persian  language  is  known  and  appreciated,  ai 
Farid  ud-din  'Attar  ;  "^  and  the  romancist  Nizami,  the  immort 
bard  of  Khusru  and  Shirin  and  of  Alexander.  Under  tl. 
Atabegs,  who  rose  to  power  on  the  decline  of  the  Seljukide 
flourished  the  moralist  Sa'di  and  the  mystic  Jalal  ud-d 
Rumi.  Under  Timur  lived  the  sweet  singer  Hafiz  (Shan 
ud-din),  called  the  Anacreon  of  Persia.  These  are  but  a  voj 
few  of  the  names  famous  in  the  realm  of  poetry.  The  pagJ 
of  Ibn-Khallikan,  and  of  Lutf  Ali  Azar  ^  speak  more  eloquentl 
of  the  poetical  genius  of  the  Moslems.  | 

Such  were  the  glorious  achievements  of  the  Moslems  in  tlj 
field  of  intellect  ;  and  all  was  due  to  the  teachings  of  one  ma; 
Called  by  his  voice  from  the  abyss  of  barbarism  and  ignoranc 
in  which  they  had  hitherto  dwelt,  with  little  hope  of  the  presen 
with  none  of  the  future,  the  Arab  went  into  the  world,  i 
elevate  and  civilise.  Afliicted  humanity  awoke  into  new  lif 
Whilst  the  barbarians  of  Europe,  who  had  overturned  an  effei 
empire,  were  groping  in  the  darkness  of  ignorance  and  brutalit; 
the  Moslems  were  building  up  a  great  civilisation.  Durin 
centuries  of  moral  and  intellectual  desolation  in  Europe,  Islai 
led  the  vanguard  of  progress.     Christianity  had  establishe 

1  A.C.  II75,  A.H.  569.  *  A.C.  II77,  A.H.  573. 

*  Anwari's  panegyric  on  Sultan  Sanjar  is  one  of  the  finest  poems  in  tl 
Persian  language.  The  Hindustani  poet  Sauda  in  the  Kastda  in  honour  1 
Asaf  ud-Dowla  of  Oudh  has  imitated  Anwari  with  great  success. 

*  A.C.  I186,  A.H.  582.  5  A.C  I2OI,  A.H.  598. 

*  A.C.  I180,  A.H.  576.  '  A.C.  II90,  A.H.  586. 

»  The  Atesh-Kadeh  {"  Fire  Temple  ")  of  Lutf  Ali  Azar  is  the  lives  of  tl 
Persian  poets  from  the  earliest  times,  with  specimens  of  their  poetry. 


c       THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      397 

self  on  the  throne  of  the  Caesars,  but  it  had  failed  to  regenerate 
:ie  nations  of  the  earth.  From  the  fourth  century  of  the 
hristian  era  to  the  twelfth,  the  gloom  that  overshadowed 
iurope  grew  deeper  and  deeper.  During  these  ages  of  ferocious 
igotry  Ecclesiasticism  barred  every  access  through  which  the 
ght  of  knowledge,  humanity,  or  civilisation  could  enter.  But 
■lOUgh  jealously  shut  out  from  this  land  of  fanaticism,  the 
enignant  influences  of  Islamic  culture  in  time  made  them- 
?lves  felt  in  every  part  of  Christendom.  From  the  schools 
f  Salerno,  of  Bagdad,  of  Damascus,  of  Cordova,  of  Granada,  of 
lalaga,  the  Moslems  taught  the  world  the  gentle  lessons  of 
hilosophy  and  the  practical  teachings  of  stern  science.^ 

The  first  manifestation  of  Rationalism  in  the  West  occurred  in 
lie  province  most  amenable  to  the  power  of  Moslem  civilisation. 
Icclesiasticism  crushed  this  fair  flower  with  fire  and  with 
rt-ord,  and  threw  back  the  progress  of  the  world  for  centuries. 
)Ut  the  principles  of  Free  Thought,  so  strongly  impressed  on 
slam,  had  communicated  their  vitality  to  Christian  Europe, 
ibelard  had  felt  the  power  of  Averroes'  genius,  which  was 
bedding  its  light  over  the  whole  of  the  Western  world.  Abelard 
truck  a  blow  for  Free  Thought  which  led  to  the  eventual 
mancipation  of  Christendom  from  the  bondage  of  Ecclesi- 
sticism.  Avenpace  and  Averroes  were  the  precursors  of 
)escartes,  Hobbes,  and  Locke. 

The  influence  of  Abelard  and  of  his  school  soon  penetrated 
ito  England.  Wycliffe's  originahty  of  thought  and  freedom 
f  spirit  took  their  rise  from  the  bold  conceptions  of  the  former 
hinkers.  The  later  German  reformers,  deriving  their  notions 
n  one  side  from  the  iconoclasts  of  Constantinople,  and  on  the 
ther  from  the  movements  of  the  Albigenses  and  the  Wycliffites, 
ompleted  the  work  which  had  been  commenced  by  others 
nder  foreign  rationalistic  influence. 

While  Christian  Europe  had  placed  learning  under  the  ban 
f  persecution  ;  while  the  Vicar  of  Christ  set  the  example  of 
tifling  the  infant  hspings  of  Free  Thought  ;    while  the  priests 

^  The  impetus  which  Islam  gave  to  the  intellectual  development  of  mankind 
.  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  Arabs  were  joined  in  the  race  for  progress  by 
lembers  of  nationalities  which  had  hitherto  lain  absolutely  dormant.  Islam 
uickened  the  pulse  of  humanity  and  awakened  new  life  in  communities  which 
ere  either  dead  or  dying  ;   see  Appendi.x  III, 


398  THE  8PIRIT  OF  ISLAM  i 

led  the  way  in  consigning  to  the  flames  thousands  of  inoffensiA 
beings  for  mere  aberration  of  reason  ;  while  Christian  Euroj 
was  exorcising  demons  and  worshipping  rags  and  bones- 
learning  flourished  under  the  Moslem  sovereigns,  and  was  he! 
in  honour  and  veneration  as  never  before.  The  Vicegerents  ( 
Mohammed  allied  themselves  to  the  cause  of  civilisation,  an 
assisted  in  the  growth  of  Free  Thought  and  Free  Inquir; 
originated  and  consecrated  by  the  Prophet  himself.  Persecutic 
for  the  sake  of  the  faith  was  unknown  ;  and  whatever  tl 
political  conduct  of  the  sovereigns,  the  world  has  never  ha 
superior  examples  in  their  impartiality  and  absolute  toleratic 
of  all  creeds  and  religions.  The  cultivation  of  the  physic; 
sciences — that  great  index  to  the  intellectual  liberty  of  a  natio 
— ^formed  a  popular  pursuit  among  the  Moslems. 

The  two  failures  of  the  Arabs,  the  one  before  Constantinop 
and  the  other  in  France,  retarded  the  progress  of  the  world  f(; 
ages,  and  put  back  the  hour-hand  of  time  for  centuries.  Haj 
the  Arabs  been  less  keen  for  the  safety  of  their  spoils,  lesj 
divided  among  themselves,  had  they  succeeded  in  driving  befoij 
them  the  barbarian  hosts  of  Charles  Martel,  the  history  of  ttj 
darkest  period  in  the  annals  of  the  world  would  never  have  beej 
written.  The  Renaissance,  civilisation,  the  growth  of  inte 
lectual  liberty,  would  have  been  accelerated  by  seven  hundre 
years.  We  should  not  have  had  to  shudder  over  the  massaci 
of  the  Albigenses  or  of  the  Huguenots,  or  the  ghastly  slaughtei 
of  the  Irish  Catholics  by  the  English  Protestants  under  tbj 
Tudors  and  the  Protectorate.  We  should  not  have  had  ti 
mourn  over  the  fate  of  a  Bruno  or  a  Servetus,  murdered  by  th 
hands  of  those  who  had  revolted  from  their  mother-churcl 
The  history  of  the  auto-da-fe,  of  the  murders  of  the  Inquisitior 
of  the  massacres  of  the  Aztecs  and  the  Incas  ;  the  tale  of  th 
Thirty  Years'  War,  with  its  manifold  miseries, — all  this  woul 
have  remained  untold.  Above  all,  Spain,  at  one  time  th 
favoured  haunt  of  learning  and  the  arts,  would  not  have  becom, 
the  intellectual  desert  it  now  is,  bereft  of  the  glories  of  centurie&j 
Who  has  not  mourned  over  the  fate  of  that  noble  race,  exile(i 
by  the  mad  bigotry  of  a  Christian  sovereign  from  the  countr 
of  its  adoption,  which  it  had  made  famous  among  nations 
Justly  has  it  been  said,  "  In  an  ill-omened  hour  the  Cros 


IX.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      399 

supplanted  the  Crescent  on  the  towers  of  Granada. ' '  The  shades 
of  the  glorious  dead,  of  Averroes  and  Avenpace,  of  Waladeh 
and  Ayesha,  sit  weeping  by  the  ruined  haunts  of  their  people 
— haunts  silent  now  to  the  voice  of  minstrelsy,  of  chivalry,  of 
learning,  and  of  art, — only  echoing  at  times  the  mad  outcries 
of  religious  combatants,  at  times  the  fierce  sounds  of  political 
animosities.  Christianity  drove  the  descendants  of  these 
Moslem  Andalusians  into  the  desert,  sucked  out  every  element 
of  vitality  from  beautiful  Spain,  and  made  the  land  a  synonym 
for  intellectual  and  moral  desolation. ^ 

If  Maslamah  had  succeeded  in  capturing  Constantinople, — 
the  capital  of  Irene,  the  warm  advocate  of  orthodoxy  and  cruel 
murderess  of  her  own  son, — the  dark  deeds  which  sully  the 
annals  of  the  Isaurians,  the  Comneni,  the  Palaeologi,  the  terrible 
results  which  attended  the  seizure  of  Byzantium  by  the  Latins, 
above  all,  the  frightful  outburst  of  the  unholy  wars,  in  which 
Christian  Europe  tried  to  strangle  the  nations  of  Asia,  would 
probably  never  have  come  to  pass.  One  thing  at  all  events  is 
certain,  that  if  Constantinople  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Moslems,  the  iconoclastic  movement  would  not  have  proved 
altogether  abortive,  and  the  reformation  of  the  Christian 
Church  would  have  been  accomplished  centuries  earlier. 
Providence  willed  otherwise.  The  wave  of  Free  Thought, 
which  had  reached  the  Isaurian  emperors  from  the  Islamic 
regions,  broke  upon  the  rocks  of  ignorance,  superstition,  and 
bigotry  ;  its  power  was  not  felt  until  the  combined  action  of 
the  schools  of  Salerno  and  Cordova — the  influence  of  Averroes, 
and  perhaps  of  some  Greeks  who  had  imbibed  learning  at  the 
Saracenic  fountain — had  battered  down  the  rampart  of 
Ecclesiasticism. 

^  Islam  inaugurated  the  reign  of  intellectual  liberty.  It  has 
been  truly  remarked,  that  so  long  as  Islam  retained  its  pristine 
character,  it  proved  itself  the  wann  protector  and  promoter  of 
knowledge  and  civilisation, — the  zealous  ally  of  intellectual 
freedom.  The  moment  extraneous  elements  attached  them- 
selves to  it,  it  lagged  behind  in  the  race  of  progress. 

But,  to  explain  the  stagnation  of  the  Moslems  in  the  present 

^  For  the  economic  condition  of  Spain  and  the  state  of  arts  and  learninp; 
under  the  Arabs,  see  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  pp.  474-580. 


400  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  n. 

day,  it  is  necessary  to  glance  back  for  a  moment  at  the  events 
that  transpired  in  Spain,  in  Africa,  and  in  Asia  between  the 
twelfth  and  the  seventeenth  centuries.  In  the  former  country, 
Christianity  destroyed  the  intellectual  life  of  the  people.  The 
Moslems  had  turned  Spain  into  a  garden  ;  the  Christians  con- 
verted it  into  a  desert.  The  Moslems  had  covered  the  land 
with  colleges  and  schools  ;  the  Christians  transformed  them  into 
churches  for  the  worship  of  saints  and  images.  The  Uterary 
and  scientific  treasures  amassed  by  the  Moslem  sovereigns 
were  consigned  to  the  flames.  The  Moslem  men,  women,  and 
children  were  ruthlessly  butchered  or  burnt  at  the  stake  ;  the 
few  who  were  spared  were  reduced  to  slavery.  Those  who  fled 
were  thrown  on  the  shores  of  Africa  helpless  beggars.  It  would 
take  the  combined  charity  of  Jesus  and  Mohammed  to  make; 
Islam  forget  or  forgive  the  terrible  wrongs  inflicted  by  the 
Christians  of  Spain  upon  the  Andalusian  Moslems.  But  the! 
punishment  was  not  long  in  coming.  Before  the  world  was  aj 
century  old,  Spain's  fire  had  sunk  into  a  heap  of  ashes  !  | 

In  Western  Africa,  the  triumph  of  Patristicism  under  thi 
third  Almohade  sovereign,^  and  the  uprise  of  Berber  fanaticisir 
turned  back  the  tide  of  progress,  arrested  the  civihsation  o: 
centuries,  and  converted  the  seats  of  learning  and  arts  into 
centres  of  bigotry  and  ignorance.  The  settlement  of  th( 
Corsairs  on  the  Barbary  coast  and  the  anarchy  which  prevailec 
in  Egypt  under  the  later  Mamelukes,  discouraged  the  cultiva 
tion  of  peaceful  knowledge.  In  Asia  the  decadence  of  th( 
Timuride  dynasty,  the  eruption  of  the  wild  and  fanatica 
Uzbegs,  and  the  establishment  of  their  power  in  the  capital  o| 
Timur,  destroyed  the  intellectual  vitality  of  the  people.  Ii 
Persia,  under  the  Safawis,  literature  and  science  had  begui 

^  On  the  decadence  of  the  Fatimide  power  in  Western  Africa  there  arose 
dynasty  descended  from  a  Marabout  or  saint  of  the  country,  hence  calle 
A\mora.vide  or  al-Mtirdbatia  (<U£ijl^l)-  To  this  family  belonged  Yusuf  ib 
Tashfin,  the  patron  of  Ibn-Zuhr.  His  son  and  successor  was  defeated  an 
killed  by  Abdu'l  Momin,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Almohades  [al-Muwi- 
hidin,  ^^'^c^j^Jt  the  Unitarians),  who  sacked  and  destroyed  Morocc 
and  Fez.  They  were  akin  to  the  Wahabis  and  the  Ikhwdn  of  Central  Arabia 
and  probably  not  very  different  from  the  Mahdists  of  Lybia.  The  first  tw 
sovereigns  of  this  dynasty,  Abdu'l  Momin  and  Yusuf,  encouraged  learnin 
and  arts;  in  the  reign  of  Ya'kub  al-Mansur,  the  third  Almohade  kini 
fanaticism  became  rampant, 


X.        THE  LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  SPIRIT      401 

.0  breathe  once  more  ;  but  this  renaissance  was  only  temporary, 
Lnd  with  the  irruption  of  the  barbarous  Ghihzais  the  renovated 
ife  of  Iran  came  to  an  end.  A  deathhke  gloom  settled  upon 
>ntral  Asia,  which  still  hangs  heavy  over  these  unhappy 
;ountries,  and  is  slowly  lifting  in  Afghanistan. 

Under  Selim  I.,  Solyman  and  the  Murads,  learning  received 
.upport  in  the  Ottoman  dominions  ;  but  the  Osmanlis  were  on 
he  whole  a  military  race.  At  first  from  ambition,  afterwards 
rom  sheer  necessity  and  for  self-preservation,  they  had  been 
it  war  with  a  relentless  foe,  whose  designs  knew  no  slackening, 
vhose  purpose  was  inscrutable.  That  enemy  has  disappeared, 
3ut  the  nation  has  still  to  fight  for  its  existence.  Letters  and 
irts,  under  such  conditions,  can  make  but  little  progress. 
Deahng  with  the  charge  of  obscurantism,  often  levelled  against 
islam,  M.  Gobineau  makes  the  following  pregnant  observation  : 
'  Imagine  in  any  European  country  the  absolute  predominance 
:)f  mihtary  and  administrative  despotism  during  a  period  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  as  is  the  case  in  Turkey  ;  conceive 
something  approaching  the  warlike  anarchy  of  Egypt  under  the 
domination  of  foreign  slaves — Circassians,  Georgians,  Turks, 
ind  Albanians  ;  picture  to  yourself  an  Afghan  invasion,  as  in 
Persia  after  1730,  the  tyranny  of  Nadir  Shah,  the  cruelties  and 
ravages  that  have  marked  the  accession  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Xajars, — unite  all  these  circumstances  with  their  naturally 
concomitant  causes,  you  will  then  understand  what  would  have 
become  of  any  European  country  although  European,  and  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  look  further  for  any  explanation  of  the 
ruin  of  Oriental  countries,  nor  to  charge  Islam  with  any  unjust 
responsibility." 

From  the  time  of  its  birth  in  the  seventh  century  up  to  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth,  not  to  descend  later,  Islam  was 
animated  by  a  scientific  and  literary  spirit  equal  in  force  and 
energy  to  that  which  animates  Europe  of  our  own  day.  It 
carried  the  Moslems  forward  on  a  wave  of  progress,  and  enabled 
them  to  achieve  a  high  degree  of  material  and  mental  develop- 
ment. Since  the  eruption  of  the  Goths  and  the  Vandals,  the 
progress  of  Europe  has  been  on  a  continuous  scale.  No  such 
calamity  as  has  afflicted  Asia,  in  the  persons  of  the  Tartars 
or  the  Uzbegs,  has  befallen  Christendom  since  x\ttila's  retreat 


402  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

from  France.  Her  wars,  cruel  and  bitter,  fierce  and  inhuman, 
have  been  waged  on  equal  terms  of  humanity  or  inhumanity. 
Catholics  and  Protestants  have  burnt  each  other  ;  but  Europe 
has  never  witnessed,  since  the  wholesale  butcheries  of  the  poor 
Spanish  Moors,  the  terrible  massacres  committed  by  the  Tartars 
in  all  the  centres  of  civilisation  and  culture,  in  which  fell  the 
gifted  classes  who  formed  the  backbone  of  the  nation. ^ 
And  now. 

The  spider  holds  watch  in  the  palace  of  Caesar, 
The  owlet  beats  the  drum  on  the  tower  of  Afrisiab. 

^  The  sack  of  Bagdad  by  the  Mongols  exemplifies  what  happened  in  other 
cities,  but  in  order  to  give  a  true  conception  of  the  fearful  atrocities  perpetrated 
by  the  savages,  it  requires  to  be  painted  by  another  Gibbon.     For  three  days  j 
the  streets  ran  with  blood,  and  the  water  of  the  Tigris  was  dyed  red  for  miles  I 
along  its  course.     The  horrors  of  rapine,  slaughter,  and  outraged  humanity] 
lasted  for  six  weeks.     The  palaces,  mosques,  and  mausoleums  were  destroyed ' 
by  fire  or  levelled  to  the  earth  for  their  golden  domes.     The  patients  in  the 
hospitals  and  the  students  and  professors  in  the  colleges  were  put  to  the  sword. 
In  the  mausoleums  the  mortal  remains  of  the  sheikhs  and  pious  imams,  and 
in  the  academies  the  immortal  works  of  great  and  learned  men,  were  con- 
sumed to  ashes  ;   books  were  thrown  into  the  fire,  or,  where  that  w-as  distant 
and  the  Tigris  near,  were  buried  in  the  waters  of  the  latter.     The  accumulated 
treasures  of  five  centuries  were  thus  lost  for  ever  to  hiimanity.     The  flower  of 
the  nation  was  completely  destroyed.     It  was  the  custom  of  Hulaku,  from 
policy  and  as  a  precaution,  to  carry  along  with  his  horde  the  princes  and  chiefs 
of  the  countries  through  which  they  swept.     One  of  these  princes  was  Sa'di 
bin  Zangi,  the  Atabek  of  Fars.     The  poet  Sa'di  had,  it  appears,  accompanied 
his  friend  and  patron.     He  was  thus  an  eye-witness  to  the  terrible  state  oi 
Bagdad  and  its  doomed  inhabitants.     In  two  pathetic  couplets  he  has  given 
expression  to  its  magnitude  and  horrors,  see  Appendix  II. 


CHAPTER   X 

THE  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL 
SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

1    |»*^flAj  U     L^jkij  ^Xa.     ^^aj  U    j^ki^   i'     Alii  ^1 

LIKE  all  other  nations  of  antiquity,  the  pre-Islamite  Arabs 
were  stern  fatalists.  The  remains  of  their  ancient 
-^  poetry,  sole  record  of  old  Arab  thought  and  manners, 
show  that  before  the  promulgation  of  Islam  the  people  of  the 
Peninsula  had  absolutely  abandoned  themselves  to  the  idea  of 
an  irresistible  and  blind  fatality.  Man  was  but  a  sport  in  the 
hands  of  Fate.  This  idea  bred  a  reckless  contempt  of  death, 
and  an  utter  disregard  for  human  life.  The  teachings  of  Islam 
created  a  revolution  in  the  Arab  mind  ;  with  the  recognition 
of  a  supreme  Intelligence  governing  the  universe,  they  received 
the  conception  of  self-dependence  and  of  moral  responsibility 
founded  on  the  liberty  of  human  volition.  One  of  the  remark- 
able characteristics  of  the  Koran  is  the  curious,  and,  at  first 
sight,  inconsistent,  manner  in  which  it  combines  the  existence 
of  a  Divine  Will,  which  not  only  orders  all  things,  but  which 
acts  directly  upon  men  and  addresses  itself  to  the  springs  of 
thought  in  them,  with  the  assertion  of  a  free  agency  in  man 
and  of  the  liberty  of  intellect.  Not  that  this  feature  is  peculiar 
to  the  Moslem  scripture  ;  the  same  characteristic  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Biblical  records.  But  in  the  Koran  the  conception  of 
human  responsibihty  is  so  strongly  developed  that  the  question 
naturally  occurs  to  the  mind.  How  can  these  two  ideas  be 

^  "  God  changes  not  as  to  what  concerns  any  people  until  they  change  in 
respect  to  what  depends  upon  themselves." 


404  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

reconciled  with  each  other  ?  It  seems  inconsistent  at  first 
sight  that  man  should  be  judged  by  his  works,  a  doctrine  which 
forms  the  foundation  of  Islamic  morality,  if  all  his  actions  are 
ruled  by  an  all-powerful  Will.  The  earnest  faith  of  Mohammed 
in  an  active  ever-living  Principle,  joined  to  his  trust  in  the 
progress  of  man,  supplies  a  key  to  this  mystery.  I  propose  to 
illustrate  my  meaning  by  a  reference  to  a  few  of  the  passages 
which  give  expression  to  the  absolutism  of  the  Divine  Will  and 
those  which  assert  the  liberty  of  human  volition  :  "  And 
God's  ordering  is  in  accordance  with  a  determined  decree  ; 
.  .  .  and  the  sun  proceeding  to  its  place  of  rest — that  is  an 
ordinance  ;  ^^aj  )  of  the  Almighty,  the  All-wise  ;  ^  .  .  .  and 
among  His  signs  is  the  creation  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth 
and  of  the  animals  which  He  hath  distributed  therein,  which  : 
He  has  sovereign  power  to  gather  when  He  will ;  ^  .  .  .  and  do 
they  not  see  that  God  who  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth, 
and  faltered  not  in  creating  these,  has  power  to  vivify  the  dead 
— nay.  He  has  sovereign  control  over  all  things  ;  ^  and  other ; 
things  which  are  not  at  your  command,  but  which  are  truly) 
within  His  grasp,  inasmuch  as  God  is  sovereign  disposer  of  all 
things  (  \jj^  ^J^  Jf  ^U  )  ;  *  nor  is  there  anything  not  pro- 
vided beforehand  by  Us,  or  which  We  send  down  otherwise 
than  according  to  a  fore-known  decree  ;  ^  .  .  .  the  secrets  of 
the  heavens  and  the  earth  are  God's  ;  .  .  .  God  has  all  thingsi 
at  command  ;^  .  .  .  and  propound  to  them  a  similitude  of  this; 
present  life,  which  is  Hke  water  sent  down  by  Us  from  heaven, 
so  that  the  plants  of  the  earth  are  fattened  by  it,  and  on  the 
morrow  become  stubble,  scattered  by  the  winds,- — God  disposes 
of  all  things  ; '  .  .  .  and  it  pertains  to  God's  sovereignty  tc 
defend  them  ;  "^  .  .  .  God  creates  what  He  will ;  ^  .  .  .  and  whc 
created  all  things,  and  determined  respecting  the  same  witl 
absolute  determination  ;  ^"  .  .  .  and  thy  Lord  is  a  supreme 
sovereign  ;  ^^  .  .  .  behold  thou  the  imprints  of  the  mercy  o 
God  :  how  He  vivilies  the  earth,  after  it  has  died — in  ver} 
deed,  a  restorer  of  life  to  the  dead  is  there,  and  all  things  an 
at  His  bidding  ;  ^-  .  .  .  to   God  belongs  whatsoever  is  in  th 

1  xxxvi.  38.  2  xlii.  28.  ^  xlvi.  29.  *  xlviii.  21.  ^  xv.  21. 

•xvi.  77.  '  xviii.  43.  «  xxii.  40.  '  xxiv.  45.  i"  xxv.  2. 

"  XXV.  54.  ^2  /^  ^^  J^  j^  ^j  ,  xxx.  50. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  405 

heavens  and  whatsoever  is  on  the  earth  ;  and  whether  ye  dis- 
close that  which  is  within  3'ou  or  conceal  it,  God  will  reckon 
with  you  for  it  ;  and  He  pardons  whom  He  will,  and  punishes 
whom  He  will — inasmuch  as  God  is  a  Supreme  Sovereign  ;  ^ 
.  .  .  say  thou :  O  God,  Sovereign  Disposer  of  dominion.  Thou 
givest  rule  to  whom  Thou  wilt,  and  takest  away  power  from 
whom  Thou  wilt,  Thou  exaltest  whom  Thou  wilt,  and  humblest 
whom  Thou  wilt :  all  good  is  at  Thy  disposal — verily,  Thou  art 
a  Supreme  Sovereign  ;  ^  .  .  God  punishes  whom  He  will,  and 
pardons  whom  He  will ;  ^  .  .  .  to  God  belongs  the  dominion  of 
the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  whatsoever  they  contain  is 
His,  and  He  is  Sovereign  over  all  things.*.  .  .  Verily,  God 
accomplishes  what  He  ordains — He  hath  established  for  every- 
thing a  fixed  decree  ;  ^  .  .  .  but  God  has  the  measuring  out 
{ jZoj  )  of  the  night  and  the  day  ;  ^  .  .  .  extol  the  name  of  Thy 
Lord,  the  Most  High,  who  made  the  world,  and  fashioned  it  to 
completeness,  who  fore-ordained,  and  guides  accordingly ;  ' 
...  as  for  the  unbeHevers  it  matters  nothing  to  them  whether 
thou  warnest  them  or  dost  not  warn  them  ;  they  will  not 
believe  ;  God  hath  sealed  up  their  hearts  and  their  ears  ;  »  .  . 
and  the  darkness  of  night  is  over  their  eyes  ;  ^  .  .  and  God 
guides  into  the  right  path  whomsoever  He  will ;  ^°  .  .  .  God  is 
pleased  to  make  your  burthens  light,  inasmuch  as  man  is  by 
nature  infirm.  .  .  .  God  changes  not  as  to  what  concerns  any 
people  until  they  change  in  respect  to  what  depends  upon 
themselves  ;  ^^  .  .  .  say  thou  :  Verily,  Gods  leads  astray  whom- 
soever He  will,  and  directs  to  Himself  those  who  are  penitent. "^2 
It  will  be  noticed  that,  in  many  of  these  passages  by  "  the 
decree  of  God  "  is  clearly  meant  the  law  of  nature.  The  stars 
and  planets  have  each  their  appointed  course  ;  so  has  every 
other  object  in  creation.  The  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  the  phenomena  of  nature,  life  and  death,  are  all 
governed  by  law.  Other  passages  unquestionably  indicate  the 
idea  of  Divine  agency  upon  human  will  ;  but  they  are  again 
explained  by  others,  in  which  that  agency  is  "  conditioned  " 
upon  human  will.     It  is  to  the  seeker  for  Divine  help  that  God 


*ii-  284.                 »iii.  25.                    'v.  18.                *  V.  120. 

s  Ixv.  3. 

•Ixxiii.  20.            '  Ixxxvii.  1-3.        '  ii.  5-6.             »  ii.  7. 

1"  xiii.  31 

u  •^M-iiU  U  !^^  J^  ^^  U^  y  aV\  Jf,  xiii.  II. 

"  xiii.  27. 

4o6  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  n. 

renders  His  help  ;  it  is  on  the  searcher  of  his  own  heart,  who 
purifies  his  soul  from  impure  longings,  that  God  bestows  grace. 
To  the  Arabian  Teacher,  as  to  his  predecessors,  the  existence  of 
an  Almighty  Power,  the  Fashioner  of  the  Universe,  the  Ruler 
of  His  creatures,  was  an  intense  and  vivid  reality.  The  feeling 
of  "an  assured  trust  "  in  an  all-pervading,  ever-conscious 
Personality  has  been  the  motive  power  in  the  world  of  every 
age.  To  the  weary  mariner,  "  sailing  on  life's  solemn  main," 
there  is  nothing  more  assuring,  nothing  that  more  satisfies  the 
intense  longing  for  a  better  and  purer  world,  than  the  con- 
sciousness of  a  Power  above  humanity  to  redress  wrongs,  to 
fulfil  hopes,  to  help  the  forlorn.  Our  belief  in  God  springs  from 
the  very  essence  of  Divine  ordinances.  They  are  as  much  laws, 
in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  as  the  laws  which  regulate  the 
movements  of  the  celestial  bodies.  But  the  willof  God  is  not 
an  arbitrary  will :  it  is  an  educating  will,  to  be  obeyed  by  the 
scholar  in  his  walks  of  learning  as  by  the  devotee  in  his  cell. 

The  passages,  however,  in  which  human  responsibiUty  and 
the  freedom  of  human  will  are  laid  down  in  emphatic  terms 
define  and  limit  the  conception  of  absolutism.  "  And  who- 
soever gets  to  himself  a  sin,  gets  it  solely  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility ;  ^  .  .  .  and  let  alone  those  who  make  a  sport  and  a 
mockery  of  their  religion,  and  whom  this  present  world  has 
deluded,  and  thereby  bring  to  remembrance  that  any  soul 
perishes  for  what  it  has  got  to  itself  ;  ^  and  when  they  commit 
a  deed  of  shame  they  say  :  We  have  found  that  our  fathers  did 
so,  and  God  obliges  us  to  do  it  ;  say  thou  :  Surely,  God 
requireth  not  shameful  doing  :  ^  .  .  .  the}^  did  injustice  to  them- 
selves ;  *  yonder  will  every  soul  experience  that  which  it  hath 
bargained  for  ;  ^  ...  so  then,  whosoever  goes  astray,  he  himself 
bears  the  whole  responsibility  of  wandering. 


I 


2  vL.j-.J'  Uj  jjmAJ  JLjj  e^l,  vi.  70. 

3  ^UIsA'l.^L  51  f\J\  ^\,  vii.  29. 

^  OwAJLjI  Le  jj,^  Jr  \jij3  iJJUa,  X.  30. 

LfiJic  cl/A>  UJli  J/«  ,^j  A-JoJ  ^J<^i4J  UJ  ti  j^oJjki  ^^,  v.  los. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  407 

Man,  within  the  Hmited  sphere  of  his  existence,  is  absolute 
master  of  his  conduct.  He  is  responsible  for  his  actions,  and 
for  the  use  or  misuse  of  the  powers  with  which  he  has  been 
endowed.  He  may  fall  or  rise,  according  to  his  own  "  inclina- 
tion." There  was  supreme  assistance  for  him  who  sought 
Divine  help  and  guidance.  Is  not  the  soul  purer  and  better 
in  calling  to  its  Lord  for  that  help  which  He  has  promised  ? 
Are  not  the  weak  strengthened,  the  stricken  comforted — by  their 
own  appeal  to  the  Heavenly  Father  for  solace  and  strength  ? 
Such  were  the  ideas  of  the  Teacher  of  Islam  with  regard  to 
Divine  sovereignty  and  the  liberty  of  human  volition.  His 
recorded  sayings  handed  down  from  sources  which  may  be 
regarded  as  unquestionably  authentic,  help  in  explaining  the 
conception  he  entertained  about  freewill  and  predestination 
(j«>i»  J  Ui  or  jljis^]  J  jx^  ).  Not  only  his  own  words,  but  those 
of  his  son-in-law,  "  the  legitimate  heir  to  his  inspiration," 
and  his  immediate  descendants,  who  derived  their  ideas  from 
him,  may  well  furnish  us  with  a  key  to  the  true  Islamic  notion 
on  the  question  of  the  free  agency  of  man — a  subject  which  has 
for  ages,  both  in  Islam  and  in  Christianity,  been  the  battle- 
ground of  sectarian  disputes.  In  discussing  this  subject,  we 
must  not,  however,  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the 
traditions  which  have  supplied  to  Patristicism  its  armoury  of 
weapons  against  the  sovereignty  of  reason,  bear  evident  traces 
of  being  '  made  to  order.'  They  tell  their  own  story  of  how, 
and  the  circumstances  under  which,  they  came  into  existence. 
Some  of  the  traditions  which  purport  to  be  handed  down  by 
men  who  came  casually  in  contact  with  the  Teacher,  show 
palpable  signs  of  changes  and  transformations  in  the  minds 
and  in  the  memories  of  the  mediaries.  The  authentic  sayings, 
however,  are  many,  and  I  shall  refer  only  to  a  few  to  explain 
what  I  have  already  indicated,  that  in  Mohammed's  mind  an 
earnest  belief  in  the  liberty  of  human  will  was  joined  to  a  vivid 
trust  in  the  personality  of  the  heavenly  Father.  Hereditary 
depravity  and  natural  sinfulness  were  emphatically  denied. 
Every  child  of  man  was  bom  pure  and  true  ;  every  departure 
in  after-life  from  the  path  of  truth  and  rectitude  is  due  to 
education.  "  Every  man  is  born  religiously  constituted  ;  it  is 
his  parents  who  make  him  afterwards  a  Jew,  Christian,  or  a 


4o8  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Sabsean,  like  as  ye  take  up  the  beast  at  its  birth — do  ye  find 
upon  it  any  mutilation,  until  ye  yourselves  mutilate  it  ?  "  ^ 
Infants  have  no  positive  moral  character  :  for  about  those  who 
die  in  early  life,  "  God  best  knows  what  would  have  been  their 
conduct  "  [had  they  lived  to  maturity].  "  Every  human  being 
has  two  inclinations, — one  prompting  him  to  good  and  impelling 
him  thereto,  and  the  other  prompting  him  to  evil  and  thereto 
impelling  him  ;  ^  but  the  godly  assistance  is  nigh,  and  he  who 
asks  the  help  of  God  in  contending  with  the  evil  promptings  of 
his  own  heart  obtains  it."  "  It  is  your  own  conduct  which  will 
lead  you  to  paradise  or  hell,  as  if  you  had  been  destined  there- 
for." No  man's  conduct  is  the  outcome  of  fatality,  nor  is  he 
borne  along  by  an  irresistible  decree  to  heaven  or  hell ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  ultimate  result  is  the  creation  of  his  own  actions, 
for  each  individual  is  primarily  answerable  for  his  future 
destiny.  "  Every  moral  agent  is  furthered  to  his  own  con- 
duct," or,  as  it  is  put  in  another  tradition  :  "  Every  one  is 
divinely  furthered  in  accordance  with  his  character."  ^  Human 
conduct  is  by  no  means  fortuitous  ;  one  act  is  the  result  of 
another  ;  and  life,  destiny  and  character  mean  the  connected 
series  of  incidents  and  actions  which  are  related  to  each  other., 
as  cause  and  effect,  by  an  ordained  law,  "  the  assignment  "  oi 
God.  In  the  sermons  of  the  Disciple  we  find  the  doctrine  more 
fully  developed.  "  Weigh  your  own  soul  before  the  time  foi 
the  weighing  of  your  actions  arrives  ;  take  count  with  yourseh 
before  you  are  called  upon  to  account  for  your  conduct  in  thie 
existence  ;  apply  yourself  to  good  and  pure  actions,  adhere  tc 
the  path  of  truth  and  rectitude  before  the  soul  is  pressed  tc 
leave  its  earthly  abode  :  verily,  if  you  will  not  guide  and  warr 
yourself,   none  other  can   direct  you."  *     "I   adjure  you  tc 

vj)»*«J  JU  *l**^  «4Ji4J  ^*^\   J^»  U^  aJUsT^  }  ii\j^  J  ^\i>j^. 

*  Bukhari's  Collections,  chapter  on  the  Hadis,  "  He  is  secured  whom  Goc 
helps  "  ;  reported  by  Abfi  Sa'id  al-Khuzri. 


*  Nahj  ul-Baldghat,  p.  43  (a  collection  of  the  Khuthas  of  the  Caliph  Ali  b; 
one  of  his  descendants,  named  Sharif  Riza,  mentioned  by  Ibn-Khallikanj 
printed  at  Tabriz  in  1299  a.h. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  409 

worship  the  Lord  in  purity  and  hohness.  He  has  pointed  out 
to  you  the  path  of  salvation  and  the  temptations  of  this  world. 
Abstain  from  foulness,  though  it  may  be  fair-seeming  to  your 
sight  ;  avoid  evil,  however  pleasant.  .  .  .  For  ye  knoweth  how 
far  it  takes  you  away  from  Him.  .  .  .  Listen,  and  take  warning 
by  the  words  of  the  Merciful  Guardian."  ^  .  .  .  And  again,  "  O 
ye  servants  of  my  Lord,  fulfil  the  duties  that  are  imposed  on 
you,  for  in  their  neglect  is  abasement  :  your  good  works  alone 
will  render  easy  the  road  to  death.  Remember,  each  sin 
increases  the  debt,  and  makes  the  chain  [which  binds  you] 
heavier.  The  message  of  mercy  has  come  ;  the  path  of  truth 
is  clear  ;  obey  the  command  that  has  been  laid  on  you  ;  live 
in  purity,  and  work  in  piety,  and  ask  God  to  help  you  in 
your  endeavours,  and  to  forgive  your  past  transgressions."  ^ 
"  Cultivate  humility  and  forbearance  :  comport  yourself  with 
piety  and  truth.  Take  count  of  your  actions  with  your  own 
conscience  (  ^j^ij  )^  for  he  who  takes  such  count  reaps  a  great 
reward,  and  he  who  neglects  incurs  great  loss.  He  who  acts 
with  piety  gives  rest  to  his  soul ;  he  who  takes  warning  under- 
stands the  truth  ;  he  who  understands  it  attains  the  perfect 
knowledge."  These  utterances  convey  no  impression  of  pre- 
destinarianism  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  portray  a  soul  animated 
with  a  hving  faith  in  God,  and  yet  full  of  trust  in  human 
development  founded  upon  individual  exertion  springing  from 
human  vohtion.  Mohammed's  definition  of  reason  and  know^- 
ledge,  of  the  cognition  of  the  finite  and  infinite,  reminds  us  of 
AristoteUan  phraseology  and  thought,  and  Ah's  address  to  his 
son  may  be  read  with  advantage  by  the  admirer  of  Aristotelian 
ethics. 

The  Ihtijdj  ut-Tahrasi  ^  supplies  further  materials  to  form  a 
correct  opinion  on  the  question  of  predestinarianism  in  Islam. 
The  Caliph  Ali  was  one  day  asked  the  meaning  of  Kazd  (U* ) 
and  Kadar  O*^* ) ;  he  replied,  "The  first  means  obedience 
to  the  commandments  of  God  and  avoidance  of  sin  ;  the  latter, 
the  ability  to  live  a  holy  life,  and  to  do  that  which  brings  one 
nearer  to  God  and  to  shun  that  which  throws  him  away  from 

^  Ibid.  p.  136.  *  Nahj  ul-Baldghat,  p.  170. 

'  Evidences  of  Tabrasi,  a  collection  of  traditions  by  the  Shaikh  ut-Tabrasi. 


410  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 


I. 


His  perfection.  .  .  .  Say  not  that  man  is  compelled,  for  that  is 
attribution  of  tyranny  to  God  ;  nor  say  that  man  has  absolute 
discretion/ — rather  that  we  are  furthered  by  His  help  and 
grace  in  our  endeavours  to  act  righteously,  and  we  transgress 
because  of  our  neglect  (of  His  commands)."  One  of  his  inter- 
locutors, 'Utba  ibn  Rabi'a  Asadi,  asked  him  once  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  words  "  there  is  no  power  nor  help  but  from 
God,"  *jJb  ill  jy  ^  ^  Jr=^  ^  •  "It  means,"  said  the  Caliph, 
"  that  I  am  not  afraid  of  God's  anger,  but  I  am  afraid  of  his 
purity  ;  nor  have  I  the  power  to  observe  His  commandment, 
but  my  strength  is  in  His  assistance."  ^  .  .  .  God  has  placed 
us  on  earth  to  try  each  according  to  his  endowments.  Referring 
to  the  following  and  other  passages  of  the  Koran,  the  Cahph 
went  on  to  say,  "  God  says,  '  We  will  try  you  to  see  who  are  the 
strivers  'e^ ->•*'«-*)  [after  truth  and  purity],  and  who  are  the 
forbearing  and  patient,  and  We  will  test  your  actions.'  ... 
and  '  We  will  help  you  by  degrees  to  attain  what  ye  know  |  ^ 
not.'  ^  .  .  .  These  verses  prove  the  liberty  of  human  volition."  *  f  • 
Explaining  the  verse  of  the  Koran,  "  God  directs  him  whom 
He  chooses,  and  leads  astray  him  whom  He  chooses,"  the  Caliph  ,. 
said  that  this  does  not  mean  that  He  compels  men  to  evil  or 
good,  that  He  either  gives  direction  or  refuses  it  according 
to  His  caprice,  for  this  would  do  away  with  aU  responsibility 
for  human  action  ;  it  means,  on  the  contrary,  that  God  points  |  j 
out  the  road  to  truth,  and  lets  men  choose  as  they  wiU.^ 

Arabian  philosophy,  nurtured  afterwards  in  other  cradles, 
drew  its  first  breath  in  the  school  of  Medina.  The  freedom  of 
human  will,  based  on  the  doctrine  that  man  would  be  judged  by 
the  use  he  had  made  of  his  reason,  was  inculcated  in  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Master,  along  with  an  earnest  belief  in  a  Supreme 
Power  ruling  the  universe.  The  idea  assumed  a  more  definite 
shape  in  the  words  of  the  Disciple,  and  grew  into  a  philosophy. 
From  Medina  it  was  carried  to  Damascus,  Kufa,  Basra,  and 

^  I.e.  to  decide  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong. 
*  Ihtijdj  ut-Tabrasi,  p.  236. 

«7W(i,  p.  237.  ^lUd. 


X.   RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  411 

Bagdad,  where  it  gave  birth  to  the  eclectic  schools,  which  shed 
such  lustre  on  the  reigns  of  the  early  Abbasides. 

The  butchery  of  Kerbela  and  the  sack  of  Medina  had  led  to 
the  closing  of  the  lecture-room  of  the  Imams.  With  the 
appearance  of  Jaafar  as-Sadik  as  the  head  of  Mohammed's 
descendants,  it  acquired  a  new  life.  Extremely  Hberal  and 
rationahstic  in  his  views, — a  scholar,  a  poet,  and  a  philosopher, 
apparently  well  read  in  some  of  the  foreign  languages, — in 
constant  contact  with  cultured  Christians,  Jews,  and  Zoro- 
astrians,  with  whom  metaphysical  disputations  were  frequent, 
— he  impressed  a  distinct  philosophical  character  on  the 
Medinite  school.  Some  of  his  views  respecting  predestination 
deserve  to  be  mentioned.  Speaking  of  the  doctrine  of  Jahr 
{compulsion  or  predestinarianism) ,  which  had  about  this  period 
made  its  appearance  in  Damascus,  he  expressed  the  following 
opinion  :  "  Those  who  uphold  Jabr  make  out  God  to  be  a 
participator  in  every  sin  they  commit,  and  a  tyrant  for  punish- 
ing those  sins  which  they  are  impelled  to  commit  by  the 
compulsion  of  their  being  :  this  is  infidelity."  Then  (giving 
the  analogy  of  a  servant  sent  by  his  master  to  the  market  to 
purchase  something  which  he,  the  master,  knows  well  that  he 
cannot  bring,  not  possessing  the  wherewithal  to  buy  it,  and, 
nevertheless,  the  master  punishes  him)  the  Imam  adds,  "  the 
doctrine  of  Jabr  converts  God  into  an  unjust  Master."  ^  As 
regards  the  opposite  doctrine  of  absolute  liberty  {Tafwiz,  delega- 
tion of  authority) — meaning  not  the  freedom  of  human  will,  but 
unqualified  discretion  in  the  choice  of  v/rong  and  right,  he 
declared  that  to  afiirm  such  a  principle  would  destroy  all  the 
foundations  of  morality,  and  give  to  all  human  beings  absolute 
licence  in  the  indulgence  of  their  animal  propensities  ;  for  if 
each  individual  is  vested  with  a  discretion  to  choose  what  is 
right  or  wrong,  no  sanction,  no  law  can  have  any  force. ^  Ikhtidr 
(jUiii  )|  is  therefore  different  from  Tafwtz  \^jyij),  "  God 
has  endowed  each  human  being  with  the  capacity  to  under- 
stand His  commands  and  to  obey  them.  They  who  exert 
themselves  to  live  purely  and  truly,  them  He  helps  :  they  are 
those  who  please  Him  ;  whilst  they  who  disobey  Him  are 
sinners."     These  views  are  repeated  with  greater  emphasis  by 

^  Ihiijdj  ut-Tabrasi,  p.  236.  ^  Ibid.  p.  235. 


412  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

the  eighth  Imam,  Ah  ar-Riza,  who  denomiced  Jahr  (pi 
destinarianism)  and  Tashbih  (anthropomorphism)  as  absolul 
infidehty,^  and  declared  the  upholders  of  those  doctrines  to 
"  the  enemies  of  the  Faith."  He  openly  charged  the  advocate 
of  Jabr  and  Tashbih  with  the  fabrication  of  traditions.  At  tl 
same  time  he  warned  his  followers  against  the  doctrine 
discretion  or  Tafwiz.  He  laid  down  in  broad  terms,  "  God  h£ 
pointed  out  to  you  the  two  paths,  one  of  which  leads  you 
Him,  the  other  takes  you  far  away  from  His  perfection  ;  yc 
are  at  liberty  to  take  the  one  or  the  other  ;  pain  or  J03 
reward  or  punishment,  depend  upon  your  own  conduct.  Bi 
man  has  not  the  capacity  of  turning  evil  into  good,  or  si 
into  virtue." 

The  Ommeyyades,  many  of  whom  remained  pagans  at  heai 
even  after  the  profession  of  Islam,  were,  like  their  forefather 
fatahsts.     Under  them  arose  a  school  which  purported  to  deri\ 
its  doctrines  from  the  "  ancients,"  the  Salaf,  a  body  of  primitiA 
Moslems.     All  of  them  were  dead  ;    it  was  consequently  easj 
to  fabricate  any  tradition  and  pass  it  as  handed  down  by  01 
or  other  of  them.     Jahm  bin  Safwan  was  the  founder  of  tl 
school,    which    was    called    Jabria.      The    Jabrias  ^    rivalle 
Calvin  in  the  absolute  denial  of  free-will  to  man.     They  mail 
tained  "  that  man  is  not  responsible  for  any  of  his  actior 
which  proceed  entirely  from  God  ;  ^  that  he  has  no  determinh 
power  to  do  any  act,  nor  does  he  possess  the  capacity  of  fre 
volition  ;   that  he  is  the  subject  of  absolute  Divine  sovereign^ 
in  his  actions,  without  abihty  on  his  part,  or  will  or  power 
choice  ;    and  that  God  absolutely  creates  actions  within  hira 
just  as  He  produces  activity  in  all  inanimate  things  ;  .  .  .  and 
that  reward  and  punishment  are  subject  to  absolute  Divine 
sovereignty    in    human    actions,"      The    Jabrias    maintained 
certain    views    regarding    Divine    attributes    which    have   nc 

^  He  who  believes  in  Jaby  is  a  Kafir  ;  Ihtijdj  ut-Tabrasi,  p.  214. 

2  Shahristani  divides  the  Jabrias  into  two  branches,  one  being  Jabriai 
pure  and  simple,  and  the  other  more  moderate.  The  first  maintained  thai 
neither  action  nor  the  ability  to  act  belongs  in  any  sense  to  maC' 
(^1  J*a)\  ^  aj^  Vj  lUi  ,yx*iJ  o^) ;  the  latter  held  that  man  has  an 
ability  which  is  not  at  all  efficacious  (  iLc]  ijiyo  jjji  i^  yi  jjjjj  w->-»J )  • 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  413 

particular  significance.^  According  to  Shahristani,  the  Jahrias 
were  divided  into  three  sects,  viz.  :  the  Jahmia,  the  Najjdria, 
and  the  Zirdria,  differing  from  each  other  on  minor  points  ; 
but,  so  far  as  the  doctrine  of  predestination  was  concerned,  all 
of  them  were  agreed  in  denying  free  agency.  The  Najj arias, 
who,  after  undergoing  several  transformations,  developed  two 
centuries  later  into  the  Asha'rias,  maintained  that  God  creates 
the  conduct  of  His  creatures,  good  and  bad,  virtuous  and 
vicious,  while  man  appropriates  the  same.  The  Jahria 
doctrines  found  favour  with  the  Ommeyyade  rulers,  and  soon 
spread  among  the  people. 

The  uncompromising  fatahsm  of  the  Jahrias  occasioned 
among  the  thinking  classes  a  revolt,  which  was  headed  by 
Ma'bad  al-Juhani,  Yunus  al-Aswari,  and  Ghailan  Dimishki  {i.e. 
of  Damascus),  who  had  evidently  derived  many  of  their  ideas 
from  the  Fatimides.  They  boldly  asserted  in  the  capital  of  the 
Ommeyyades,  in  the  very  stronghold  of  predestinarianism,  the 
free  agency  of  man.^  But  in  the  assertion  of  human  liberty 
they  sometimes  verged  on  the  doctrine  of  Tafwtz.  From 
Damascus  the  dispute  was  carried  to  Basra,  and  there  the 
differences  of  the  two  parties  waxed  high.  The  Jahrias 
merged  into  a  new  sect,  called  the  Sijdtias,^  who,  with  pre- 
destinarianism, combined  the  affirmation  of  certain  attributes 
in  the  Deity  as  distinct  from  His  Essence,  which  the  Jahrias 
denied.  The  Sifdtias  claimed  to  be  the  direct  representatives 
of  the  SalaJ.  According  to  Shahristani,  these  followers  of  the 
SalaJ  "  maintained  that  certain  eternal  attributes  pertain  to 
God,  namely,  knowledge,  power,  life,  will,  hearing,  sight, 
speech,  majesty,  magnanimity,  bounty,  beneficence,  glory,  and 
greatness,— making  no  distinction  between  attributes  of  essence 
and  attributes  of  action.  .  .  .  They  also  assert  certain  de- 
scriptive attributes  (  aj^^  o5a*:;  as,  for  example,  hands  and 
face,  without  any  other  explanation  than  to  say  that  these 
attributes  enter  into  the  revealed  representation  of  the  Deity, 
and  that,  accordingly,  they  had  given  them  the  name  of 
descriptive  attributes."  Like  the  Jahrias,  they  adhered  to 
the  doctrine  of  predestination  in  all  its  gloominess  and  intensity. 

1  Shahristani,  part  i.  p.  59.  '^  Shahristani,  part  i.  pp.  59-O3. 

8  Lit.  Attributists, 


414  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ill 


From  the  Sifdtias  sprang  the  Mushabbihas,  "  who  likened  thq 
Divine  attributes  to  the  attributes  of  created  things,"  ^  and 
turned  God  into  a  simihtude  of  their  own  selves. 2  At  thi^ 
period  one  of  the  most  noted  professors  belonging  to  the  anti-i 
predestinarian  party  was  Imam  Hasan,  surnamed  al-BasrJ 
(from  his  place  of  residence).  He  was  a  Medinite  by  birth; 
and  had  actually  sat  at  the  feet  of  "  the  Philosophers  of  the 
family  of  Mohammed."  He  had  imbibed  their  liberal  and 
rationahstic  ideas,  and,  on  setthng  at  Basra,  had  started  a 
lecture-room,  which  was  soon  thronged  by  the  students  of  Irak. 
Here  he  discoursed  on  the  metaphysical  questions  of  the  day 
in  the  spirit  of  his  masters. 

One  of  his  most  prominent  pupils  was  Abu  Huzaifa  Wasil 
bin  'Ata  al-Ghazzal,^  a  man  of  great  mental  powers,  thoroughly 
versed  in  the  sciences  and  traditions,  who  had  also  studied  in 
the  lecture-room  of  Medina.     He  differed  from  the  Imam  on 
a  question  of  religious  dogma,  and  was  made  to  withdraw  from 
the  lecture-room.     He  thereupon  founded  a  school  of  his  own 
His  followers  have,  from  this  fact,  been  called  Mu'tazilas,  01 
Ahl-ul-Ftizdl,  Dissenters.'*     He  soon  rivalled  the  fame  of 
master,  whose  school  before  long  practically  merged  in  th; 
of  the  pupil.     In  his  antagonism  against  intellectual  tyrann 
he  often  overstepped  the  bounds  of  moderation,   and  gav 
utterance  to  views,  especially  on  the  controversy  raised  b; 
Mu'awiyah,  which  were  in  conflict  with  those  entertained  a| 
Medina.     Yet  the  general  rationalism  of  his  school  rallied  t 
strongest  and  most  liberal  minds  round  his  standard.     Proceed! 
ing  upon  the  lines  of  the  Fatimide  philosophers,  and  appropriatinj 

2  Shahristani  draws  a  distinction  between  the  Sifdtia  anthropomorphii 
and  those  who  came  into  existence  later.  "  At  a  later  period  certain  persoi 
went  beyond  what  had  been  professed  by  any  who  held  to  the  primitive  fai' ' 
and  said  that  undoubtedly  those  expressions  (denoting  the  attributes)  i 
used  in  the  literal  sense,  and  are  to  be  interpreted  just  as  they  stand,  witho' 
resort  to  figurative  interpretation,  and  at  the  same  time,  without  insistii 
upon  the  literal  sense  alone,  whereby  they  fell  into  pure  anthropomorphisi 
( «J^t  ixiJiJJ\)    in  violation  of  the  primitive  Moslem  faith." 

^  J  ')*^'  ^^^1^  (J'^l^j  iSjC>^  >)| .  He  lived  in  the  days  of  Abd  ul-Mali 
Walid  and  Hisham.  He  was  born  in  83  a.h.  (699-700  A.c.)  and  died  in  i 
A.H.  (748-9  A.c). 

*  Shahristani,  p.  31  ;   Goiihar-i-Miirdd  {vide  post).     Mti'tazala  spelt  with 
fatha  {a)  in  the  third  syllable  in  the  Ghyds-ul-lnghal  and  the  Farhang  (Lucknow 
1889).     See  Appendix  HI. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  415 

the  principles  which  they  had  laid  down  and  the  ideas  to  which 
they  had  often  given  forcible  expression,  he  formulated  into 
theses  the  doctrines  which  constitute  the  basis  of  his  difference 
from  the  predestinarian  schools  and  from  Patristicism  generally. 
For  several  centuries  his  school  dominated  over  the  intellects 
of  men,  and  with  the  support  of  the  enhghtened  rulers  who 
during  this  period  held  the  reins  of  government,  it  gave  an 
impetus  to  the  development  of  national  and  intellectual  life 
among  the  Saracens  such  as  had  never  been  witnessed  before. 
Distinguished  scholars,  prominent  physicists,  mathematicians, 
historians — all  the  world  of  intellect  in  fact,  including  the 
Caliphs,  belonged  to  the  Mu'tazilite  school.^ 

Men  like  Abu'l  Huzail  Hamdan,^  Ibrahim  ibn  Sayyar  an- 
Nazzam,3  Ahmed  ibn  Hait,  Fazl  al-Hadasi,  and  Abu  Ah 
Mohammed  al-Jubbai,*  well  read  in  Greek  philosophy  and 
logic,  amalgamated  many  ideas  borrowed  from  those  sources 
with  the  Medinite  conceptions,  and  impressed  a  new  feature 
on  the  philosophical  notions  of  the  Moslems.  The  study  of 
Aristotle,  Porphyry,  and  other  Greek  and  Alexandrian  writers 
gave  birth  to  a  new  science  among  the  Mu'tazilas,  which  was 
called  Ilm-iil-Kaldm,  "  the  science  of  reason  "  [Kaldm,  logos), ^ 
with  which  they  fought  both  against  the  external  as  well  as  the 
internal  enemies  of  the  Faith, — the  non-Moslems  who  assailed 
the  teachings  of  Islam  from  outside,  and  the  patristic  Moslems 
who  aimed  at  its  degradation  from  within.  The  extreme  views 
of  Wasil  on  the  political  questions  which  had  agitated  the 
Caliphate  of  Ali  were  before  long  abandoned,  with  the  result 
that  moderate  Mu'tazilaism  became  substantially  amalgamated 
with  the  rationahsm  of  the  Fatimide  school,  whence  it  had 
sprung.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  chief  doctors  of  the 
Mu'tazilite  school  were  educated  under  the  Fatimides,  and 
there  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that  moderate  Mu'tazilaism 

1  We  may  mention  here  two  or  three  prominent  Mutazilas  whose  names 
are  still  famous,  e.g.  Imam  Zamakhshari,  the  author  of  the  Kashshdf,  admittedly 
the  best  and  most  erudite  commentary  on  the  Koran;  Mas'udi,  "Imam, 
historian,  and  philosopher  "  ;  the  famous  Al-Hazen,  Abu'l  Wafa,  and  Mirk- 
hond. 

"  Died  A.H.  235  (a.c.  849-850),  in  the  beginning  of  al-Mutawakkil's  Caliphate. 

3  A  nephew  of  Abu'l  Huzail.  *  Born  in  861  ;   died  in  933. 

'  Shahristani,  p.  18  ;    Ibn-Khaldun  iv  loco. 


4i6  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

represented  the  views  of  the  Caliph  Ah  and  the  most  hberal  of 
his  early  descendants,  and  probably  of  Mohammed  himself. 
A  careful  comparison  of  the  Mu'tazilite  doctrines  will  show 
that  they  were  either  word  for  word  the  same  as  were  taught 
by  the  early  Fatimides,  or  were  modifications  of  those  doctrines 
induced  by  the  requirements  of  a  progressive  society,  and 
partly,  perhaps,  by  the  study  of  Greek  and  Alexandrian 
philosophy. 

The  Caliph  Ali  had  condemned  in  emphatic  language  all 
anthropomorphic  and  anthropopathic  conceptions  of  the  Deity. 
"  God  was  not  hke  any  object  that  the  human  mind  can  con- 
ceive ;  no  attribute  can  be  ascribed  to  Him  which  bore  the  least 
resemblance  to  any  quality  of  which  human  beings  have 
perception  from  their  knowledge  of  material  objects.  The 
perfection  of  piety  consists  in  knowing  God  ;  the  perfection  of 
knowledge  is  the  affirmation  of  His  verity  ;  and  the  perfection 
of  verity  is  to  acknowledge  His  unity  in  all  sincerity  ;  and  the 
perfection  of  sincerity  is  to  deny  all  attributes  to  the  Deity  .  .  . 
'  Ajj:  ^\suJ\  ^^flj  aJ  ,j£^2w^t  JLf?  .  He  who  refers  an  attribute  to 
God  believes  the  attribute  to  be  God,  and  he  who  so  beheves  an 
attribute  to  be  God,  regards  God  as  two  or  part  of  one.  .  .  . 
He  who  asks  where  God  is,  assimilates  Him  with  some  object. 
God  is  the  Creator,  not  because  He  Himself  is  created  ;  God  is 
existent,  not  because  He  was  non-existent.  He  is  with  every 
object,  not  from  resemblance  or  nearness  ;  He  is  outside  of  every- 
thing not  from  separation.  He  is  the  Primary  Cause  (Jcli), 
not  in  the  meaning  of  motion  or  action  ;  He  is  the  Seer,  but  no 
sight  can  see  Him.  He  has  no  relation  to  place,  time,  or 
measure.^  .  .  .  God  is  Omniscient,  because  knowledge  is  His 
Essence  ;  Mighty,  because  Power  is  His  Essence  ;  Loving, 
because  Love  is  His  Essence  .  .  .  not  because  these  are  attributes 
apart  from  His  Essence.  .  .  .  The  conditions  of  time  or  space 
were  wholly  inapplicable  to  Him."  .  .  .  ^  Takdir  [yM>  ), 
construed  by  the  followers  of  the  Salaf  to  mean  predestination, 
meant  "  weighing,"  "  probation,"  "  trial." 

Let  us  see  now  what  Mu'tazilaism  is.  On  many  minor  and 
subsidiary  points  the  prominent  Mu'tazilite  doctors  differed 

^  Nahj-ul-Balaghat ;   see  the  comment  of  Ibn-i-Abi'l  Hadid,  the  Mu'tazihte. 
*  From  the  Imam  Ja'far  as-Sadik,  ibid. 


X.   RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  417 

among  themselves  ;  but  I  shall  give  here  a  sketch  of  the 
doctrines  on  which  they  were  in  accord.  According  to  Shahri- 
stani,  the  Mu'tazilas  ^  declare  that  "  eternity  is  the  distinguish- 
ing attribute  of  the  Divine  Being  ;  that  God  is  Eternal,  for 
Eternity  is  the  peculiar  property  of  His  Essence  ;  they 
unanimously  deny  the  existence  of  eternal  (Divine)  qualities 
C  A4j^>ii)i  o'fl^'i  )  [as  distinct  from  His  being],  and  maintain 
that  He  is  Omniscient  as  to  His  being  ;  Living  as  to  His  being  ; 
Almighty  as  to  His  being  ;  but  not  through  any  knowledge, 
power,  or  life  existing  in  Him  as  eternal  attributes  ;  for  know- 
ledge, power,  and  life  are  part  of  His  Essence.  Otherwise,  if 
they  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  eternal  attributes  of  the  Deity 
(separate  from  His  Essence),  it  would  tend  to  the  affirmation 
of  a  multipHcity  of  eternal  entities.  .  .  .  They  also  maintain 
that  the  Word  of  God  is  created,  and  when  created,  is 
expressed  in  letters  and  sounds.  ...  In  like  manner  they 
unanimously  denied  that  willing,  hearing,  and  seeing  are  ideas 
subsistent  in  the  Divine  Being,  though  differing  as  to  the  modes 
of  their  existence  and  their  metaphysical  grounds."  ^  "  They 
deny  unanimously  that  God  can  be  beheld  in  the  Ddr-ul-Kardr 
(in  the  Abode  of  Rest)  with  the  corporeal  sight.  They  forbid 
the  describing  of  God  by  any  quality  belonging  to  material 
objects,  either  by  way  of  direction,  or  location,  or  appearance, 
or  body,  or  change,  or  cessation  of  action,  or  dissolution  ;  and 
they  have  explained  the  passages  of  the  Koran  in  which  expres- 
sions implying  these  qualities  have  been  used,  by  asserting  that 
the  expressions  are  used  figuratively  and  not  literally.  And  this 
doctrine   they  call   Tauhtd,    '  assertion   of  Divine  unity.'  .  .  . 

^  "  The  Mu'tazilas  called  themselves,"  says  Shahristani,  "  Ashdb-ul-'adl 
wa't-tauhid,  '  people  of  justice  and  unity,'  and  sometimes  Kadarias."  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  designation  of  Kadaria  was  never  applied  by 
the  Mu'tazilas  to  themselves  ;  it  was  applied  by  their  enemies  to  the  extreme 
Mu'tazilas  who  maintained  the  doctrine  of  Tafwtz,  and  which  was  condemned 
by  the  Fatimide  Imams.  They  always  repudiated  that  designation,  and 
applied  it  to  the  predestinarians,  who  asserted  that  God  is  the  Creator  of  every 
human  action.     Shahristani  admits  this,  and  says  : — 

But  he  tries  to  refute  the  applicability  of  the  word  Kadaria  to  the  pre- 
destinarians. "  How  can  it  apply  to  those  who  trust  in  God  "  ;  Shahristani, 
P-  30. 

*  Shahristani,  p.  30. 

S.I.  2  D 


4i8  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

They  also  agree  in  believing  that  man  is  the  creative  efficient 
of  his  actions,  good  and  bad  ((^^^  ji^s  .-x^\  k^••  ^tr^j  'V^  ^^  ^^ 
and  gets  reward  and  punishment  in  the  future  world  by  merit 
for  what  he  does  ;  and  that  no  moral  evil,  or  iniquity  of  action, 
or  unbehef,  or  disobedience,  can  be  referred  to  God,  because, 
if  He  had  caused  unrighteousness  to  be,  He  would  be 
Himself  unrighteous  (UiJS  cI^^JL&Jt  jLkyaiNI  )  .  .  .  They  also 
unanimously  maintain  that  the  All-wise  does  only  that  which 
is  beneficial  and  good  (  ^"'i  ^  j^^^t  ^i  J^aj  ^').  and  that  a 
regard  in  the  Hght  of  wisdom  (  i^Sis^t  ^^  ^  )  for  the  good 
of  humanity  ( -i*^'  ^''-** )  is  incumbent  upon  Him,  though 
they  differed  as  to  His  being  obligated  to  secure  the  highest  good, 
and  to  bestow  grace  (  f^^  o^ii.  Aj^^j  ^JSJ  waW/i  ^  ^UVi  t^i  j  ). 
And  this  doctrine  they  call  the  doctrine  of  'adl,  or  justice." 

They  further  hold  that  there  is  no  eternal  law  as  regards 
human  actions  ;  that  the  Divine  ordinances  which  regulate 
the  conduct  of  men  are  the  result  of  growth  and  development ; 
that  God  has  commanded  and  forbidden  by  a  law  which  grewj 
gradually.  At  the  same  time,  they  say  that  he  who  works 
righteousness  merits  rewards,  and  he  who  works  evil  deserves 
punishment  ;  and  this,  they  say,  is  consonant  with  reason. 
The  Mu'tazilas  also  say  that  all  knowledge  is  attained  through 
reason,  and  must  necessarily  be  so  obtained.  They  hold  that 
the  cognition  of  good  and  evil  is  also  within  the  province  of 
reason  ;  that  nothing  is  known  to  be  wrong  or  right  until  reason 
has  enhghtened  us  as  to  the  distinction  ;  and  that  thankfulness 
for  the  blessings  of  the  Benefactor  is  made  obligatory  by  reason,! 
even  before  the  promulgation  of  any  law  on  the  subject.  Theyj 
maintain  that  the  knowledge  of  God  is  within  the  province  of 
reason  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  Himself,  everything  else  is 
liable  to  change  or  to  suffer  extinction.  "  They  also  maintain 
that  the  Almighty  has  sent  His  Prophets  to  explain  to  mankind 
His  commandments.  .  .  .  They  differ  among  themselves  as  to 
the  question  of  the  Imamate  ;  some  maintaining  that  if 
descended  by  appointment,  others  holding  to  the  right  of  the' 
people  to  elect."  The  Mu'tazilas  are,  therefore,  the  direct 
antitheses  of  the  Sif alias,  for  "  these  and  all  other  Ahl-us- 
Sunnat  hold  that  God  does  whatever  He  pleases,  for  He  is  the 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  419 

Sovereign  Lord  of  His  dominions,  and  whatever  He  wishes 
He  orders  .  .  .  and  this  is  'adl  (justice)  according  to  them. 
According  to  the  Ahl-ul-I'tizdl,  what  accords  with  Reason  and 
Wisdom  only  is  justice  {'adl),  and  the  doing  of  acts  for 
(or  according  to)  the  good  and  well-being  [of  mankind], 
e^-^^U  ^  ^^^y^\  i^j  J^^  ■  The  Ahl-ul-'adl  say  that  God  has 
commanded  and  forbidden  by  created  words.  According  to 
the  Ahl-HS-Sunnat  (the  Sifatias),  all  that  is  obligatory  is  known 
from  hearsay  (^^-.)  ;  (secular)  knowledge  only  is  attained  by 
reason  ;  Reason  cannot  tell  us  what  is  good,  or  what  is  bad, 
or  what  is  obligatory.  The  Ahl-id-'adl  say  (on  the  contrary) 
that  all  knowledge  comes  through  reason. ^  They  referred 
that  term  of  tradition  '  pre-destination  '  to  trial  and  deliverance, 
adversity  and  prosperity,  sickness  and  health,  death  and  life, 
and  other  doings  of  God,  exclusive  of  moral  good  and  evil, 
virtue  and  vice,  regarding  men  as  responsible  for  the  latter, 

and  it  is  in  the  same  sense  that  the  whole  community  of  the 
Mu'tazila  employ  that  term." 

Thus  far  we  have  given  the  views  of  the  school  as  a  body  ; 
but  there  were  certain  opinions  held  by  the  prominent  doctors 
individually,  which,  though  not  accepted  beyond  the  immediate 
circle  of  their  particular  disciples,  are  yet  deserving  of  notice. 
For  example  Abu-Huzail  Hamdan  maintained  that  the  Creator 
is  knowing  by  virtue  of  knowledge,  but  that  His  knowledge  is 
His  Essence  ;  powerful  by  virtue  of  power,  but  that  His  power 
is  His  Essence  ;  living  by  virtue  of  life,  but  that  His  life  is  His 
Essence.  "  A  view,"  says  Shahristani,  "  adopted  from  the 
Philosophers,"  but  really  taken  from  the  Medinite  school.  He 
also  affirmed  that  free  will  (  i<iLJi  )  is  an  accident  ( t^^«  )i 
additional  to  perfection  of  development  and  soundness 
(  'is^\  )  Ibrahim  ibn  Sayyar  an-Nazzam,  "  a  diligent  student 
of  the  books  of  the  Philosophers,"  maintained  "  that  without 
a  revelation,  man  is  capable,  by  reflection,  of  recognising  the 
Creator,  and  of  distinguishing  between  virtue  and  vice  .  .  . 
and  that  the  Doer  of  Righteousness  possessed  not  the  capacity 
to  do  wrong."     Mu'ammar  ibn   Abbad   as-Sulami   advanced 

1  Shahristani,  p.  31. 


420  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

the  Platonic  theory  of  "  archetypes."  He  maintained  that 
accidents  are  permanent  in  the  several  species  of  things  to 
which    they    belong     ( cy  Jr  ^i  \ykUIjV  ),      and     that     every 

accident  subsists  in  a  subject,  though  its  subsistence  therein 
is  only  by  virtue  of  some  idea  (in  the  human  mind) .  Mu'ammar 
and  his  followers  were  in  consequence  of  this  doctrine  called 
IdeaUsts    ( j_^0ij|  ^[s'^^^-^^^     Abu    Ah    Mohammed    ibn    x\bdul 

Wahhab,  known  as  Abu  Ali  al-Jubbai,  maintained  that  action 
pertains  to  man  in  the  way  of  origination  and  first  production  ; 
and  ascribed  to  man  moral  good  and  evil,  obedience  and  dis- 
obedience, in  the  way  of  sovereignty  and  prerogative  ;    and 
that    free-will  (  **lkl^5/i  )  is  a  pre-requisite  to  action,  and  a 
power  additional  to  bodily  completeness  and  soundness  of  the 
members.     Abu'l  Ma'ali  al-Juwaini,'  ^  Imdm-ul-Har amain  [i.e. 
of  the  two  sacred  cities),  who,  however,  did  not  call  himself  a 
Mu'tazila,  and  is  generally  claimed  by  the  upholders  of  the 
opposite  doctrine  as  belonging  to  their  body,  held  that  the 
denial  of  ability  and  free-wiU  is  something  which  reason  and 
consciousness  disavow  ;   that  to  affirm  an  ability  without  an> 
sort  of  efficacy  is  equivalent  to  denying  ability  altogether,  and 
that  to  affirm  some  unintelligible  influence  (of  ability),  whicl: 
constitutes  a  motive  cause,  amounts  to  the  denial  of  any  specia." 
influence,  and  that,  inasmuch  as  conditions  and  states,  on  the 
principle  of  those  who  maintain  them,  are  not  to  be  charac 
terised  as  existing  or  non-existing  (but  must  be  explained  b} 
reference  to  their  origin),  action  on  the  part  of  man  (regardec 
as  an  existing  state)  is  to  be  attributed  really  to  his  own  ability 
— though  not  in  the  way  of  origination  and  creation,  for  bj 
creation  is  meant  the  causing  of  something  to  come  into  bein^ 
by  supreme  power  which  was  not  previously  in  existence  ;  anc 
that  action  depends  for  its  existence  upon  ability  (in  man) 
which  itself  depends  for  its  existence  upon  some  other  cause 
its  relation  to  that  cause  being  the  same  as  the  relation  o 
(human)  action  to  (man's)  ability,  and  so  one  cause  depend: 
upon    another   until    the    causa    causans    ( ^'^-5''   v-*-** ).   th( 
Creator  of  causes  and  of  their  operations,   the  Absolute  Self 

1  Died  1085. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  421 

sufficing,  is  reached.  "  This  view,"  adds  Shahristani,  "  was 
borrowed  by  Abu'l  Ma'aU  from  the  Philosophers  of  the  theistic 
school,  but  he  presented  it  in  the  garb  of  the  Kaldm  (scholastic 
theology)."  ^ 

This  is  the  general  outline  of  the  philosophical  notions  of  the 
Mu'tazilas  respecting  some  of  the  most  burning  questions  which 
have  agitated  the  mind  of  man  in  every  age  and  country,  and 
have  so  frequently  led  to  sanguinary  strifes  and  fratricidal 
wars  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West. 

As  the  assertors  of  divine  Unity,  shorn  of  all  anthropo- 
morphic conceptions,  and  the  advocates  of  moral  responsibihty, 
they  naturally  called  themselves  ashdh-ul-' adl  iva't-tauhid, 
"  upholders  of  the  unity  and  justice  of  God,"  and  designated 
their  opponents  Mushabbihas  {"  assimilators  "  or  anthropo- 
morphists).  They  reasoned  thus  :  If  sin  emanated  from,  or 
was  created  by  God,  and  man  was  pre-ordained  to  commit  it, 
the  imposition  of  any  penalty  for  its  commission  would  make 
the  Creator  an  Unrighteous  God, — which  is  infidelity  :  thus 
reason  and  revelation  both  tell  us  that  piety  and  sin,  virtue 
and  vice,  evil  and  good,  are  the  product  of  human  volition  ; 
man  has  absolute  control  over  his  actions,  though  he  has  been 
told  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong.  Evil  and  good  depend 
upon  what  is  just  ;  for  God's  creation  is  ruled  by  justice. 
Reason  and  justice  are  the  guiding  principles  of  human  actions  ; 
and  general  usefulness  and  the  promotion  of  the  happiness  of 
mankind  at  large,  the  chief  criterion  of  right  and  wrong.  Has 
not  God  Himself  declared  that  "  the  two  Paths  were  shown  to 
mankind  for  their  own  good  ?  Has  He  not  Himself  called 
upon  them  to  exercise  their  understanding  ?  "  Rationalists 
and  Utilitarians,  they  based  the  foundations  of  the  moral  law 
on  the  concordance  of  Reason  with  positive  revelation.  They 
walked  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Master  and  his  immediate 
descendants.  They  upheld  the  doctrine  of  Evolution  in 
regarding  every  law  that  regulates  the  mutual  relations 
of  man  to  man  as  the  result  and  outcome  of  a  process 
of    continuous    development.      In    their    ideas    of    the    long 

'  Comp.  Juwaini's  views  with  those  of  Ibn-Rushd  (Averroes).  Shahristani 
evidently  had  not  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  views  of  the  Fatimide 
Imams;  Shahristani,  part  i.  pp.  70,  71.  The  views  of  Abu'l  Ma'ali  do  not 
commend  themselves  to  the  "  orthodox  "  Shahristani. 


422  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii." 

antiquity  of  man  on  earth/  they  occupy  a  vantage  ground 
in  relation  to  the  natural  philosophers  of  the  modern 
world. 

Mu'tazilaism  spread  rapidly  among  all  the  thinking  and 
cultured  classes  in  every  part  of  the  Empire,  and  finding  its 
way  into  Spain  took  possession  of  the  Andalusian  colleges 
and  academies.  Mansur  and  his  immediate  successors  en- 
couraged RationaHsm,  but  made  no  open  profession  of  the 
Mu'tazihte  doctrines.  Mamun,  who  deserves  more  justly  than 
any  other  Asiatic  sovereign  the  title  of  "  Great,"  acknowledged 
his  adhesion  to  the  Mu'tazilite  school ;  and  he  and  his  brother 
Mu'tasim  and  nephew  Wasik,  endeavoured  to  infuse  the 
rationalistic  spirit  into  the  whole  Moslem  world.  Under  them 
Rationalism  acquired  a  predominance  such  as  it  has  not  gained 
perhaps  even  in  modern  times  in  European  countries.  The 
Rationalists  preached  in  the  mosques  and  lectured  in  the 
colleges  ;  they  had  the  moulding  of  the  character  of  the  nation's 
youth  in  their  hands  ;  they  were  the  chief  counsellors  of  the 
Caliphs,  and  it  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  they  used  their  influence 
wisely.  As  professors,  preachers,  scientists,  physicians,  viziers, 
or  provincial  governors,  they  helped  in  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Saracenic  nation.  The  rise  of  the  Bani-Idris  in 
Western  Africa,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Fatimide  power 
imparted  a  new  life  to  Mu'tazilaism  after  its  glory  had  come 
to  an  end  in  Asia. 

The  question  now  naturally  occurs  to  the  mind,  how  is  it 
that  predestinarianism  and  the  subjection  of  Reason  to  blind 
authority,  though  discountenanced  by  the  Prophet  and  the 
Philosophers  of  his  family,  became  finally  predominant  in  the 
speculations  and  practice  of  the  Moslem  world  ?  Before  we 
furnish  an  answer  to  this  inquiry,  let  us  trace  the  development 
of  another  phase  of  the  Moslem  intellect.  Mu'tazilaism  has 
been,  with  considerable  plausibility,  compared  to  the  scholastic 
philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe.  .  Scholasticism  is 
said  to  have  been  the  "  movement  of  the  intellect  to  justify 
by  reason  several  of  the  dogmas  of  the  Faith."  Mu'tazilaism 
also  directed  its  endeavours  to  establish  a  concordance  between 

^  They  derived  this  notion  from  a  Hadis  reported  from  Ali,  Bihar -ul- Anwar, 
chapter  on  Creation. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  423 

Reason  and  positive  revelation.  But  there  the  parallel  ends. 
In  the  Christian  Church,  the  dogmas  requiring  explanation 
and  justification  were  many.  The  doctrine  of  the  trinity  in 
unity,  of  the  three  "  Natures  "  in  one,  of  original  sin,  of  tran- 
substantiation,  all  gave  rise  to  a  certain  intellectual  tension. 
The  dogmas  of  the  Church  accordingly  required  some  such 
"  solvent  "  as  scholasticism  before  science  and  free  thought 
could  find  their  way  into  Christendom.  In  Islam  the  case 
was  otherwise  ;  with  the  exception  of  the  unity  of  God — the 
doctrine  of  Tauhid,  which  was  the  foundation  of  Mohammed's 
Church — there  was  no  dogma  upon  which  insistence  was  placed 
in  any  such  form  as  to  compel  Reason  to  hold  back  its 
acceptance.  The  doctrine  of  "  origin  and  return  " — juahdd 
(  U^^jQ )  and  madd  (  iU*  ),  "  coming  (from  God)  and  returning 
(to  Him)  " — and  of  the  moral  responsibility  of  man,  was  founded 
on  the  conception  of  a  Primal  Cause — the  Originator  of  all 
things.  That  the  Ego  will  not  be  entirely  lost  after  it  has 
been  set  apart  from  its  earthly  habiliments,  that  it  will  exist  as 
a  self-conscious  entity  after  the  dissolution  of  the  body,  is  a 
notion  which  has  been  shared  ahke  by  the  wise  and  the  ignorant. 
Some  few  have  denied  a  future  existence,  but  the  generality 
have  believed  in  it,  though  all  have  differed  as  to  the  nature  of 
that  existence.  So  also  as  regards  moral  responsibility,  there 
is  great  divergence  of  opinion  on  the  mode  in  which  man  shall 
discharge  the  obligation  ;  but  there  is  little  difference  on  the 
question  that  he  is  responsible  for  the  use  or  misuse  of  his 
powers.  On  both  these  questions  the  words  of  the  Teacher 
allow  the  greatest  latitude  of  judgment  ;  so  long  as  the  original 
conceptions  were  retained  and  accepted,  Mohammed's  Church 
permitted  the  broadest  and  most  rationalistic  view.  Hence  it 
was  that  Islam  passed  at  once  from  the  Age  of  Receptivity  into 
the  Age  of  Activity,  from  the  Age  of  Faith  into  the  Age  of 
Reason,  without  any  such  intermediate  stage  as  was  required 
in  Christianity. 

In  the  Prophet's  time,  as  well  as  under  the  Rdshidtyi  Caliphs, 
no  doubt,  free  independent  inquiry  was  naturally,  and  perhaps 
rightly,  discouraged.  But  no  questioning  was  avoided,  no 
doubt  was  silenced  by  the  terror  of  authority,  and  if  the  teacher 
was  unable  to  answer  the  question,  the  inability  was  avowed  in 


424  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

all  humility.^  Mu'tazilaism  holds  therefore  a  distinctive  place 
in  the  development  of  the  human  intellect.  It  bears  an  analogy 
to  European  scholasticism,  but  in  reality  it  is  akin  in  genius 
to  modern  rationalism.  Scholasticism  worked  under  the  shadow 
of  the  Church.  Mu'tazilaism  worked  in  conjunction  with  the 
heads  of  the  Church.  The  real  scholasticism  of  Islam  came 
later. 

The  cultivation  of  the  physical  sciences  gave  a  new  direction 
to  Saracenic  genius.  A  body  of  thinkers  sprang  up,  who 
received  the  generic  name  of  Hukamd  (pi.  of  hakim,  a  scientist 
or  philosopher),  whose  method  of  reasoning  was  analogous  to 
that  of  modern  science.  They  were  mostly  Mu'tazilas,  but  the 
conceptions  of  a  few  were  tinged  by  the  philosophical  notions 
of  Aristotle  and  the  Neo-Platonic  school  of  Alexandria.  Though 
bigotry  and  ignorance  stigmatised  them  with  the  opprobrious 
epithets  of  infidel  and  heretic,  historical  verity  must  admit  that 
they  did  not  exclude  themselves  from  Islam,  nor  advance  any 
theory  for  which  they  were  unable  to  find  a  warrant  in  the 
sayings  of  the  Founder  of  the  Faith  or  his  immediate 
descendants. 

The  doctrine  of  evolution  and  progressive  development  to 
which  these  philosophers  adhered  most  strongly  has  been 
propounded  in  clear  terms  by  one  of  their  prominent  repre- 
sentatives, the  famous  Al-Hazen.  The  philosophical  notions 
on  this  subject  may  be  summarised  thus  :  "In  the  region  of 
existing  matter,  the  mineral  kingdom  comes  lowest,  then 
comes  the  vegetable  kingdom,  then  the  animal,  and  finally  the 
human  being.  By  his  body  he  belongs  to  the  material  world, 
but  by  his  soul  he  appertains  to  the  spiritual  or  immaterial. 
Above  him  are  only  the  purely  spiritual  beings, — the  angels,^ — 
above  whom  only  is  God  ;  thus  the  lowest  is  combined  by  a 
chain  of  progress  to  the  highest.  But  the  human  soul  per- 
petually strives  to  cast  off  the  bonds  of  matter,  and,  becoming 
free,  it  soars  upwards  again  to  God,  from  whom  it  emanated." 
And  these  notions  found  expression  later  in  the  Masnavi  of 

1  The  answer  was,  "  God  knows  best." 

-  The  author  of  the  Goithar-i-Murdd,  to  which  I  shall  refer  later  in  some 
detail,  explains  that  what  are  called  in  "  the  language  of  theology  "  "  angels," 
are  the  forces  of  nature  in  the  language  of  Hikmat. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  425 

Moulana   Jalal   ud-din,   whose    "  orthodoxy  "   can   hardly   be 
questioned, — 

^t***-'   j'    ^j — i*--  j^i-i    ^ L^ 

r^-^  c'/;;    "^ — ^'^  ;'  J — ^^  }'. 

c^^^^;'  o'^^  r-^^  r-"J  c^^  ^^;i 


<^ 


cJ>- 


.*^l;    A x!l   US'    ^j.  ._,jS 


"  Dying  from  the  inorganic  we  developed  into  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Dying  from  the  vegetable  we  rose  to  the  animal.  And  leaving  the  animal  we 
became  men.  Then  what  fear  that  death  will  lower  us  ?  The  next  transition 
will  make  vis  angels.  From  angels  we  shall  rise  and  become  what  no  mind 
can  conceive  ;  we  shall  merge  in  Infinity  as  in  the  beginning.  Have  we  not 
been  told,  '  All  of  us  will  return  unto  Him  '  ?  " 

The  greatest  of  the  philosophers  were  al-Kindi,  al-Farabi, 
Ibn-Sina,  Ibn-Baja,  Ibn-Tufail,  and  Ibn-Rushd.^ 

Al-Kindi  ^  (Abu  Yusuf  Ya'kub  ibn  Ishak),  surnamed  the 
Philosopher  par  excellence,  was  a  descendant  of  the  illustrious 
family  of  Kinda,  and  counted  among  his  ancestors  several  of 
the  princes  of  Arabia.  His  father,  Ishak  bin  as-Sabbah,  was 
the  governor  of  Kufa  under  al-Mahdi,  al-Hadi,  and  Harun. 
Al-Kindi,  who  prosecuted  his  studies  at  Basra  and  Bagdad, 
rendered  himself  famous  under  the  Caliphs  Mamun  and 
Mu'tasim  by  the  versatility  of  his  genius  and  the  profoundness 
of  his   knowledge.     He   wrote   on   philosophy,   mathematics, 

^  Shahristani  mentions  several  others,  such  as — Yahya  al-Nahwy,  Abu'l 
Faraj  al-Mufassir,  Abu  Sulaiman  al-Sajzy,  Abu  Bakr  Sabit  bin  Kurrah,  Abu 
Sulaiman  Mohammed  al-Mukaddasi,  Abii  Tamam  Yusuf  bin  Mohammed 
Nishapuri,  Abu  Zaid  Ahmed  bin  Saha  al-Balkhi,  Abu  Muharib  al-Hasan  bin- 
Sahl  bin  Muharib  al-Kiimy,  Ahmed  bin  Tayyeb  al-Sarrakhsy,  Talha  bin 
Mohammed  al-Nafsy,  Abu  Hamid  Ahmed  bin  Mohammed  al-Safzari,  Tsa  bin 
Ali  al-Wazir,  Abu  Ali  Ahmed^  bin  Muskuya,  Abu  Zakaria  Yahya  bin  "Adi 
al-Zumairi,  Abu'l  Hasan  al-'Amri.  He  does  not  mention  a  single  Spanish 
philosopher. 

-  813  to  842  A.c.  ;   see  Appendix  H. 


426  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

astronomy,  medicine,  politics,  music,  etc.  Versed  in  the 
languages  of  the  Greeks,  the  Persians,  and  the  Indians, 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  their  sciences  and  philosophy,  he 
was  selected  by  Mamun  for  the  work  of  translating  Aristotle 
and  other  Greek  writers  into  Arabic.  "  Cardan,"  says  Munk 
"  places  him  among  the  twelve  geniuses  of  the  first  order  whc 
had  appeared  in  the  world  up  to  the  sixteenth  century." 

Abu  Nasr  Fdrdhi  (Abu  Nasr  Mohammed  bin  Mohammed 
Turkhan  al-Fdrdhi),  so  called  from  his  native  city  of  Farab  ir 
Transoxiana,  was  a  distinguished  physician,  mathematician 
and  philosopher.  He  is  regarded  as  the  most  learned  ane 
subtle  of  the  commentators  of  Aristotle.  He  enjoyed  the 
patronage  of  Saif  ud-dowla  Ali  bin  Hamdan,  Prince  of  Aleppo 
and  died  at  Damascus  in  the  month  of  Rajab  339  a.h 
December  (950  a.c).  Among  his  various  works  some  may  b( 
mentioned  here  to  show  the  tendency  of  the  Arab  mind  in  thai 
prolific  age.  In  the  Encyclopcedia  of  Science  [Ihsd  ul-uliim] 
he  gives  a  general  review  of  all  the  sciences.  A  Latin  epitome 
of  this  work  gives  an  idea  of  the  range  over  which  it  extends 
being  divided  into  five  parts  dealing  with  the  different  branches 
of  science,  viz.  language,  logic,  mathematics,  natural  sciences 
and  political  and  social  economy.  Another  celebrated  worl 
of  Farabi,  largely  utiHsed  by  Roger  Bacon  and  Albertuf 
Magnus,  was  his  commentary  on  Aristotle's  Organon.  His 
Tendency  of  the  Philosophies  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  his  treatise 
on  ethics,  entitled  as-Sirat  iil-Fazild,  and  another  on  politics 
called  as-Siydsat  ul-Medtneyya,  which  forms  part  of  a  largei 
and  more  comprehensive  work  bearing  the  name  of  Mahddi 
ul-Moiijuddt,  show  the  versatile  character  of  his  intellect 
Besides  philosophy  and  medicine,  Farabi  cultivated  music 
which  he  elevated  into  a  science.  He  wrote  several  treatise; 
both  on  the  theory  and  the  art  of  music,  as  well  as  the  manu- 
facture of  musical  instruments.  In  one  he  compared  tht 
systems  of  music  among  the  ancients  with  that  in  vogue  ir 
his  own  time.  Abu'l  Kasim  Kinderski,  no  mean  judge,  place; 
Farabi  on  a  level  with  his  great  successor,  Ibn-Sina.^ 

1  See  also  the  'Uyiln-ul-Masail  (Dieterici's  ed.  p.  52),  where  he  estabUshe: 
by  deductive  reasoning  that  Creation  is  the  work  of  a  Supreme  IntelHgence 
and  that  nothing  in  the  universe  is  fortuitous  or  accidental. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  427 

Of  Ibn-Sina  I  have  already  spoken  as  a  physician.  As  a 
philosopher  he  occupies  a  position  hardly  inferior  to  that  of 
the  great  Stagyrite.  He  was  unquestionably  the  master-spirit 
of  his  age,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  raised  against  him  by 
fanaticism  and  self-interest,  he  left  his  impress  in  undying 
characters  on  the  thoughts  of  succeeding  ages.  His  voluminous 
works  testify  to  the  extraordinary  activity  of  his  mind.^  He 
systematised  Aristotehan  philosophy,  and  filled  "  the  void 
between  God  and  man  "  in  Aristotle's  fragmentary  psychology 
by  the  doctrine  of  the  intelligence  of  the  spheres  conceived 
after  a  scientific  method.  The  great  object  of  the  Arabian 
philosophers  was  to  furnish  the  world  with  a  complete  theory 
of  the  unity  of  the  Cosmos  which  would  satisfy,  not  the  mind 
only,  but  also  the  religious  sense.  And  accordingly  they 
endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  ethical  and  spiritual  with  the 
philosophical  side  of  science.  Hence  the  development  of  the 
theory  of  the  two  intellects — the  passive  Reason,  or  Abstract 
Soul,  in  contact  with  material  forms,  and  subject  through 
them  to  change  and  death  ;  and  the  Active  Reason  [Akl-i- 
fa'dl),  conversant  with  the  immutable,  and  so  remaining  un- 
changed in  itself.  By  patient  discipline  of  the  heart  and  soul 
man  can  elevate  himself  to  conjunction  with  this  Higher 
Reason.  But  the  discipline  needed  was  as  much  moral  and 
spiritual  as  intellectual.  Ibn-Sina  represented  these  ideas  in 
the  highest  degree.  He  was  the  truest  and  most  faithful 
exponent  of  the  philosophical  aspirations  of  his  time.  "  For 
ethical  earnestness  it  would  be  hard  to  find  anything  more 
impressive  than  the  teaching  of  Avicenna."  A  severely  logical 
treatment  of  his  subjects  is  the  distinctive  character  of  his 
writings.  His  main  endeavour  was  directed  towards  the 
demonstration  of  the  theory  that  there  existed  an  intimate 
connexion  between  the  human  Soul  and  the  Primary  Absolute 
Cause — a  conception  which  is  traced  in  every  line  of  Jalal 
ud-din  Rumi. 

Shahristani  gives  a  brief  but  exhaustive  sketch  of  Ibn-Sina's 
views,  culled,  as  he  says,  from  his  various  books.  After 
describing  Ibn-Sina's  treatment  of  the  sciences,  logic,  and  other 

'  His  two  greatest  works  on  philosophy  and  science,  the  Shifa  and  the 
Najat,  still  exist  intact. 


428  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

cognate  subjects,  Shahristani  states  that  the  Philosopher 
discussed  metaphysics  under  ten  theses  ;  under  the  first  fivei 
he  deals  with  the  origin  of  knowledge,  experimentation,  induc- 
tion, and  deduction  ;  matter  and  force  ;  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect  ;  the  primary  and  accidental,  universals  and 
particulars.  Under  the  sixth  and  seventh  he  demonstrate* 
that  the  Primal  Cause — the  being  whose  existence  is  necessary 
by  virtue  of  his  Essence — is  one  and  Absolute.  Under  th( 
eighth  and  ninth  he  deals  with  the  unity  of  the  Cosmos,  the 
relation  of  human  souls  to  the  Primal  Cause  and  the  Active 
Intellect,  the  first  created.  And  lastly,  he  discusses  the  con 
ception  of  future  existence,  the  doctrine  of  "  Return  "  (  ^Ijcc  ) 
He  proclaims  the  individual  permanence  of  the  human  soul 
and  argues  that  it  will  retain  its  individuality  after  its  separatior 
from  the  corporeal  body  ;  but  that  the  pleasure  and  pain  o: 
the  future  existence  will  be  purely  spiritual,  depending  on  th( 
use  or  misuse  by  man  of  his  mental,  moral  and  physical  power; 
to  attain  the  Perfection.  He  argues  under  the  last  head  th( 
necessity  for  mankind  of  prophetism.  The  Prophet  expound; 
to  men  the  Divine  laws,  explains  to  them  the  ethical  demand; 
of  God  and  Humanity  in  parables  comprehensible  to  commor 
folk,  which  appeal  to  and  settle  their  hearts.  The  Prophei 
dissuades  from  jealousy,  rancour,  and  misdeeds  ;  lays  th( 
foundations  of  social  and  moral  development,  and  is  God'; 
veritable  messenger  on  earth. 

Abu  Bakr  Mohammed  ibn  Yahya,  sumamed  Ibti-nl-Sdyehu 
popularly     called     Ibn-Baja,     corrupted     by     the     Europearj; 
scholiasts  into  Avenpace,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  philo| 
sophers    among    the    Arabs    of    Spain.     He   was    not   only  ij 
distinguished  physician,  mathematician,  and  astronomer,  bu| 
also  a  musician  of  the  first  rank.     He  was  born  at  Saragossi 
towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  of  the  Christian  eraj 
and  in  1118  A.c.  we  find  him  mentioned  as  residing  in  SevillelJ 
He  afterwards  proceeded  to  Africa,  where  he  occupied  a  higt 
position  under  the  Almoravides.     He  died  at  Fez  in  1138  a.c' 
Several  of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us  in  their  entirety 
and  show  the  free  range  of   the   Moslem   intellect  in   thos( 
days. 

Ibn-Tufail    (Abu   Bakr   Mohammed   ibn   Abdul   Mahk  ibn 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  429 

Tufail  al-Kaisi)  was  bom  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century 
at  Gaudix  ( Wadi-ash) ,  a  small  city  of  Andalusia,  in  the  province 
of  Granada.  He  was  celebrated  as  a  physician,  mathematician, 
philosopher,  and  poet,  and  was  held  in  great  esteem  at  the  court 
of  the  first  two  sovereigns  of  the  Almohade  dynasty.  From 
1 163  to  1 184  he  filled  the  office  of  vizier  and  physician  to  Abu 
Ya'kiib  Yusuf,  the  second  Almohade  king.  Ibn-Tufail  died 
in  Morocco  in  1185  A.c.  He  belonged  to  the  contemplative 
school  of  Arab  philosophy  which  was  designated  Ishrdki, 
an  offshoot  of  ancient  Neo-Platonism,  and  akin  in  its 
aspirations  to  modern  mysticism.  His  contemplative  philo- 
sophy is  not  founded  on  mystical  exaltation,  but  on  a 
method  in  which  intuition  is  combined  with  reasoning. 
His  famous  work,  called  Hayy  ihn  Yakzdn,  represents  the 
gradual  and  successive  development  of  intelligence  and  the 
power  of  perception  in  a  person  wholly  unassisted  by  outside 
instruction.  1 

Ibn-Rushd  or  Averroes  (Abu'l  Walid  Mohammed  ibn  Ahmed) 
was  born  in  520  a.h.  (1126  A.c.)  at  Cordova,  where  his  family 
had  for  a  long  time  occupied  a  prominent  position.  His  grand- 
father was  the  Kdzi  iil-Kuzdt  of  all  Andalusia  under  the 
Almoravides.  Ibn-Rushd  was  a  jurisconsult  of  the  first  rank, 
but  he  applied  himself  mainly  to  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy.  Introduced  to  Abu  Ya'kub  Yusuf  by  Ibn-Tufail, 
he  was  received  with  great  favour  by  that  sovereign.  In 
1169-1170  we  find  him  holding  the  office  of  Kazi  of  Seville, 
and  in  1182  of  Cordova.  For  a  few  years  after  the  accession 
of  Ya'kub  al-Mansur  to  the  throne  of  the  Almohades,  Ibn- 
Rushd  enjoyed  the  consideration  and  esteem  of  that  monarch, 
but  when  the  pent-up  Berber  fanaticism  burst  forth  he  was 
the  first  to  fall  a  victim  to  the  fury  of  the  lawyers  and  Mullahs 
whom  he  had  offended  by  his  philosophical  writings,  and  who 
were  jealous  of  his  genius  and  his  learning.  Ibn-Rushd  was 
without  question  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  and  philosophers 
the  Arab  world  has  produced,  and  "  one  of  the  profoundest 
commentators,"  says  Munk,  "  of  Aristotle's  works."  Ibn- 
Rushd  held  that  the  highest  effort  of  man  ought  to  be  directed 
towards   the   attainment   of   perfection,    that   is,    a   complete 

1  See  Appendix  III. 


430  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


.1 


identification  with  the  Active  Universal  Intellect  ;  that  this 
perfection  can  only  be  attained  by  study  and  speculation,  and 
abandoning  all  the  desires  which  belong  to  the  inferior  faculties 
of  the  soul,  and  especially  to  the  senses, — but  not  by  mere 
sterile  meditation.  He  also  held  that  prophetic  revelations 
were  necessary  for  spreading  among  mankind  the  eternal 
verities  proclaimed  equally  by  religion  and  philosophy  ;  that 
religion  itself  directs  their  search  by  means  of  science  ;  that  it 
teaches  truths  in  a  popular  manner  comprehensible  to  all 
people  :  that  philosophy  alone  is  capable  of  seizing  the  true 
religious  doctrines  by  means  of  interpretation  ;  but  the  ignorant 
apprehend  only  the  literal  meaning.  On  the  question  of  pre- 
destination he  held  that  man  was  neither  the  absolute  master 
of  his  actions  nor  bound  by  fixed  immutable  decrees.  But  the 
truth,  says  Ibn-Rushd,  lies  in  the  middle,  j^^^i  e^  y«V' 
words  used  by  the  Fatimide  Imams,  and  explained  by  them 
somewhat  similarly.  Our  actions  depend  partly  on  our  own 
free  will  and  partly  on  causes  outside  us.  We  are  free  to  wish 
and  to  act  in  a  particular  manner  ;  but  our  wiU  is  always 
restrained  and  determined  by  exterior  causes.  These  causes 
spring  from  the  general  laws  of  nature  ;  God  alone  knows  their 
sequence.  It  is  this  which,  in  the  language  of  theology,  is 
called  Kazd  and  Kadar.  Ibn-Rushd's  political  theories  were 
directed  against  human  tyranny  in  every  shape.  He  regarded 
the  Arab  repubUc  under  the  Rashidin  Caliphs  as  the  model 
government  in  which  was  realised  the  dream  of  Plato. 
Mu'awiyah,  he  says,  in  establishing  the  Ommeyyade  autocracy, 
overthrew  this  ideal,  and  opened  the  door  to  all  disasters. 
Ibn-Rushd  considered  women  to  be  equal  in  every  respect  to 
men,  and  claimed  for  them  equal  capacity — in  war,  in  philo- 
sophy, in  science.  He  cites  the  example  of  the  female  warriors 
of  Arabia,  Africa,  and  Greece  ;  and  refers  to  their  superioiity 
in  music  in  support  of  his  contention,  that,  if  women  were 
placed  in  the  same  position  as  men,  and  received  the  same 
education,  they  would  become  the  equals  of  their  husbands  and 
brothers  in  all  the  sciences  and  arts  ;  and  he  ascribes  their 
inferiority  to  the  narrow  lives  they  lead. 

In  Ibn-Rushd  Arabian  philosophy  reached  its  apogee.     Six 
centuries  divide  him  from  the  Prophet.     Within  these  centuries 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  431 

the  Arab  intellect  had  broadened  in  every  direction.  Men  like 
Ibn-Sina  and  Ibn-Rushd  thought  with  the  accumulated  wealth 
of  ages  on  all  the  most  important  questions  which  occupy 
human  attention  in  modern  times,  and  formulated  their  ideas, 
little  different  from  those  held  by  the  most  advanced  scientists 
of  the  present  day,  with  logical  precision.  All  these  thinkers 
claimed  to  be  Moslems,  and  were  recognised  as  such  by  the  best 
minds  of  their  times.  Ibn-Sina  repudiated  with  indignation 
and  contempt  the  charge  of  infidelity  levelled  against  him  by 
fanatics  or  enemies  jealous  of  his  fame  ;  and  one  of  the  greatest 
mystical  poets  of  Islam,  Sanai,  whose  orthodoxy,  though 
doubted  by  his  personal  foes,  is  no  longer  questioned,  has 
embodied  his  veneration  for  "  Bu  AH  Sina  "  in  an  immortal 
poem.^ 

Ibn-Rushd  wrote  on  the  concord  of  religion  with  philosophy  ; 
and  one  of  his  intimate  friends,  Abd  ul-Kabir,  a  highly  religious 
person,  described  him  as  one  anxious  to  estabhsh  a  harmony 
between  religion  and  philosophy.^  Al-Ansari  and  Abd  ul- 
Walid  speak  of  Ibn-Rushd  as  sincerely  attached  to  Islam  ; 
and  his  latest  biographer  says  :  "  There  is  nothing  to  prevent 
our  supposing  that  Ibn-Rushd  was  a  sincere  believer  in 
Islamism,  especially  when  we  consider  how  little  irrational 
the  supernatural  element  in  the  essential  dogmas  of  this 
religion  is,  and  how  closely  this  religion  approaches  the  purest 
Deism."  ^ 

The  close  of  the  tenth  century  was  full  of  the  darkest  omens 
for  rationalism  and  science.  The  star  of  the  son  of  Sina  had 
not  yet  risen  on  the  horizon  ;  but  masters  like  Kindi  and 
Farabi  had  appeared  and  departed  after  shedding  an  abiding 
lustre  on  the  Saracenic  race.  Patristicism  was  triumphant  in 
every  quarter  which  owned  the  temporal  or  spiritual  sway  of 
the  Abbasides  :  the  college  of  jurists  had  placed  under  the 
ban  of  heresy  the  rationalists  and  philosophers  who  had  made 
the  name  of  Moslems  glorious  in  the  annals  of  the  world  ;  a 
heartless,  illiberal,  and  persecuting  formalism  dominated  the 

*  See  Appendix  III. 

Mn  the  Fasl-ul-Makdl  (Muller's  ed.  published  in  Munich,  1859),  which  is 
said  to  have  been  written  in  a.h.  575  for  the  Almohade  sovereign  Yusuf  ibn 
Tashfin,  he  estabhshes  this  concordance. 

^  Renan,  Averroes  et  Averroism,  p.  163. 


432  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

spirit  of  the  theologians  ;  a  pharisaical  epicureanism  had  taken 
possession  of  the  rich,  and  an  ignorant  fanaticism  of  the  poor  ; 
the  gloom  of  night  was  fast  thickening,  and  Islam  was  drifting 
into  the  condition  into  which  ecclesiasticism  had  led  Chris- 
tianity. It  was  at  this  epoch  of  travail  and  sorrow  for  all 
lovers  of  truth  that  a  small  body  of  thinkers  formed  themselves 
into  a  Brotherhood  to  keep  alive  the  lamp  of  knowledge  among 
the  Moslems,  to  introduce  a  more  healthy  tone  among  the 
people,  to  arrest  the  downward  course  of  the  Moslems  towards 
ignorance  and  fanaticism,  in  fact,  to  save  the  social  fabric  from 
utter  ruin.  They  called  themselves  the  "  Brothers  of  Purity," 
Ikhwdn-us-Safd.  The  society  of  the  "  Pure  Brethren  "  was 
established  in  Basra,  which  still  held  rank  in  the  fast- 
dwindling  Caliphate  as  the  second  city  of  the  empire,  the  home 
of  rationalism  and  intellectual  activity.  To  this  "  Brother- 
hood "  none  but  men  of  unsullied  character  and  the  purest 
morals  were  admitted  ;  the  passport  for  admission  into  the 
select  circle  was  devotion  to  the  cause  of  knowledge  and 
humanity.  There  was  nothing  exclusive  or  esoteric  in  their 
spirit ;  though,  from  the  necessities  of  their  situation,  and 
working  under  a  rigid  theological  and  poUtical  despotism,  their 
movements  were  enshrouded  in  some  degree  of  mystery.  They 
met  together  quietly  and  unobtrusively  in  the  residence  of  the 
head  of  the  society,  who  bore  the  name  of  Zaid  the  son  of 
Rifa'a,  and  discussed  philosophical  and  ethical  subjects  with  a 
catholicity  of  spirit  and  breadth  of  views  difficult  to  rival  even 
in  modern  times.  They  formed  branches  in  every  city  of  the 
Caliphate,  wherever,  in  fact,  they  could  find  a  body  of  thought- 
ful men,  willing  and  qualified  to  work  according  to  their 
scientific  method.  This  philanthropic  and  scientific  movement 
was  led  by  five  men,  who,  with  Zaid,  were  the  life  and  soul  of 
the  "  Brotherhood."  Their  system  was  eclectic  in  the  highest 
and  truest  sense  of  the  word.  They  contemned  no  field  of 
thought  ;  they  "  culled  flowers  from  every  meadow."  In 
spite  of  the  mysticism  which  slightly  tinged  their  philosophical 
conceptions,  their  views  on  social  and  poUtical  problems  were 
highly  practical  and  intensely  humane.  As  the  result  of  their 
labours,  they  gave  to  the  world  a  general  resumd  of  the  know- 
ledge of  the  time  in  separate  treatises,  which  were  collectively 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  433 

known  as  the  Rasdil  ^-i-Ikhwdn-tis-Safd  iva-Khulldn-ul-Wafd, 
"  Tracts  of  the  Brothers  of  Purity  and  Friends  of  Sincerity  "  ; 
or,  shortly,  Rasdil-i-IkJmdn-us-Safdr  These  risdlas  range  over 
every  subject  of  human  study — mathematics,  including  astro- 
nomy, physical  geography,  music,  and  mechanics  ;  physics, 
including  chemistry,  meteorology,  and  geology  ;  biology, 
physiology,  zoology,  botany,  logic,  grammar,  metaphysics, 
ethics,  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life.  They  form,  in  fact,  a 
popular  encyclopaedia  of  all  the  sciences  and  philosophy  then 
extant.  The  theory  of  these  evolutionists  of  the  tenth  century 
as  to  the  development  of  animal  organism  may  be  compared 
with  advantage  with  that  entertained  in  present  times.  But 
I  am  not  concerned  so  much  with  the  scientific  and  intellectual 
side  of  their  writings  as  with  the  ethical  and  moral.  The  ethics 
of  the  "  Pure  Brethren  "  are  founded  on  self -study  and  the 
purification  or  abstraction  of  human  thought  from  all  impurity. 
Moral  endowments  are  prized  above  intellectual  gifts  ;  and 
the  strength  of  soul  founded  upon  patient  self-discipline  and 
self-control  is  regarded  as  the  highest  of  virtues.^  "  Faith 
without  work,  knowing  without  doing,  were  vain."  Patience 
and  forbearance,  mildness  and  loving  gentleness,  justice,  mercy, 
and  truth,  the  sublimity  of  virtue,  the  sacrifice  of  self  for  others, 
are  taught  in  every  line  :  cant,  hypocrisy,  and  deceit,  envy  and 
pride,  tyranny  and  falsehood,  are  reprobated  in  every  page  ; 
and  the  whole  is  pervaded  by  a  purity  of  sentiment,  a  fervent 
love  of  humanity,  an  earnest  faith  in  the  progress  of  man,  a 
universal  charity,  embracing  even  the  brute  creation  in  its 
fold.*  \\Tiat  can  be  more  beautiful,  more  truly  humane,  than 
the  disputation  between  the  "  animals  and  mankind  "  ?  Their 
ethics  form  the  foundation  of  all  later  works. ^  Their  rehgious 
idea  was  identical  with  that  of  Farabi  and  Ibn  Sina, — the 
universe  was  an  emanation  from  God,  but  not  directly  ;  the 
Primal  Absolute  Cause  created  Reason,  or  the  Active  Intel- 

1  Plural  of  Risala,  a  tract,  a  chapter,  a  monograph. 
*  PubUshed  in  4  vols.,  at  Bombay,  in  1305  a.h.,  by  Haji  Niir  ud-din. 
'  See  the  third  Risala,  vol.  iv. 
^  See  the  fourth  Risala,  vol.  iv. 

5  Such  as  the  Akhldk-i-N asiri  of  Nasir  ud-din  Tusi,   the  Akhlak-i-Jalali, 
and  the  Akhlak-i-Muhsini  of  Husain  Waiz  Kashifi. 


434  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

ligence  :  and  from  this  proceeded  the  Nafs-i-nufus,  the  Abstract 
Soul,  from  which  sprang  primary  matter,  the  protoplasm  of  all 
material  entities  ;  the  Active  Intelligence  moulded  this  primary 
matter,  and  made  it  capable  of  taking  shapes  and  forms,  and 
set  it  in  motion,  whence  were  formed  the  spheres  and  the 
planets.  Their  morality  is  founded  on  this  very  conception  of 
the  Primal  Absolute  Cause  being  connected  by  an  unbroken 
chain  with  the  lowest  of  His  creation  ;  for  the  Abstract  Soul 
individualised  in  humanity  is  always  struggling  to  attain  by 
purity  of  life,  self-discipline,  intellectual  study,  the  goal  of 
Perfection, — to  get  back  to  the  source  from  which  it  emanated. 
This  is  Ma'dd  ;  this  is  the  "  Return  "  which  the  Prophet  taught ; 
this  is  the  rest  and  peace  inculcated  in  the  Scripture.  It  was  i 
thus  that  the  "  Pure  Brethren  "  taught.  Whatever  we  may' 
think  of  their  psychology  there  is  no  denying  that  their  morality 
was  of  the  purest,  their  ethics  of  the  highest  that  can  be  con- 
ceived, standing  on  a  different  plane  from  those  of  the  theo- 
logians who  induced  the  bigot  Mustanjid  to  bum  their 
encyclopaedia  in  Bagdad,  before  Bagdad  itself  was  burnt  by  the 
Mongols. 

Aristotelian  philosophy,  which  was  founded  on  "  observation 
and  experience,"  was,  however,  more  akin  to  the  Saracenic 
genius  and  the  positive  bent  of  the  Arab  mind.  AristoteHan 
logic  and  metaphysics  naturally  exercised  a  great  influence  on 
the  conceptions  of  Arab  scientists  and  scholars.  Neo-Platonism 
based  on  intuition  and  a  certain  vague  and  mystical  contempla- 
tion, did  not  take  root  among  the  Arabs  until  it  was  made 
popular  by  the  writings  of  the  unfortunate  Shihab  ud-din 
Suhrwardi.  The  Aristotelian  conception  of  the  First  Cause 
pervades  accordingly  many  of  the  philosophical  and  meta- 
physical writings  of  this  period.  And  it  was  in  consequence  ol 
the  influence  exercised  by  the  Stagyrite  that  a  section  of  Arab 
thinkers  tended  towards  a  belief  in  the  eternity  of  matter. 
These  men  received  the  name  of  Dahrts  (from  dahr,  or  nature). 
"  The  fundamental  idea  of  these  philosophers,"  says  Kremer, 
"  was  the  same  as  has  gained  ground,  in  modern  times,  owing 
to  the  extension  of  natural  science."  But  they  were  not,  as 
their  enemies  called  them,  atheists.  Atheism  is  the  negation 
of  a  power  or  Cause  beyond  and  outside  the  visible  and  materia] 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  435 

world.  These  philosophers  affirmed  no  such  thing  ;  they  only 
held  that  it  was  impossible  to  predicate  of  the  Causa  Causans 
any  attribute  whatsoever,  or  to  explain  the  mode  in  which  He 
works  on  the  universe.  They  were,  in  fact,  the  exponents  of 
the  doctrine  of  fa'lU  or  agnosticism. 

It  appears  clear,  therefore,  that  the  Islam  of  Mohammed 
contains  nothing  which  in  itself  bars  progress  or  the  intellectual 
development  of  humanity.  How  is  it,  then,  that,  since  the 
twelfth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  philosophy  has  almost 
died  out  among  the  followers  of  Islam  and  an  anti-rationalistic 
patristicism  has  taken  possession  of  the  bulk  of  the  people  ? 
How  is  it  that  predestinarianism,  though  only  one  phase  of  the 
Koranic  teachings,  has  become  the  predominant  creed  of  a 
large  number  of  Moslems  ?  As  regards  the  supposed  extinction 
among  them  of  philosophy,  I  should  like  to  call  attention  to  the 
revival  of  Avicennism  under  the  Safawi  sovereigns  of  Persia 
to  show  that  rationalism  and  free-thought  are  not  yet  dead  in 
Islam.  But  the  questions  which  I  have  formulated  apply  to 
the  general  body  of  Moslems,  and  I  propose  to  explain  the 
causes  which  have  led  to  this  result. 

Before  the  Abbaside  Mutawakkil's  accession  to  the  throne, 
Islam  presented  a  spectacle  similar  to  that  of  Christendom  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  It  was  divided  into 
two  camps,  one  of  Authority,  the  other  of  Reason  ;  the  one 
advocated  the  guidance  of  humanity  in  matters,  natural  as  well 
as  supernatural,  by  precedent,  pure  and  simple  ;  the  other,  by 
human  judgment  tempered  so  far  as  practicable  by  precedent. 
Between  these  two  parties  the  difference  was  irreconcilable. 
The  first  was  composed  chiefly  of  the  lawyers — a  class  of  people 
who  have  been  regarded  in  every  age  and  country,  and  not 
always  without  reason,  as  narrow-minded,  self-opinionated,  and 
extremely  jealous  of  their  interests  as  a  body.  To  them  were 
joined  the  ignorant  populace.  "  The  creed  of  the  bishop  is  the 
creed  of  the  grocer.  But  the  philosophy  of  that  grocer  is 
in  no  sense  the  philosophy  of  a  professor.  Therefore  it  is 
that  the  bishop  will  be  revered  where  the  professor  will  be 
stoned.  Intellect  is  that  which  man  claims  as  specially  his 
own  ;  it  is  the  one  limiting  distinction  ;  and  thus  the 
multitude,  so  tolerant  of  the  claims  of  an  aristocracy  of  birth 


436  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

or  of  wealth,  is  uneasy  under  the  claims  of  an  aristocracy  of 
intelligence."  ^ 

As  I  have  had  occasion  to  mention  in  a  previous  chapter, 
most  of  the  legal  decisions  pronounced  by  the  Prophet  were 
called  forth  by  the  passing  necessities  of  a  primitive  and  archaic 
society.  After  him  the  Caliph  Ali  was  the  expositor  of  the  new 
Faith.  In  the  Koran  these  legal  doctrines  were  extremely  few, 
and  adaptable  to  any  circumstance  or  time,  and,  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Rashidin  Caliphs,  were  expounded  chiefly  by  Ali 
and  his  disciple  Ibn  Abbas. 

Upon  their  death,  the  men  who  had  attended  their  lectures 
or  listened  to  their  judgments  opened  classes  of  jurisprudence 
on  their  own  account.  Fakihs  or  lawyers  multiplied  ;  they 
discussed  religio-legal  questions,  gave  opinions  on  points  of 
casuistry,  the  rites  of  religion,  as  well  as  on  the  ordinary 
relations  of  life.  Gradually  they  became  the  keepers  of  the 
conscience  of  the  people.  Naturally  there  was  a  keen  desire 
to  discover  how  the  Prophet  had  acted  in  any  particular  case  ; 
traditions  multiplied.  The  supply  was  in  proportion  to  the 
demand.  But,  excepting  in  the  school  of  Medina,  there  was 
no  uniformity  of  system  or  method.  The  immediate  des- 
cendants of  Mohammed  followed  one  definite  rule  ;  if  they 
found  any  precedent  of  the  time  of  the  Prophet  or  of  the  Caliph 
Ali,  authenticated  by  their  own  ancestors,  which  was  applicable 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  they  based  their  decision  upon 
it  ;  if  not,  they  relied  on  their  own  judgment.  Law  was  with 
them  inductive  and  experimental ;  and  they  decided  according 
to  the  exigencies  and  requirements  of  each  particular  case. 
Under  the  early  Ommeyyades  there  was  no  fixed  rule  ;  the 
governors  ruled  sharply  by  the  sword,  according  to  their  own 
judgment,  leaving  matters  of  conscience  to  the  Fakihs.  Under 
the  later  Ommeyyades,  however,  the  lawyers  assumed  great 
preponderance,  chiefly  on  account  of  their  influence  with  the 
fickle  populace.  When  the  Abbasides  rose  to  power  the 
lecture-room  of  Imam  Ja'far  as  Sadik  was  attended  by  two 
men  who  afterwards  became  the  bulwarks  of  the  Sunni  Church, 
— one  was  Abu  Hanifa,^  and  the  other  Malik  son  of  Anas.* 

1  Lewes's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  ii.p.  50. 

-  See  ante,  p.  351.  ^  See  ante,  p.  352. 


I 


k 


I 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  437 

Abu  Hanifa  was  a  native  of  Irak  ;  Malik,  of  Medina.  Both 
were  men  of  severe  morals  and  great  kindliness  of  nature,  and 
anxious  to  broaden  the  foundations  of  the  Church.  They  were 
devoted  to  the  family  of  the  Prophet,  and  suffered  in  con- 
sequence of  their  attachment.  Abu  Hanifa  on  his  return  to 
Kufa  opened  a  class  which  became  the  nucleus  of  the  now 
famous  Hanafi  school.  He  rejected  most  of  the  traditions  ^ 
as  untrue,  and  rehed  solely  on  the  Koran  ;  and  by  "  analogical 
deductions  "  endeavoured  to  make  the  simple  Koranic 
utterances  applicable  to  every  variety  of  circumstance.  Abii 
Hanifa  knew  nothing  of  human  kind  ;  nor  had  he  ever  been  to 
any  city  except  Medina  and  Bagdad.  He  was  a  speculative 
legist,  and  his  two  disciples,  Abu  Yusuf,  who  became  Chief 
Kazi  of  Bagdad  under  Harun,  and  Mohammed  ash-Shaibani, 
fixed  Abu  Hanifa's  conceptions  on  a  regular  basis.  Malik 
proceeded  on  different  lines.  He  excluded  from  his  system  all 
inferences  and  "  deductions."  He  applied  himself  to  discover 
in  Medina,  so  full  of  the  Prophet's  memories,  every  real  or 
supposititious  incident  in  the  Master's  life  and  based  his 
doctrines  thereupon.  His  was  "  the  Beaten  Path,"  ^  and  to 
the  simple  Arabs  and  the  cognate  races  of  Africa  Malik's 
enunciations  were  more  acceptable,  being  suited  to  their  archaic 
forms  of  society,  than  the  rationalised  views  of  the  Fatimide 
Imams,  or  the  speculative  theories  of  Abu  Hanifa.  Soon  after 
came  Shafe'i,  a  man  of  strong  and  vigorous  mind,  better 
acquainted  with  the  world  than  Abu  Hanifa  and  Malik,  and 
less  casuistical  than  Abu  Yusuf  and  Mohammed  ash-Shaibani. 
He  formed,  from  the  materials  furnished  by  Ja'far  as-Sadik, 
Malik,  and  Abu  Hanifa,  an  eclectic  school,  which  found  accep- 
tance chiefly  among  the  middle  classes.  Less  adaptable  than 
original  Hanafism  to  the  varying  necessities  of  a  growing  and 
mixed  population,  it  contained  sufficient  germs  of  improvement 
which,  had  they  not  been  killed  by  the  rigid  formahsm  of  later 
times,  would  have  been  productive  of  substantial  good.^  Four 
different  systems  of  law  and  doctrine,  more  or  less  distinct  from 

*  Ibn  Khallikan. 

-  The  Muwatta,  i.e.  "  The  Beaten  Path,"  is  the  name  of  his  work  on  juris- 
prudence. 
^  Shafe'ism  is  spreading  rapidly  among  the  educated  Hanafis  of  India. 


n 

m 
438  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

each  other,  thus  estabhshed  themselves  in  the  Islamic  world. 
The  Fatimide  system  was  chiefly  in  force  among  the  Shiahs, 
who  were  dispersed  all  over  the  empire  ;  Malikism  among  a 
large  part  of  the  Arabs  in  the  Peninsula,  among  the  Berbers, 
and  most  of  the  Spanish  Moslems  ;  Shafe'ism  among  the  fairly 
well-to-do  classes  ;  and  Hanafism  among  the  more  respectable 
sections  of  society  in  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The 
position  of  Hanafism  in  the  Caliphate  was  similar  to  that  of 
Pharisaism  among  the  Jews.  It  received  the  countenance  of 
the  Court  as  the  only  school  with  sufficient  expansiveness 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  mixed  population.  To  have 
acknowledged  the  Fatimide  system  would  have  been  to  give 
too  great  a  preponderance  to  the  descendants  of  the  Prophet ; 
to  have  adopted  Malikism  and  Shafe'ism  for  the  administration 
of  a  liberal  State  would  have  jeopardised  the  interests  of  the 
empire.  Hence,  whilst  rationalism  ruled  in  the  colleges  and 
Madrasas}  Hanafism  held  possession  of  the  pulpits  and 
Mahkamas.-  In  its  theological  views,  Hanafism  inclined 
towards  Sifdtism  ;  but  it  varied  its  opinions  according  to  those 
of  the  rulers.  At  this  period  Hanafism  was  remarkable  for  its 
flexibility.  Ahmed  ibn  Hanbal,  commonly  known  as  Imam 
Hanbal,  made  his  appearance  at  this  juncture, — a  red  hot 
puritan,  breathing  eternal  perdition  to  all  who  differed  from 
him,  he  was  shocked  with  the  pharisaical  liberalism  of  Hanafism, 
and  disgusted  both  with  the  narrowness  of  Malikism  and  the 
common-place  character  of  Shafe'ism,  he  applied  himself  to 
frame  a  new  system,  based  on  traditions,  for  the  whole  empire. 
Abii  Hanifa  had  rejected  the  majority  of  the  current  traditions  ; 
Ibn  Hanbal's  system  included  a  mass  of  incongruous,  irrational, 
and  bewildering  stories,  the  bulk  of  which  were  wholly  incon- 
sistent with  each  other,  and  bearing  upon  their  face  the  marks 
of  fabrication.  And  now  commenced  a  serious  struggle  between 
the  parties  of  progress  and  retrogression.  Ibn  Hanbal  adopted 
the  extreme  Sifdtia  views  ;  he  inculcated  that  the  Deity  was 
visible  to  the  human  sight  ;  that  His  attributes  were  separate 
from  His  essence  ;  that  the  statements  about  His  being  seated 
on  the  throne  were  to  be  accepted  in  their  literal  sense  ;    that 

1  Madrasa  is  a  place  where  lectures  are  given,  hence  a  college,  school,  etc. 

2  Courts  of  justice. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  439 

man  was  in  no  sense  a  free  agent ;  that  every  human  action 
was  the  direct  act  of  the  Deity,  and  so  forth.  He  denounced 
learning  and  science,  and  proclaimed  a  holy  war  against 
Rationalism.  The  populace,  carried  away  by  his  eloquence  or 
his  vehemence,  took  up  the  cry  ;  tlie  Hanafi  jurists,  whose 
power  materially  depended  on  their  influence  over  the  ignorant 
masses,  and  who  were  jealous  of  the  prominence  of  the  scientists 
and  philosophers  in  the  Court  of  Harun  and  Mamun,  made 
common  cause  with  the  new  reformer.  The  pulpits  began  to 
fulminate  brimstone  and  fire  against  the  upholders  of  reason 
and  the  advocates  of  philosophy  and  science.  The  streets  of 
Bagdad  became  the  scenes  of  frequent  rioting  and  bloodshed. 
Mu'tasim  and  Wasik  repressed  the  fanatical  violence  of  the 
fiery  puritans  with  some  severity.  The  prime  mover  of  the 
disturbances  was  put  in  prison,  where  he  died  in  the  odour  of 
great  sanctity  ;  his  bier  was  followed  to  the  grave  by  a  crowd 
consisting  of  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand  men  and  women. ^ 
His  system  never  took  root  among  any  large  body  of  people  : 
but,  mixing  with  Hanafism,  it  gave  a  new  character  to  the 
doctrines  of  Abu  Hanifa.  Henceforth  Hanafism  represents 
a  mixture  of  the  teachings  of  Abu  Hanifa  and  of  Ibn 
Hanbal. 

When  Mutawakkil  was  raised  to  the  throne  the  position  of 
the  various  parties  stood  thus  : — the  Rationalists  were  the 
directing  power  of  the  State  ;  they  held  the  chief  offices  of 
trust  ;  they  were  professors  in  colleges,  superintendents  of 
hospitals,  directors  of  observatories  ;  they  were  merchants  ; 
in  fact,  they  represented  the  wisdom  and  the  wealth  of  the 
empire  ;  Rationalism  was  the  dominating  creed  among  the 
educated,  the  intellectual,  and  influential  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. Sifdtism  was  in  force  among  the  lower  strata  of 
society,  and  most  of  the  Kazis,  the  preachers,  the  lawyers  of 
various  degree  were  attached  to  it.  A  cruel  drunken  sot, 
almost  crazy  at  times,  Mutawakkil  had  the  wit  to  perceive  the 
advantage  of  an  alliance  with  the  latter  party.  It  would  make 
him  at  once  the  idol  of  the  populace,  and  the  model  Caliph  of 
the  bigots.  The  fiat  accordingly  went  forth  for  the  expulsion 
of  the  party  of  progress  from  their  offices  under  government. 

^  See  Appendix  II. 


440  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

The  colleges  and  universities  were  closed  ;    literature,  science, 
and  philosophy  were  interdicted  ;    and  the  Rationalists  were 
hunted  from  Bagdad.     Mutawakkil  at  the  same  time  demolished 
the  mausoleum  of  the  Caliph  Ali  and  his  sons.     The  fanatical 
lawyers,  who  were  now  the  priests  and  rabbis  of  Islam,  be- 
came  the   ruling   power  of   the    State.     Mutawakkil's    death 
and    Mustansir's    accession   gave    the    victory   once  more  to 
the  Progressists.     But  their  success  was  short-lived.     Under 
the  pitiless   and  sanguinary  Mu'tazid  b'iUah  the   triumph   of 
Patristicism  was    complete.      He    mercilessly  persecuted   the 
Rationalists.     They  inculcated  that  "  justice  "  was  the  animat- 
ing principle  of  human  actions  ;    that  God  Himself  governed 
the  universe  by  "  justice,"  which  was  His  Essence  ;    that  the 
test  of  right  and  wrong  was  not  any  individual  wiU,  but  the 
good  of  humanity.     These  doctrines  were  terribly  revolutionary; 
they  were  aimed  at  the  divine  right  of  the  Caliph  to  do  wrong. 
Tom  Paine  could  scarcely  preach  worse.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  clerical  party  taught  very  properly  "  God  is  the  Sovereign  ; 
as  the  sovereign  does  no  wrong,  so  God  can  do  no  wrong." 
There  could  be  no  question  which  of  these  two  doctrines  was 
true.     The   days   of   Rationalism   were   now   over  under  the 
Abbasides.     Expelled  from  Bagdad,  it  took  refuge  in  Cairo, 
which  was  worse,  for  if  there  was  one  place  which  the  Abbaside 
Caliphs  hated  with  the  hatred  of  death,  that  was  Cairo.     The 
very  name  of  Rationalism  became  one  of  dire  import  to  the 
Pontiffs  of  Bagdad.     A  College  of  Jurists  was  estabhshed  to 
ferret  out  "  heresy  "  in  the  writings  of  the  philosophers  and 
scientists,  whose  misfortune  was  still  to  live  within  the  reach 
of  the  patristic  influences.     The  works  in  which  the  smallest 
taint  was  observed  were  committed  to  the  flames  ;  their  authors 
were  subjected  to  tortures  and  to  death.     Islam  now  presented 
the  spectacle  of  orthodox   Christendom.     There  was  a  time 
when,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  temporal  power  was  arrayed 
against  it,  Rationalism  would  have  regained  its  hold  on  the 
masses.     In    their    constant    disputations    the    clerical    party 
always   found   themselves    worsted  ;     and    though,    on    these 
occasions,   they  not  infrequently  invoked  the  more  forcible 
reasoning  of  the  sword  and  bricks  and  stones,  their  defeats 
in  argument  perceptibly  told  on  the  ranks  of  their  followers. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  441 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  retrogressive  party  received  the 
assistance  of  an  unexpected  ally.  Hitherto  they  had  fought 
against  Reason  with  their  usual  repertory  of  traditions.  Abu'l 
Hasan  al-Asha'ri/  a  descendant  of  the  famous  Abu  Musa 
al-Asha'ri,  who  had  been  tricked  by  'Amr  ibn  al-'As  into 
abandoning  the  rights  of  the  Caliph  Ali,  was  educated  among 
the  Mu'tazilas.  He  had  learnt  their  logic,  their  philosophy, 
their  science  of  reasoning.  Actuated  by  vanity,  and  partly 
perhaps  by  ambition,  he  one  day  in  the  Jdmi'  mosque  of 
Basra,  in  the  presence  of  a  large  congregation,  made  a 
public  disavowal  of  the  Mu'tazilite  doctrines,  and  declared  his 
adherence  to  Sifdtism.  His  theatrical  manner  and  his  eloquent 
words  impressed  the  people,  and  the  waverers  at  once  went 
over  to  him.  Asha'ri  was  now  the  greatest  man  in  the 
CaHphate  ;  he  was  petted  by  the  legists,  idolised  by  the 
populace,  respected  by  the  Caliph.  He  gave  to  the  clerical 
party  what  they  had  long  been  wanting — a  logical  system, 
or  what  may  be  called  by  that  name,  for  the  defence  of 
patristic  theology  against  the  rationahstic  conceptions  of  the 
Mu'tazilas,  the  philosophers,  and  the  Fatimide  Imams.  Abu'l 
Hasan  maintained  the  Sifatia  doctrines,  with  very  slight 
modifications. 

A  short  summary  of  his  views,  taken  from  Shahristani,  will 
explain  the  present  mental  lethargy  of  so  many  Moslems.  "  He 
maintained,"  says  our  author,  "  that  the  attributes  of  the 
Deity  are  eternal  and  subsistent  in  His  Essence,  but  they  are 
not  simply  His  Essence,  rather  they  are  additional  to  His 
Essence  ;  .  .  .  that  God  speaks  by  an  eternal  word,  and  wills 
by  an  eternal  will,  for  it  is  evident  that  God  is  a  Sovereign, 
and,  as  a  Sovereign,  is  One  to  whom  it  belongs  to  command 
and  prohibit,  so  God  commands  and  prohibits  ;  .  .  .  that  His 
ordering  is  eternal,  subsistent  in  Him,  a  quality  pertaining  to 
Him  ;  that  the  will  of  God  is  indivisible,  eternal,  embracing  all 
things  subject  to  volition,  whether  determinate  actions  of  His 
own  or  actions  of  His  creatures — the  latter,  so  far  as  created 

^  Al-Asha'ri  was  born  at  Basra  in  260  a.h.  (874  a.c),  but  passed  the  greatest 
part  of  his  Ufa  in  Bagdad.  Up  to  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age  he  was  a  devoted 
adherent  of  the  Mu'tazilas.  He  ascribed  his  theatrical  abjuration  of  his  old 
behefs  to  an  admonition  he  received  from  the  Prophet  in  a  dream  during  the 
fasting  month  of  Ramazan. 


442  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


by  Him,  not  as  they  are  their  own  actions  by  appropyiation  ;  ^ 
.  .  .  that  God  wills  all  things  morally,  good  and  evil,  beneficial 
and  injurious  ;  and,  as  He  both  knows  and  wills,  that  He  wills 
on  the  part  of  His  creatures  what  He  knows,  and  has  caused  to 
be  registered  in  the  memorial-book — which  fore-knowledge 
constitutes  His  decree.  His  decisions,  and  His  determination, 
therein  there  is  no  varying  or  change  ;  that  an  appropriated 
action  means  an  action  which  is  pre-destined  to  be  done  by 
created  ability,  and  which  takes  place  under  the  condition  of. 
created  ability."  In  plainer  language,  he  taught  that  every} 
human  action  emanates  from  God,  or  is  pre-destined  by  His 
decree,  to  be  performed  by  a  particular  person,  and  this  person, 
having  the  capacity  of  appropriation  or  acquisitiveness,  does 
the  act  ;  the  act  is  primarily  God's  act,  secondarily  the  man's. 
For  example,  if  a  man  applies  himself  to  write  a  letter,  his 
desire  to  write  is  the  outcome  of  an  eternal  decree  that  he 
should  write  ;  then  he  takes  up  the  pen,  it  is  the  will  of  God 
that  He  should  do  so  ;  and  so  on.  When  the  writing  is  finished, 
it  is  due  to  his  acquisitiveness.  Shahristani  very  appropriately 
observes  that,  according  to  Abu'l  Hasan,  no  influence  in 
respect  to  origination  (of  action)  pertains  to  created  ability. 
This  worthy  divine  further  maintained  that  "  God  rules  as  a 
Sovereign  over  His  creatures,  doing  what  He  wills  and  deter- 
mining as  He  pleases  ;  so  that  were  He  to  cause  all  men  to 
enter  Paradise,  there  would  be  no  injustice,  and  if  He  were  to 
send  them  all  to  hell,  there  would  be  no  wrong-doing,  because 
injustice  is  the  ordering  in  respect  to  things  which  do  not 
come  within  the  sphere  of  control  of  the  Orderer,  or  the 
inversion  of  established  relations  of  things,  and  God  is  the 
Absolute  Sovereign,  on  whose  part  no  injustice  is  imaginable, 
and  to  whom  no  wrong  can  be  attributed  ;  .  .  .  and  that  nothing 
whatever  is  obligatory  upon  God  by  virtue  of  reason — neither 
that  which  is  beneficial,  nor  that  which  is  most  advantageous, 
nor  gracious  assistance  .  .  .  and  that  the  ground  of  (human) 
obligation  is  nothing  which  constitutes  a  necessity  binding 
upon  God."  .  .  . 

After  mentioning  the  doctrines  of  Abu'l  Hasan,  Shahristani 
proceeds  to  state  the  views  of  Abu'l  Hasan's  principal  disciple, 

^  Shahristani  explains  this  word  later. 


li 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  443 

whose  teachings  were  adopted  by  a  large  body  of  people — Abu 
Abdullah  Mohammed  bin  Karram,  "  whom  we  count  as  one  of 
the  Sifatias."  This  man  maintained  that  the  Divine  attributes 
were  distinct  from  His  Essence,  that  God  can  be  perceived  by 
eyesight,  and  that  He  creates  human  actions  from  time  to  time 
as  He  wills. 

No  account  of  al-Asha'ri's  teachings  would  be  complete 
without  a  reference  to  Ibn  'Asakir's  work.^  Shahristani  in 
his  resume  of  the  Asha'rite  doctrines  maintains  a  philosophical 
and  judicial  attitude.  Ibn  'Asakir,  on  the  other  hand,  makes 
no  pretence  of  holding  an  even  balance  between  contending 
schools.  To  him,  as  to  Asha'ri,  the  doctrines  of  the  Rationalists 
are  rank  heresy ;  and  he  denounces  their  teachings  with 
uncompromising  violence.  His  exposition,  however,  of 
al-Asha'ri's  emphatic  rule  that  the  dogmas  of  the  Faith  must  be 
accepted  by  the  orthodox,  without  questioning,  helps  us  to 
understand  the  tendencies  which  were  set  in  motion  at  an 
early  stage  of  Moslem  development,  and  which  eventually 
succeeded  in  arresting  the  progress  of  Moslem  nations  and 
paralysing,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  their  intellectual  energy. 
AU  questioning  was  declared  to  be  an  impiety  and  an  unfor- 
givable sin,  whilst  the  spirit  of  inquiry  was  held  to  be  a 
manifestation  of  the  devil.  "  God,"  says  the  Koran,  "  sees 
all  things  "  ;  therefore,  it  was  assumed,  He  must  have  eyes, 
and  the  beUever  must  accept  it  hila  kaifa,  without  "  why  or 
wherefore  "  ; — thus  reasoned  al- Asha'ri,  and  thus  has  reasoned 
his  school  through  all  ages. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  years  separate  al-Asha'ri  from  his 
distinguished  exponent  and  apologist.  Within  this  period  of 
time,  Islam  had  undergone  a  great  change.  Until  al-Asha'ri 
started  his  new  school  of  dogmatic  theology,  the  struggle  for 
ascendancy  was  confined  between  Rationalism  on  one  side  and 
Patristicism  on  the  other.  Al-Asha'ri  supplied  the  latter  with 
a  weapon  it  had  never  possessed    before.     As   Ibn   'Asakir 

1  Abil-Kasim  Ali  bin  al-Hasan  b.  Hibat-ullah,  b.  Abdullah  bin  al-Hasan 
Ali  Shafe'i,  surnamed  Ibn  'Asakir,  famous  for  his  monumental  work  on  the 
history  of  Damascus,  was  born  in  499  a.h.,  died  571  a. 11.  He  was  a  rigid 
Shafe'ite  and  a  violent  partisan  of  al-Asha'ri,  whom  he  regarded  as  a  renovator 
and  foremost  champion  of  Islam.  Ibn  'Asakir's  work  is  called  The 
Exposure  by  al-Imam  Hasan  al-Asha'ri  of  Mischievous  Untruths. 


444  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

remarks,  "  al-Asha'ri  was  the  first  orthodox  dialectician,^  who 
reasoned  with  the  Rationahsts  and  other  heretics  according  to 
their  own  principles  of  logic."  As  an  attempted  compromise 
between  Rationalism  and  Patristicism,  between  "  orthodoxy  " 
and  "  heterodoxy,"  his  doctrines  found  a  ready  acceptance 
among  the  extreme  theologians  and  divines,  who  saw  in  his 
system  the  means  for  overthrowing  Rationalism  from  the 
pinnacle  of  power  and  influence  which  it  had  attained  in  the 
enlightened  reigns  of  al-Mamun  and  his  two  immediate  suc- 
cessors. Rationalism  was  also  favoured  by  the  earlier  Buyides, 
and,  under  their  auspices  and  encouragement,  its  influence 
had  become  paramount  in  Mid- Asia.  "  The  power  of  the 
Mu'tazila,"  says  Ibn  'Asakir,  "  was  very  great  in  Irak  until 
the  time  of  Fenakhusru  "  ('Azud-ud-Dowla).^  In  his  reign 
Asha'rism  first  found  favour  at  Court  and  graduaUy  spread 
among  all  classes.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  of 
the  Hegira  it  was  often  confounded  with  Mu'tazilaism,  which 
al-Asha'ri  had  professed  until  his  dramatic  secession.  His 
disciples  appear  even  to  have  been  subjected  to  some  per- 
secution at  the  hands  of  the  sects  who  claimed  the  special 
privilege  of  orthodoxy. 

Under  Sultan  Tughril,  the  founder  of  the  Seljukide  dynasty, 
the  followers  of  al-Asha'ri  were  suspected  of  unorthodoxy,  and 
had  to  undergo  proscription  and  exile.  The  Sultan  himself 
was  a  follower  of  Imam  Abii  Hanifa  and  professed  Hanafite 
orthodoxy.  He  had  given  orders  for  public  imprecation  on 
heretics  from  the  pulpits  of  the  mosques.  According  to  Ibn 
'Asakir,  his  vizier,^  who  was  a  Mu'tazili,  included  the 
Asha'rites  in  the  imprecation,  and  started  a  persecution  of  the 

*  Mutakallim  bi'lisan. 

-  Al-Malik  Fenakhusru  reigned  as  the  Mayor  of  the  Palace  from  367-372  a.h. 
Ibn  'Asakir  tells  the  story  of  how  Fenakhusru,  after  attending  one  of  the 
"  Assemblies  of  the  learned  "  which  were  held  in  the  house  of  the  Chief  Kazi, 
who  was  a  Mu'tazili,  found  that  there  was  not  a  single  Asha'rite  in  their  midst. 
On  being  told  that  there  was  no  learned  Asha'rite  in  Bagdad,  he  pressed  the 
Judge  to  invite  some  from  outside.  It  was  at  his  instance,  it  is  stated,  that 
Ibn  al-Bakillani,  one  of  the  principal  disciples  of  al-Asha'ri,  was  summoned 
to  Bagdad.  To  him  Fenakhusru  confided  the  education  of  his  sons.  Whether 
this  story  be  true  or  not,  the  period  of  'Azud-ud-Dowla's  reign  fixes  the  date  of 
the  rise  of  the  Star  of  Asha'rism. 

^  Abu  Nasr  Mansur  Kunduri,  surnamed  'Amid  ul-Mulk. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  445 

most  prominent  Imams  and  doctors  among  the  disciples  of 
al-Asha'ri. 

The  cloud  under  which  Asha'rism  laboured  in  the  reign  of 
j  Tughril  Beg  lifted  on  his  death,  and  with  the  accession  of  Alp 
i  Arslan  and  the  rise  of  Nizam  ul-Mulk,   "  who  favoured  the 
I  adherents  of  the  Sunnat,"  Asha'rism  became  the  dominant 
I  sect.     "  He  recalled  the  exiles,  covered  them  with  honours, 
i  opened  colleges  and  schools  in  their  names."     Thus  one  of  the 
j  most  generous  patrons  of  learning  among  the  Moslems  uncon- 
sciously allied  himself  to  a  tendency  to  which,  more  largely 
than  any  other  cause,  the  sterilisation  of  the  intellectual  energies 
of  the  Moslems  is  due. 

Ibn    'Asakir's    account    of    the    progress    of    Asha'rism    is 
enthusiastic.     From  Irak  it  spread  into  Syria  and  Egypt  under 
the  Ayyubides  ^  and  Mamelukes  ;   from  Irak  also  it  was  carried 
into  Western  Africa  by  Ibn  Tumart,^  and  it  took  firm  root  in 
j  the  Maghrib  (Morocco).     "There  remained  no  other  sect  in 
I  Islam,   excepting  some  followers    of    Ibn   Hanbal   and  some 
:  partisans  of  Abu  Hanifa,  to  compete  with  the  adherents  of 
I  al-Asha'ri."      "  Ahmed   bin    Hanbal    and   al-Asha'ri   were   in 
;  perfect    harmony,"    says    Ibn    'Asakir,    "  in    their    religious 
opinions  and  did  not  differ  in  any  particular,  in  the  funda- 
:  mental  doctrines  and  in  tlie  acceptance  of  the  authority  of 
the  Traditions."     "  This  is  the  reason,"  he  continues,  "  why  the 
Hanbalites    relied    from    always    and    at    all    times    on    the 
'  Asha'rites  against  the  heterodox,  as  they  were  the  only  dialec- 
ticians among  the  orthodox." 
j      To  throw  into  relief  the  cardinal  principles  of  al-Asha'ri's 
!  teachings,  Ibn  'Asakir  places  in  juxtaposition   the  opinions 
held  by  different  sects. 

After  mentioning  various  other  sects,  he  gives  an  account,  in 
i  the  words  of  al-Asha'ri,  of  the  Mu'tazilite  doctrines  ("  in  which 
they  have  strayed  from  the  right  path  ").  He  tells  us  that  the 
Mu'tazilas  repudiate  the  notion  that  God  can  be  seen  by  the 
corporeal  sight,  or  that  the  Almighty  has  any  similitude  to 
human  beings  ;  or  that  there  will  be  a  corporeal  resurrection 
on  the  Day  of  Account.     "  They  repudiate  also,"  he  says, 

1  Saladin  and  his  successors. 

-  The  founder  of  the  Almohade  dynasty  in  north-west  Africa. 


446  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

"  the  doctrine  of  pains  and  penalties  {'Azdb)  ^  in  the  grave,' 
nor  do  they  beheve  in  the  intercession  (Shafd'at)  of  the  Prophet 
they  hold  that  human  sins  can  only  be  forgiven  or  remitted  b} 
Divine  Mercy,  and  that  neither  His  mercy  nor  justice  can  b( 
influenced  or  deflected  by  human  intercession  ;  they  beheve 
that  the  Koran  is  created  and  revealed  to  the  Prophel 
and  that  the  "  law  has  been  announced  according  to  humar 
needs." 

After  stating  the  Mu'tazilite  doctrines  Ibn  'Asakir  proceed; 
to  give  in  detail  the  creed  of  al-Asha'ri.  They  are  twenty-fouii 
in  number,  but  to  show  the  theological  attitude  of  al-Asha'r 
and  his  sharp  difference  with  rationalistic  Islam  it  is  sufiiciem 
to  refer  only  to  a  few.  After  the  confession  of  Faith,  regarding 
the  unity  of  God  and  the  messengership  of  the  Prophet  in  which 
all  Islam  is  agreed,  the  Asha'rite  creed  proceeds  thus  : — 

"  We  declare  that  Paradise  and  HeU  are  true,  that  the  arriva 
of  the  Hour  of  Judgment  is  certain,  and  that  without  doub' 
God  will  raise  the  dead  from  their  graves  ;  that  God  will  appea: 
to  human  sight  on  the  Day  of  Judgment.^  We  declare  that  th< 
word  of  God  {i.e.  the  Koran),  and  every  part  thereof,  i: 
uncreated  :  that  there  is  nothing  on  earth,  neither  good  no: 
bad,  which  does  not  come  into  existence  but  by  the  will  of  God 
that  nothing,  in  fact,  comes  into  being  unless  He  wishes.  W( 
beheve  that  God  the  Almighty  knows  the  acts  of  His  servant: 
and  their  ends  and  consequences,  as  well  as  those  which  do  nc 
come  to  pass.  We  beheve  that  human  actions  owe  thei: 
origin  to  His  will  and  are  determined  in  advance  by  Him  ;  tha- 
man  has  no  power  to  originate  or  create  anything  by  himsel 
{i.e.  without  God's  help).  That  man  is  incapable  of  obtaining 
by  himself  that  which  is  good  for  his  soul,  or  avoiding  tha' 
which  is  harmful,  except  by  the  will  of  God." 

The  Asha'rite  creed  then  goes  on  thus  : — "  We  believe  ir 
the  intercession  of  the  Prophet,  and  that  God  will  redeem  froir 

1  The  meaning  of  'Azab  will  become  clearer  later  on. 

2  It  is  believed  that  on  the  third  day  after  burial  the  grave  is  visitec 
by  two  angels  named  Munkir  and  Nakir,  who  raise  the  dead  to  Ufe  by  blow: 
from  their  batons,  and  interrogate  him  as  to  his  or  her  past  life  and  recon 
the  answers  in  a  register.  They  act  as  a  sort  of  Jt<ge  d'instruction.  Thi 
belief,  evidently  an  offshoot  from  the  Egyptian  conceptions,  was  imbeddec 
in  the  folk-lore  of  the  country  before  the  promulgation  of  Islam. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  447 

the  punishment  of  fire  believers  who  have  sinned."  "  We 
beheve  in  the  Day  of  Resurrection,  we  believe  in  the  appearance 
of  the  anti-Christ,  in  the  interrogation  of  the  dead  by  the  two 
angels  (Munkir  and  Nakir).  We  believe  in  the  Ascension  of  the 
Prophet ;  ^  we  believe  that  all  evil  thoughts  are  inspired  by 
Satan  ;  we  believe  that  it  is  sinful  to  rise  in  arms  against  the 
lawful  Imam."  - 

This  summary  shows  more  clearly  than  Shahristani's  philo- 
sophical analysis  the  attitude  of  al-Asha'ri  towards  Moslem 
development . 

In  order  to  meet  the  Mu'tazilas  on  their  own  ground,  Abu'l 
Hasan  invented  a  rival  science  of  reason — the  real  scholastic 
theology  of  the  Moslems,  which,  though  supposed  to  be  an 
offshoot  of  the  'Ilm-td-kaldm  founded  by  the  Mu'tazilas,  is  in 
many  essential  features  different  from  it.  For  example,  most 
of  the  Mu'tazilas  were  conceptualists ,  whilst  the  Asha'ri  Muta- 
kallimin  were  either  realists  or  modified  nominalists.  The 
Asha'ris  maintained  that  a  negative  quahty  like  ignorance  is 
an  actual  entity,  whilst  the  Mu'tazilas  declared  that  it  was  the 
mere  negation  of  a  quality,  for  example,  ignorance  was  the 
absence  of  knowledge.  The  Asha'ri  Mutakallim  maintained 
that  the  Koran  was  uncreated  and  eternal ;  the  Mu'tazilite 
declared  that  it  represented  the  words  of  God  revealed  to  the 
Prophet  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  arose,  otherwise  there 
would  be  no  meaning  in  ndsikh  and  mansiikh,  for  admittedly 
some  of  the  later  verses  repealed  others  which  had  been  uttered 
before. 

Asha'rism  thus  became  the  dominant  school  in  the  East. 
When  the  enlightened  Buyides  became  the  mayors  of  the 
palace  Rationalism  again  raised  its  head  in  Bagdad  ;  but 
Asha'rism  never  lost  its  hold  over  the  conscience  of  the  masses, 

^  The  belief  in  the  Ascension  of  the  Prophet  is  general  in  Islam.  Whilst 
the  Asha'ri  and  the  patristic  sects  believe  that  the  Prophet  was  bodily  carried 
up  from  earth  to  heaven,  the  Rationalists  hold  that  it  was  a  spiritual  exalta- 
tion, that  it  represented  the  uphfting  of  the  soul  by  stages  until  it  was  brought 
into  absolute  communion  with  the  Universal  Soul. 

-  The  orthodox  Sunni  belief,  that  once  the  sacramental  oath  of  allegiance 
is  sworn  to  the  Caliph  any  rising  against  him  is  a  religious  crime,  led  all  Moslem 
sovereigns  to  beg  for  investiture  from  the  Caliph,  however  impotent,  as  it 
made  insurrection  against  them  or  their  authority  on  the  part  of  their  subjects 
unlawful. 


448  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  iiT 

nor  did  Mu'tazilaism  ever  regain  its  old  position  of  preponder- 
ance. The  Buyides  were  Rationalists  ;  but  the  Seljukides,  in 
spite  of  their  patronage  of  learning  and  science,  belonged  t 
the  Asha'ri  school.  Renan  ^  has  observed  that  Islamis 
having  become,  by  the  accident  of  history,  the  property  of  rac 
given  over  to  fanaticism,  such  as  the  Spaniards,  the  Berber: 
the  Persians,  the  Turks,  acquired  in  their  hands  the  garb 
a  rigid  and  exclusive  dogmatism.  "  What  has  happened  t 
Catholicism  in  Spain  has  happened  to  Islam,  what  would  havi 
happened  in  all  Europe  if  the  religious  revival  which  took  plao 
(in  Christendom)  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginnin 
of  the  seventeenth  century  had  stopped  all  national  develo 
ment."  This  observation  is  absolutely  true.  The  Persian' 
always  associated  an  idea  of  divinity  with  the  person  of  his 
sovereign  ;  the  Turk,  the  Mongol,  the  Berber  looked  upon  their 
chiefs  as  the  direct  descendants  of  God  ;  conversion  to  Islam 
did  not  detract  from  their  veneration  of  their  kings  or  princes. 
For  centuries  the  Arabs  had  tried  to  exorcise  the  demon  of 
fanaticism  which  had  been  introduced  into  the  hearts  of  the 
Spaniards  by  the  Christian  clergy  ;  they  failed,  and  the  moment 
the  Chancellor  al-Mansur,  in  order  to  enlist  popular  support 
in  furtherance  of  his  ambitious  designs,  raised  in  Spain  a  cry 
against  Rationalism,  the  same  crowd  which  afterwards  assisted 
with  willing  hands  and  gleeful  faces  at  the  auto-da-fe  of  heretics, 
helped  in  the  burning  of  philosophical  works  in  the  market-place 
of  Cordova.  The  victorious  arms  of  Saladin  carried  Asha'rism 
into  Egypt.  Whilst  Rationahsm  was  thus  fighting  a  losing 
battle  with  its  old  enemy,  the  writings  of  Imam  al-Ghazzah, 
which  were  directed  chiefly  against  the  study  of  philosophy, 
strengthened  the  hands  of  Patristicism.  Abu  Hamid  Moham- 
med ibn  Mohammed  al  Ghazzali  ^  was  a  man  of  undoubted 
talents  and  purity  of  character.  He  had  studied  philosophy 
and  dived  into  the  mysteries  of  the  sciences  ;    he  had  even 

1  Averroes  et  Averroism,  p.  30. 

^  Was  born  at  Tus  in  Khorasan  (the  birthplace  of  Firdousi)  in  the  year 
1058  A. c.  (450  A. H.)  ;  died  in  mi  a.c.  (505  of  the  Hegira).  His  most  cele- 
brated works  are  the  Ihya  ul-'uMm  {"  the  Revival  of  the  Sciences  of  Religion  ") ; 
the  Munkiz  min-az-zaldl  ("Deliverance  from  Errors  ");  M  akdsid-td-faldsifa  (the 
"Tendencies  of  Philosophers");  and  Tahdfut-ul-faldsifa  ("  Destruction  of 
Philosophers"),  to  which  Ibn-Rushd  wrote  a  refutation  called  the  Tahdfut-u- 
Tahdfui  td-faldsifa  ("the  Destruction  of  Destruction,"  etc.)  ;  see  chap.  xi. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  449 

indulged  in  free-thought.  Suddenly  the  spirit  of  earnest 
longing  for  a  solid  rock  on  which  to  rest  the  weary  soul,  the 
spirit  that  has  worked  similarly  upon  other  minds  in  later  ages, 
spoke  to  his  heart,  and  from  a  philosopher  he  turned  into  a 
mystic.  In  the  Mimkiz,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  dis- 
course delivered  either  verbally  or  written  to  his  religious 
brethren,  he  describes  with  some  naivete  how  he  hankered  for 
knowledge,  and  in  its  search  went  everywhere,  dipped  into 
everything,  acquainted  himself  with  every  subject  ;  and  how 
he  abandoned  the  doctrines  which  had  been  instilled  into  him 
in  early  life.  He  says  he  knew  the  saying  of  the  Prophet,  which 
declared  that  every  child  was  bom  with  a  knowledge  of  the 
truth  in  nature,  and  therefore  wanted  to  know  what  that  truth 
was.  Then  he  describes  how  he  was  seized  with  scepticism, 
and  how  he  escaped  from  its  consequences  by  betaking  himself 
into  the  higher  regions  of  faith,  viz.  a  mystical  exaltation.  The 
discourse  contains  a  violent  attack  on  the  philosophers,  whom 
he  groups  under  three  heads,  (i)  The  Dahris,  who  believe  in 
the  eternity  of  matter,  and  deny  the  existence  of  a  Creator. 

(2)  The  Physicists  or  naturalists,  who  beUeve  in  the  existence 
of  a  Creator,  but  think  that  the  human  soul  once  separated 
from  the  body  ceases  to  exist,  and  that  therefore  there  is  no 
accountabihty  for  human  actions  ;  both  of  them  were  infidels. 

(3)  The  Theists  (Plato  and  Aristotle),  "  these  have  completely 
refuted  the  doctrines  of  the  first  two,  and  God  has  saved  thereby 
the  true  behever  from  the  battle."  "  But  they  must  be  pro- 
nounced infidels  ;  and  so  also  the  Moslem  philosophers  who 
have  followed  them,  especially  Farabi  and  Ibn-Sina,  for  their 
philosophy  is  so  confused  that  you  cannot  separate  the  truth 
from  the  false,  so  as  to  refute  the  latter  !  From  what  we  can 
discover  of  the  writings  of  these  two  men,  knowledge  may  be 
divided  under  three  heads  ;  one  group  we  are  bound  to  pro- 
nounce as  infidel,  another  as  heresy,  and  about  the  third  we 
need  say  nothing  !  "  And  yet  with  all  this  simplicity  there  is 
considerable  practical  sense  displayed  in  Ghazzali's  writings. 
He  praises  wisdom  as  far  higher  than  mere  belief,  and  opposes 
the  fanatical  dogmatism  which  rejects  all  rational  inquiry  and 
all  knowledge  because  it  is  cultivated  by  his  betes  noires  the 
philosophers.     He  calls  this  dogmatism  the  unwise  friend  ol 

S.I.  2  P 


450  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

Islam.  At  the  same  time  his  precepts  on  personal  indepen- 
dence, on  moral  discipline,  on  self -purification,  on  practica 
kindness,  and  on  the  education  of  the  young,  and  hi; 
denunciation  of  the  immoral  and  useless  lives  of  the  Mullah: 
of  his  time,  reflect  great  credit  on  the  goodness  of  hii 
nature.^ 

From  this  period  there  was  an  unceasing  struggle  betweei 
RationaHsm  and  Patristicism.     In  the  year  1150,  under  th 
orders  of  the  Caliph  Mustanjid,  all  the  philosophical  works  0 
Ibn-Sina  and  the  copies  of  the  Rasdil-i-Ikhwdn  us-Safd  founc 
in  the  public  and  private  libraries  were  consigned  to  the  flames 
In  1 192  the  physician  Ar-Rukn  Abdus-Salam  was  accused  0 
atheism,  and  the  populace  and  priests  proceeded  to  make  i 
bonfire    of    his    books.     The    Mullah    who    presided    at    thi 
ceremony  stood  on  a  chair  and  delivered  a  sermon  agains 
philosophy.     As    the    books    were    brought    out    they    wer' 
delivered  to  him,  and  with  a  few  remarks  on  their  impiet}/ 
he  threw  them  into  the  fire.     A  disciple  of  Maimonides  wa 
a  witness  to  this  strange  scene,  and  has  left  an  account  0 
it.     "I  saw,"  says  he,  "in  the  hands  of  this  doctor  the  worJi 
of  Ibn-ul-Haithem  (Al-Hazen)  on  astronomy.     Showing  to  thi 
people  the  circle  by  which  the  author  represented  the  celestiE' 
sphere,  the  doctor  burst  forth,  '  Misery  of  miseries,  inexpressibl 
disaster  !  '  and  with  these  words  he  threw  the  book  into  th 
flames."     But  even  the  influence  of  Imam  al-Ghazzali  and  th 
temporal  power  of  the  sovereigns,  some  of  whom  were  at  heai 
rationahsts,  would  not  have  prevented  the  eventual  victory  c 
reason  over  the  dead-weight  of  authority,  had  not  the  Mongol 
sword  turned  the  scale.     "  One  Khan,  one  God  :  as  the  Khan' 
ordinance   is   immutable,    so   is    God's    decree."     Could   an 
doctrine  be  more  logical  or  more  irresistible,  backed  as  it  wa 
by  a  milhon  swords  ?     Rationalism,  philosophy,  the  science 
and  arts  went  down  before  that  avalanche  of  savagery — neve 
to  rise  again.     The  gleams  of  light  which  we  have  seen  shinin 
on  Western  Asia  under  the  successors  of  Hulaku  were  the  fitfv 
rays    of    the    setting    sun.     Policy    worked    with    an    inbor 
fanaticism  in  crushing  any  endeavour  to  introduce  rationalisr 
and  philosophy  in  the  Moslem  world.     The  lawyers  were  nc 

^  See  chapter  xi,  post. 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  451 

only  strong,  but  also  the  main  support  of  despotism.  The 
result  was,  as  we  have  already  seen,  Patristicism  took  possession 
of  the  hearts  of  large  sections  of  Moslems,  and  has  in  course 
of  time  become  a  second  nature  with  them.  They  can  perceive 
nothing  except  through  the  medium  of  the  patristic  glasses. 
The  Prophet  inculcated  the  use  of  reason  ;  his  followers  have 
made  its  exercise  a  sin.  He  preached  against  anthropolatry 
and  extravagant  veneration  for  human  beings  ;  the  Sunnis 
have  canonised  the  salaf  and  the  four  jurists  ;  the  Akhbari 
Shiahs,  their  Muj  tabids, — and  have  called  any  deviation 
from  the  course  laid  down  by  them — however  much  that 
deviation  might  accord  with  the  Master's  own  teachings 
and  with  reason — a  crime.  He  had  said  that  "  ghosts, 
apparitions,  and  the  hke  have  nothing  to  do  with  Islam." 
They  now  beheve  firmly  in  them.  He  impressed  on  them 
to  go  in  quest  of  knowledge  to  the  land  of  the  heathens. 
They  do  not  take  it  even  when  it  is  offered  to  them  in  their 
own  homes. 

Under  the  Safawis,  rationalism  and  philosophy  came  to 
life  once  more — though  not  in  that  vigorous  shape  in  which 
they  had  flourished  under  the  earlier  Abbasides.  From  the 
twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  century  Iran  had  suffered  terribly  ; 
and  in  the  darkness  which  enshrouded  the  land  during  this  long 
period  of  disaster  and  trouble,  the  Shiah  Mullahs  had  assumed 
the  position  of  the  clergy  in  Christendom  to  a  larger  degree  than 
even  the  Sunni  lawyers.  They  claimed  the  sole  and  absolute 
power  of  expounding  the  laws  on  the  ground  that  they  were  the 
representatives  of  the  Fatimide  Imams.  MuUa  Sadra,  whom  I 
have  already  mentioned  as  the  reviver  of  the  Usuli  doctrines, — 
the  religion  of  Mohammed  as  it  was  understood  and  accepted 
by  his  immediate  descendants, — apphed  himself  to  revive  the 
study  of  philosophy  and  science  among  his  countrymen.  It 
was  by  no  means  an  easy  task,  but  he  worked  with  tact  and 
judgment.  Avicennism  came  to  life  again,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
political  vicissitudes  of  Iran,  the  destruction  of  fives  during 
the  Afghan  domination,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Kajars 
on  the  throne  of  Persia,  has  persistently  maintained  its  hold 
over  many  of  the  cultivated  class.  One  of  the  best  epitomes 
of  Avicennistic  philosophy  was  published  in  the  reign  of_^Shah 


452  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Abbas  1 1./  by  Abdur  Razzak  bin  Ali  bin  al-Hassan  al-Lahiji, 
under  the  name  of  Gouhar-i-Murdd,  "  The  Pearl  of  Desire." 
It  contains  a  summary  of  Ibn-Sina's  views,  explained  and 
illustrated  by  references  to  the  opinions  of  the  Cahph  Ali 
and  his  descendants,  and  philosophers  and  physicists  like 
Imam  Fakhr  ud-din  Razi,  Nasir  ud-din  Tusi,  Imam  Taftazani, 
and  others. 

Some  of  Abdur  Razzak's  views  are  extremely  interesting. 
For  example,  dealing  with  Mu'tazilaism  and  Asha'rism,  he 
states  that  "  the  Mu'tazilas  invented  the  science  of  Kaldui  with 
the  object  of  establishing  a  harmony  between  the  precepts  of 
religion  and  the  requirements  of  society,  and  of  explaining  by 
principles  of  Reason  the  [Koranic]  verses  and  the  traditions 
which  at  first  sight  seem  unreasonable  (j<i>^&  v-^^^ii)  ;  whilst 
their  opponents  (cJJi^^  iLih)  upheld  the  literal  acceptance 
[of  the  verses  of  the  Koran  and  of  the  traditions]  partly 
from  motives  of  bigotry  and  partly  from  policy  ;  prohibited 
all  interpretations,  and  pronounced  the  interpretations  of  the 
Mu'tazilas  and  all  their  opinions  as  heresy  (  •jvsc^j  ),  and 
designated  the  Mu'tazilas  heretics  ( ^<^j^ ),  and  considered 
themselves  in  opposition  to  them  [the  Mu'tazilas]  as  ahl-i- 
Sunnat  wa-Janid'at.  ...  So  much  so,  that  many  of  them  have 
fallen  into  the  sin  of  thinking  God  to  be  a  material  being,  all 
of  them  are  immersed  in  that  of  anthropomorphism. — And  this 
has  happened  of  their  shutting  the  door  upon  all  interpretations; 
they  have  construed  in  their  literal  acceptation,  the  verse  that 
'  He  is  seated  on  the  Throne,'  and  such  like,  and  the  traditions 
as  to  ii^jj)  (the  sight  of  God)  until  they  derived  tajsim 
(corporeaUty)  from  one,  and  tashbih  (similarity,  or  anthropo- 
morphism) from  the  other.  These  people  had  at  first  no 
method  of  reasoning  or  putting  forward  of  logical  arguments  ; 
they  relied  only  on  the  hteral  words  of  the  Koran  and  traditions 
until  the  appearance  of  Abu'l  Hasan  Asha'ri,  who  was  a 
prominent  disciple  of  Abu  AH  Jubbai,  one  of  the  learned  Imams 
of  the  Mu'tazilas.     Abu'l  Hasan  had  acquired  great  knowledge 

1  Of  this  sovereign  it  is  said  that  he  was  as  tolerant  to  all  religions  as  his 
great  ancestor  Abbas  I.  He  often  declared  the  principle  by  which  his  conduct 
on  this  point  was  regulated  :  "  It  is  for  God,  not  for  me,  to  judge  of  men's 
consciences  :  and  I  will  never  interfere  with  what  belongs  to  the  tribunal  of 
the  great  Creator  and  Lord  of  the  Universe." 


X.  RATIONALISTIC  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SPIRIT  453 

off  logic  J^and  argumentation.  He  abandoned  the  Mazhab-i- 
'itizdl,  and]  adopted  that  of  the  Ahl-i-Sunnat  lea-Jamd'at  and 
made  great  endeavours  to  advance  the  cause  of  this  sect,  which  up 
to  his  time^had  no  influence  whatsoever.  Henceforth  it  began 
to  be  called  after  him .  He  invented  principles  and  rules  according 
to'the^Mu'tazilite^models.  .  .  .  And  as  the  tyrannical  sovereigns 
found 'that  the  doctrines  of  this  Mazhah  suited  their  policy, 

iy^.  cJ^T  J^-^o  c>»V<  o'-^'I  v*^-"  '^I^J  *^  c)'^^  fJ^J  <^\s.\^^y}  ^y:^  ii^j\  J  \ki^ 

they  supported  this  sect ;  and  so  Asha'rism  spread  widely 
among  the  Ahl-i-Isldm.  But,  as  the  doctrines  of  the  Mu'tazilas 
(Jj-j^i^i_ji)  were  founded  on  the  principles  of  reason 
(  *i^a^  J***'  ),  they  found  acceptance  among  a  large  number 
of  the  true-hearted  people  .(Axs.^;  J=- v>^f>i  jo,V  And  as  the 
Mu'tazilas  had  studied  deeply  the  philosophical  and  scientific 
works,  they  introduced  arguments  borrowed  from  them 
in  the  discussion  of  metaphysical  and  theological  subjects. 
And  when  the  Asha'ris  became  aware  of  this,  as  they  considered 
everything  which  was  not  contained  in  the  bosom  of  Islam  a 
heresy — Ao>j*i-«>'i.>  ^ci-i  tb^}  j^*.*.*  -^^  ;*>>^o;4  ^^y^,  they  at  once 
pronounced  the  study  of  philosophy  (^t-sa.  j^i^  AAiik«)  to  be 
unlawful  and  dangerous.  It  was  owing  to  the  endeavours  of 
this  sect  that  philosophy  became  so  unpopular  among  the  Ahl-i- 
Isldm  as  to  affect  even  the  learned  of  the  Mu'tazilas.  But  the 
Asha'rta  were  the  originators  of  this  antagonism  to  philosophy, 
for,  otherwise,  it  is  in  truth  in  no  way  inconsistent  with  religion 
or  the  mysteries  O'-^-O .  of  the  Koran  and  traditions.  .  .  . 
The  prophets  and  their  representatives  ^•'r'O.'J  have  ex- 
plained the  truths  of  philosophy  which  are  Divine  by  tamsil, 
similitudes."  ...  "  With  regard  to  the  freedom  of  human 
actions,  there  are  three  Mazhahs  :  the  first  is  the  doctrine  of 
Jahr,  and  that  is  the  Mazhah  of  the  Asha'rias  ;  they  hold  that 
the  actions  of  man  are  immediately  created  by  God  without 
any  exercise  of  will  on  the  part  of  human  beings — so  much  so, 
that  if  a  person  lights  a  fire,  the  lighting  is  said  to  be  an  act  of 
God."  Then  after  exposing  the  immorality  of  this  doctrine, 
the  author  proceeds  to  say,  "  the  second  Mazhah,  that  of  tafwiz, 
was  adopted  by  a  few  Mu'tazilas,  who  held  that  man  has 
absolute  power  to  choose  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong,  and 


454  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  n. 

do  accordingly.  The  third  is  the  Mazhah  of  the  Fatimide 
Imams,  and  the  majority  of  the  philosophers  and  rationahsts 
who  maintain  that  human  actions  are  the  immediate  creations 
of  man,  but  evil  and  good  are  pointed  out  by  God."  .  .  . 

We  cannot  help  contrasting  the  present  condition  of  the 
Church  which  claims  to  be  orthodox  in  Christendom  with  that 
of  the  one  which  advances  a  similar  claim  in  Islam.  From  the 
fourth  century,  ever  since  its  foundation,  until  the  revolt  of 
Luther,  Catholicism  proved  itself  the  mortal  enemy  of  science, 
philosophy,  and  learning.  It  consigned  to  the  flames  myriads 
of  beings  for  heresy  ;  it  trampled  out  the  hspings  of  free- 
thought  in  Southern  France  :  and  closed  with  violence  the 
schools  of  rational  theology.  But  CathoHcism,  after  the  great 
break  of  Luther  and  Calvin,  discovered  that  neither  the  cultiva- 
tion of  science  nor  the  pursuit  of  philosophy  renders  the  faithful 
an  unbehever.  It  broadened  its  base  and  now  includes  men  of 
the  largest  minds,  scientists,  litterateurs,  etc.  To  an  outsider 
it  presents  a  more  liberal  aspect  than  even  the  Reformed 
Christian  Churches.  For  five  centuries  Islam  assisted  in  the 
free  intellectual  development  of  humanity,  but  a  reactionary 
movement  then  set  in,  and  all  at  once  the  whole  stream  of 
human  thought  was  altered.  The  cultivators  of  science  and 
philosophy  were  pronounced  to  be  beyond  the  pale  of  Islam. 
Is  it  impossible  for  the  Sunni  Church  to  take  a  lesson  from  the 
Church  of  Rome  ?  Is  it  impossible  for  her  to  expand  similarly 
— to  become  many-sided  ?  There  is  nothing  in  Mohammed's 
teachings  which  prevents  this.  Islamic  Protestantism,  in  one 
of  its  phases, — Mu'tazilaism, — has  already  paved  the  way. 
Why  should  not  the  great  Sunni  Church  shake  off  the  old 
trammels  and  rise  to  a  new  life  ? 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT  IN  ISLAM 

THE  mystical  philosophy  which  forms  the  life  and  soul 
of  modern  Persian  literature  owes  its  distinct  origin 
to  the  esoteric  significance  attached  by  an  important 
section  of  Moslems  to  the  words  of  the  Koran.  The  elevated 
feehng  of  Divine  pervasion  with  which  the  Prophet  often  spoke, 
the  depth  of  fervent  and  ecstatic  rapture  which  characterised 
his  devotions,  constitute  the  chief  basis  on  which  Moslem 
mysticism  is  founded.  During  his  lifetime,  when  the  per- 
formance of  duties  was  placed  before  religious  speculation, 
there  was  little  scope  for  the  full  development  of  the  con- 
templative and  mystical  element  in  Islam.  This  mystical  and 
contemplative  element  exists  in  all  religions  and  among  every 
people.  And  yet  it  varies  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  race,  and  according  to  their  tendency  to 
confound  the  abstract  with  the  concrete.  The  Hindu  looks  on 
absorption  of  the  finite  into  the  Infinite  as  the  culmination 
of  happiness  ;  and  to  attain  that  end  he  remains  immovable 
in  one  spot,  and  resigns  himself  to  complete  apathy.  The 
sense  of  infinity  makes  it  difficult  for  him  to  distinguish 
objectively  between  the  priest  and  the  God,  or  himself  and 
the  God  ;  and  eventually  between  the  Deity  and  the  different 
forms  of  nature  in  which  He  is  supposed  to  be  manifested. 
Gradually  this  train  of  contemplation  leads  to  the  formal 
conclusion,  as  appears  from  the  Bhagavad  Gita,  that  Creator 
and  creation  are  identical.  We  see  thus  how  curiously  pan- 
theism, in  its  extreme  manifestation,  approaches  to  fetishism, 

455 


456  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii., 

which   preceded   every   other  idea  of   the   Divinity.     In  it 
infancy  the  human  mind  knows  no  spiritual  sentiment  bi 
one  of  unmixed  terror.     The  primeval  forests,  which  the  hanj 
of  man  has  not  yet  touched,  the  stupendous  mountains  loomn 
in  the  distance,  the  darkness  of  the  night,  with  the  grim,  weiri 
shapes  which  hover  about  it,  the  howling  of  the  wind  througj 
the  forest  tops,  all  inspire  fear  and  awe  in  the  infant  mind 
man.     He    worships    every    material    object    he    finds    mor| 
powerful  or  more  awe-striking  than  himself  or  his  immediat 
surroundings.     Gradually  he  comes  to  attach  an  ideahty  tl 
all  these  objects  of  nature,  and  thinks  these  idealities  worthj 
of  adoration.     In  process  of  time  all  these  separate  idealitif 
merge  in  one  universal  all-embracing  Ideahty.     Materiahsti 
pantheism  is  the  first  step  in  the  rise  from  fetishism. 

Neo-Platonism,  itself  the  child  of  Eastern  thought,  hal 
impressed  its  character  on  Christianity,  and  probably  give| 
rise  to  the  eucharistic  idea.  With  the  exception  of  Johanne 
Scotus  and  Eckhart,^  the  mystics  of  Europe  during  the  Middl 
Ages  fought  only  on  this  ground.  Mysticism,  properly  sd 
called,  with  its  higher  yearning  after  the  Infinite,  was  ushere 
in  by  the  Moslem  doctrine  of  "  inward  light." 

The  idea  among  the  nobler  minds  in  the  world  of  Islar 
that  there  is  a  deeper  and  more  inward  sense  in  the  wore 
of  the  Koran,  arose  not  from  the  wish  to  escape  from  the  rigoi 
of  "  texts  and  dogmas,"  but  from  a  profound  conviction  tha| 
those  words  mean  more,  not  less,  than  the  popular  expounder 
supposed  them  to  convey.     This  conviction,  combined  with 
deep  feeling  of  Divine  pervasion, — a  feeling  originating  froi 
and  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  the  Koran  am 
the   instructions   of    the    Prophet,    led    to   the    developmeni 
among    the    Moslems    of    that    contemplative    or    idealistii 
philosophy  which  has  received  the  name  of  Sufism,  and  th| 
spread  of  which,   among  the  Mohammedans,  was  probably*' 
assisted    by   the    prevalence    of    Neo-Platonic   ideas.     Imam 
al-Ghazzali  in  the  East,  and   Ibn-Tufail  in  the  West,  were 
the  two  great  representatives  of  mysticism  among  the  Moslems. 
The  former,  as  we  have  already  seen,  dissatisfied  with  every 
philosophical  system,  which  based  knowledge  on  experience 
1  1260-1328  A.C. 


XI.      THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT        457 

or  reason,  had  taken  refuge  in  Sufism.  Al-Ghazzali's  influence 
served  greatly  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  Sufism  among  the 
Eastern  Moslems,  and  idealistic  philosophy  was  embraced  by 
the  greatest  intellects  of  the  Mohammedan  East.  Moulana 
Jalal  ud-din  of  Rum  (Turkey),  whose  Masnavi  ^  is  venerated 
by  the  Sufi ;  Sanai,  whom  Jalal  ud-din  himself  has  called  his 
superior  ;  2  Farid  ud-din  Attar,  Shams  ud-din  Haliz,  Khakani, 
the  moralist  Sa'di,  the  romancer  Nizami, — all  belonged  to  this 
school. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  al-Ghazzali  was  the  first 
preacher  of  "  inward  light  "  in  Islam.  Intuitive  knowledge  of 
God  (ta'armf)  is  inherent  in  the  Faith.  The  intent  {niyyet)  of 
"  approach  "  {kurhat)  to  and  communion  with  Him  is  the 
essential  preliminary  to  true  devotion ;  the  "  Ascension " 
(the  mi'rdj)  of  the  Prophet  meant  the  absolute  communion  of 
the  finite  with  the  Infinite.  Not  only  does  God  speak  to  the 
hearts  of  men  and  women  who  in  earnest  sincerity  seek  divine 
help  and  guidance,  but  all  knowledge  is  from  the  Supreme 
Intelligence  ;  it  comes  to  the  Prophets  by  direct  revelation 
( c^i  )  and  often  "  The  sacrament  of  the  heart "  is 
conveyed  by  Him  to  His  chosen  few,  "  fi-sirraf-kalbi, 
(^^  kr^/(J'' ,  without  an  intermediary.  This  in  Islam  is 
called  'Ilmi-ladunni.^  It  is  referred  to  in  the  Koran,  where 
it  says,  "  We  taught  him  [His  chosen  servant]  knowledge  from 
Ourself."  *  The  same  conception  of  intimate  communion  with 
God  occurs  in  the  well-known  hadis,  where  the  Almighty  says, 
"  My  earth  and  My  heaven  contain  Me  not,  but  the  heart  of 
My  faithful  servant  containeth  Me,"  ^  And  the  Divine  promise 
finds  a  responsive  note  in  the  human  heart  when  it  is  uplifted 

^  One  of  the  apologues  of  the  Masnavi  on  true  devotion  being  the  service 
0/  man,  has  been  beautifully  rendered  into  English  by  Leigh  Hunt  in  the  lines 
beginning — 

"  Abou  ben  Adhem  (may  his  tribe  increase) 
Awoke  one  night  from  a  deep  dream  of  peace,"  etc. 


'  See  Appendix  III. 


Ci'c^*(^ 


*  Koran,  Sura  xviii.  v.  65,  l^t^'^  jt^  3 

*  See  Appendix  II.  Also  quoted  by  Dr.  Reynold  Nicholson  of  Cambridge 
in  his  Mystics  of  Islam.  This  work,  by  a  scholar  whose  knowledge  of  Suti 
literature  is  unrivalled  in  Europe,  gives  in  a  small  compass  a  lucid  summary 
of  Persian  mysticism. 


458  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii.    j" 

in  prayer  :  "  The  Almighty  God  hears  whatever  prayers  [lit. 
praises)  I  offer  Him.     O  my  Lord,  I  thank  Thee."  ^ 

The  same  transcendentaUsm  is  to  be  found  in  other 
traditions  ;  and  AH  discourses  on  the  inward  Hght  in  his 
sermons  ;  ^  Fatima'-t  az-Zahra,  "  our  Lady  of  Light,"  dwells 
on  it  in  her  preachings  ;  ^  and  it  finds  ecstatic  expression 
in  the  prayers  of  the  grandson  of  Ali,  the  son  of  Husain  the 
Martyr.*  But  nowhere  in  these  earliest  records  of  the  concep- 
tion of  "  Inward  Light  "  is  there  any  ground  for  the  suggestion 
that  either  the  Prophet  or  the  direct  inheritors  of  his  spiritual 
heritage  ever  preached  the  abandonment  of  the  affairs  of  the 
world  in  the  pursuit  of  Truth,  or  the  observance  of  asceticism 
which  he  so  strongly  reprobated.^  And  that  is  exactly  what 
has  happened  in  the  evolution  of  Moslem  esotericism.  In  the 
endeavour  to  obtain  spiritual  perfection  ^  numbers  of  Moslems 
have  forgotten  the  precept  that  human  existence  depends  on 
constant  exertion.  How  this  has  taken  place  is  not  without 
interest. 

The  mystic  cult  neither  in  Christianity  nor  in  Islam  is  a  new 

*  The  Nahj-ul-Baldghat.  There  are  two  commentaries  on  the  Nahj-ul- 
Baldghat,  one  bv  Ibn  Abi'l  Hadid,  the  other  in  Persian  by  Lutf  UUah 
Kashani.  The  full  name  of  Ibn  Abi'l  Hadid  is  given  in  the  editorial  note 
to  the  Shark  as  "  Abu  Hamid  Abdul  Hamid  bin  Hibatullah  bin  Mohammed 
bin  Mohammed  bin  Husain  bin  Abi'l  Hadid."  He  was  born  at  Madain 
in  the  month  of  Zu'l  Hijja  586  a.h.  (December  1190  a.c).  He  was  a 
Mu'tazili  and  a  Shiah,  and  those  designations  are  applied  to  him  in  the 
note.  He  was  a  jurisconsult  of  the  first  rank,  profoundly  versed  {mutabahhir) 
in  science  and  learning,  a  mutakallim  (dialectician)  and  a  poet  ;  and  was 
attached  to  the  Chancellery  (the  Diwdn)  under  the  Caliphs  Nasir  and  Zahir. 
Ibn  Khallikan  (De  Slane,  vol.  iii.  p.  543,  in  the  biography  of  Zia-ud-din  Ibn 
ul-Athir)  speaks  of  him  as  the  "  jurisconsult  Izz-ud-din  and  a  man  of  letters  "  ; 
but  does  not  mention  Ibn  Abi'l  Hadid's  great  work,  the  Commentary  on  the 
Nahj-ul-Baldghat  ;  nor  the  fact  that  he  was  a  Mu'tazili  and  a  Shiah.  Ibn 
Abi'l  Hadid  refutes  at  the  beginning  of  his  work,  where  he  propounds  the 
human  duty  of  thankfulness  and  worship  to  the  Almighty,  the  Asha'ri  doctrine  1 
of  the  corporeal  vision  of  God  on  the  day  of  Judgment  {r'uyat  ul-Bdri  fi'l 
Akhirat). 

Ibn  Abi'l  Hadid  died  at  Bagdad  in  a.h.  655  (1257  a.c),  the  year  before  its 
destruction  by  the  Mongols  (Persian  Ed.,  date  apparently  1304  a.h.). 

8  Lutn'ai-ul-Baiza.  *  Sahifai  Kdmila. 

■'  The  Prophet  and  the  early  disciples  spent  "  the  greater  part  of  the  night 
in  devotion  ;  and  their  days  in  transacting  the  affairs  of  the  people."  So 
did  Omar  ibn  Abdul  Aziz,  the  fifth  Ommeyyade  Caliph,  who  deserved  the 
title  of  saint  more  than  many  others. 

« To  become  what  in  Sufi  phraseology  is  called  a  "  perfect  man,"  "  ins&ni 
kdmil." 


XI.      THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT        459 

development.  It  existed  in  the  Roman  world  and  was  not 
unknown  to  the  Jews.  In  Aryan  India,  it  practically  ran  riot 
and  was  cultivated  in  every  form.  From  India  it  was  trans- 
ported into  Western  and  Central  Asia,  where  it  assumed  from 
time  to  time  most  fantastic  shapes.  Wherever  it  was  planted 
it  implied  the  abandonment  of  all  commerce  with  the  outside 
world,  the  renunciation  of  family  ties  and  obligations,  and  the 
concentration  of  the  human  mind  on  one  object  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  others.  This,  in  fact,  represents  the  essence  of  the  mystic 
cult.  The  call  of  Jesus  was  an  echo  of  the  world-old  teaching 
of  the  Mystic.  The  Prophet  of  Islam,  on  the  other  hand, 
emphasised  the  faithful  performance  of  the  less  impressive 
duty,  the  service  of  man,  as  the  most  acceptable  worship  to 
God.  His  call  was  the  direct  antithesis  of  the  older  con- 
ceptions. 

Unfortunately,  the  convulsions  that  followed  on  the  break- 
up ot  the  original  and  true  Caliphate  with  the  assassination 
of  Ah,i  the  sack  of  Medina  with  all  its  attendant  horrors,  and 
the  pagan  licence  which  came  into  vogue  in  social  life  under 
the  more  dissolute  Ommeyyade  sovereigns  of  Damascus,  drove 
many  earnest-minded  Moslems  to  take  refuge  in  retirement  and 
religion.  From  piety  there  is  only  a  step  to  Quietism.  Thence- 
forward the  evolution  of  the  mystical  cult  runs  a  natural  course. 
The  adoption  of  the  distinctive  woollen  garment  (the  khirka) 
as  a  mark  of  penitence  and  renunciation  of  the  world  dates 
from  early  times. ^  The  Sufi  theory  of  spiritual  development  is 
based  on  complete  self-abnegation  and  absolute  absorption  in 
the  contemplation  of  God.  The  Sufi  believes  that  by  this 
absorption  and  mental  concentration  ^  he  can  attain  a  far 

^  See  ante,  p.  296  ;   also  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  pp.  52  and  70. 

^  In  Christianity  garments  made  of  sackcloth  or  hair  served  the  same 
purpose.  The  Khirka  is  a  sort  of  gaberdine  like  a  long  pillow-case.  The  Sufi 
derives  his  name  from  the  woollen  garment  he  wears,  the  word  silf  meaning 
wool.  The  term  siifi  has  no  connection  either  with  the  ahl-us-Suffa,  the 
religious  men  who  were  wont  to  sit  and  sleep  outside  the  Prophet's  mosque 
and  receive  daily  their  food  from  him,  nor  with  the  Ikhwdn-us-Safa,  "The 
Brethren  of  Purity." 

'  It  is  stated  that  Abu  Sa'id  bin  Abi'l  Khair  who  also  holds  a  high  place 
in  Sufi  hagiology,  kept  his  mind,  like  the  Hindu  yogis,  centred  on  his  navel. 
An  excellent  biography  of  Abu  Sa'id  bin  Abi'l  Khair  is  given  in  Dr.  Nicholson's 
Studies  in  Islamic  Mysticism,  published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press  ; 
see  also  Professor  E.  G.  Browne's  Literary  History  of  Persia.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  contemporary  of  Avicenna.     He  died  in  1049. 


46o  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  il. 


f 


closer  communion  with  the  Divinity  and  a  truer  cognition  of 
the  Truth.  This  belief,  whilst  it  no  doubt  led  many  pious 
and  devout  men  and  women  to  consecrate  their  lives  to 
rehgion,  produced  at  the  same  time  a  rank  growth  of  fantastic 
ideas. 

Ah  the  Caliph  and  the  Imams  of  his  House  are  regarded  as 
having  possessed  in  a  superlative  degree  the  "  Inward  Know-Bj' 
ledge."  Abu  Nasr  as-Sarraj,  in  his  work  al-Luma'  on  the" 
philosophy  of  Sufism,^  quoting  Junaid  ^  says,  that  had  Ali 
not  been  occupied  in  so  many  wars,  he  would  have  imparted 
to  the  world  the  vast  measure  of  the  'Ilm-ul-ladunni  ^  with 
which  he  was  endowed.*  And  in  the  Tazkirat-nl-Awlia^  of 
Farid-ud-din  'Attar  «  the  first  place  in  the  hst  of  mystic  saints 
is  given  to  Ja'far  as-Sadik,  the  sixth  apostolical  Imam.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  in  the  case  of  almost  every  Sufi  saint  the 
line  of  spiritual  descent  is  traced  back  to  AH  and  through  , 
him  to  the  Prophet.'     A  few  only  trace  it  to  Abu  Bakr. 

The  holy  men  and  women  who  flourished  in  the  first  two 
centuries  were  more  Quietists  than  Sufis.  They  had  abandoned 
the  world  and  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  devotion  and 
piety  {zuhd  and  takwa).      Such  were  Imam  Hasan  al-Basri,* 

'^Al-Luma'  fi-tasawwuf ;  tasawwtif  is  the  philosophy  of  Sufism.  Thel 
Luma'  of  as-Sarraj  has  been  recently  edited  with  great  care  and  erudition  by| 
the  learned  author  of  Studies  in  Islamic  Mysticism.  According  to  Nur-ud- 
din  Abdur  Rahman  Jami  {Nafahclt-ul-Uns,  Calcutta  ed.  p.  319)  as-Sarrajj 
occupies  an  eminent  position  among  the  Sufi  saints.  He  appears  also  fromi 
J  ami's  account  to  have  been  a  proficient  mathematician,  versed  in  the  abstract 
sciences.  As-Sarraj  died  in  378  a.h.  (988  a.c),  nearly  100  years  beforet 
al-Ghazzali.  '■     ' 

^Al-Luma',  p.  129.  Junaid  was  one  of  the  earliest  mystics  of  Islam  ;  he 
died  A.H.  297  (a.c.  910).  He  is  stated  to  have  declared  that  "  the  Sfifi  system 
of  doctrine  is  firmly  bound  with  the  dogmas  of  the  Faith  and  the  Koran  " 
(Ibn  Khallikan). 

*  The  Indian  poet  Dabir  calls  Ali  the  "  Knower  of  the  mysteries  of  God,"^. 
ramtizddn-i-Khnda. 

^  Biography  of  the  Saints. 

*  See  ante,  p.  396  ;  'Attar  was  born  in  545  a.h.  (1150  a.c),  and  is  beheved 
to  have  been  killed  by  the  Mongols  in  627  a.h.  (1229-30  a.c). 

'  See  post. 

*  Wasil  bin  'Ata,  the  founder  of  Mu'tazilaism,  was  a  pupil  of  Hasan 
Basri.     Imam  Hasan  Basri  died  in  a.h.  iio  (a.c.  728). 


II 


XL      THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT        461 

Ibrahim  ibn  Adham/  Ma'ruf  Karkhi,-  Junaid,^  Rabi'a/  the 
pious  lady  whose  name  has  become  famous  in  the  annals  of 
Islam,  Bayezid  Bistami  and  a  host  of  others.  In  the  third 
century  when  Junaid  flourished,  Sufism  had  become  a  recog- 
nised offshoot  of  Islamic  philosophy,  but  owing  to  the  scope  it 
afforded  to  indulgence  in  undiscipHned  thought,  Sufism  began 
to  assume  in  different  minds  distinctly  non-Islamic  shapes. 
Abu  Nasr  as-Sarraj  denounces  the  erratic  tendencies  which 
now  emerged  from  the  welter  of  old  ideas  and  conceptions. 
Some  of  the  professors  of  the  mystic  cult  anticipated  Johannes 
Agricola  in  declaring  that  perfect  knowledge  absolved  the 
"  knower  "  from  all  trammels  of  the  moral  law.^ 

As-Sarraj  was  the  predecessor  of  al-Ghazzali  in  his  endeavour 
to  systematise  Sufistic  philosophy.  In  spite  of  his  efforts  to 
shape  Sufism  into  a  disciplined  channel,  it  still  continued  to 
run  in  the  old  gnostic  and  often  antinomian  currents.  And 
yet  throughout  the  five  centuries  which  elapsed  between  the 
death  of  the  Prophet  and  the  rise  of  Al-Ghazzali  there  flourished 
numbers  of  men  and  women  revered  for  their  learning,  piety 
and  nobleness  of  character.  One  of  these  was  the  famous 
Imam-ul-Haramain,  the  master  of  al-Ghazzali. 

To  Imam  al-Ghazzali  eastern  Sufism  owes  in  a  large  measure 
its  systematisation  and  most  of  the  colour  and  beauty  in  which 
it  is  clothed.  His  appearance  on  the  stage  of  the  world  was 
well-timed  ;  for  the  Sunni  Church,  owing  to  causes  which  I 
propose  to  review  briefly,  needed  vitahsation. 

'  Abu  Ishak  Ibrahim  ibn  Adham  ibn  Mansur  is  spoken  of  in  the  TazkiraU 
ul-Awlia  as  the  son  of  a  prince  of  Balkh.  His  father  appears  to  have  been  a 
rich  magnate.  He  abandoned  the  world,  gave  all  his  riches  to  the  poor  and 
lived  a  life  of  piety  and  devotion.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Abu 
Hanifa.     He  died  in  i6i  a.h. 

^Ma'riif  Karkhi  was  the  son  of  a  Christian;  he  was  converted  to  Islam  by 
the  eighth  Apostolical  Imam  Ali  ar-Riza  the  son  of  Imam  Musa.  He  was 
Imam  Riza's  disciple.  The  Imam  was  greatly  attached  to  him  and  treated 
him  as  a  son,  from  which  comes  the  saying  "  Ali  Milsi  Riza  az-tvai-raza 
Md."     Ma'ruf  was  killed  in  a  riot  at  the  gate  of  the  Imam's  residence  in  Meshed , 

^  In  Junaid's  time  already  convents  and  congregational  lodges  had  come 
into  existence. 

*  Rabi'a  died  in  the  year  i6o  a.h.,  and  her  name  is  embalmed  in  the  annals 
of  mysticism  as  one  of  the  holiest  of  saints.  She  had  a  long  line  of  successors  ; 
the  last  of  them,  Bibi  Pakdaman,  died  in  Lahore  about  the  middle  or  towards 
the  end  of  the  last  century. 

^  These  Sufis  or  dervishes  in  India  are  called  Be  Shara' — "  without  law." 


462  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  11^ 

Al-Asha'ri  died  in  320  of  the  Hegira  ;  al-Ghazzali  was  born 
exactly  130  years  later,  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century 
of  the  Moslem  era,  and  began  his  work  of  revivification  when 
he  was  forty  years  of  age.  The  sixth  century  was  the  most 
critical  in  the  history  of  Islam.  Whilst  the  faith  of  Mohammed 
was  involved  in  a  deadly  struggle  with  Christendom  which 
threatened  its  very  existence,  an  insidious  enemy  within  its 
own  bosom  was  poisoning  its  life.  Hasan  Sabbah's  tenets 
inculcated  imphcit  and  unquestioning  obedience  to  him  as  the 
vicegerent  of  the  Fatimide  Caliph  Nizar,  commonly  regarded 
by  the  sect  as  the  incarnate  Imam  ;  he  taught  that  the  "  path  " 
to  Truth  led  to  and  through  him.  His  disciples,  drugged  by 
hashish,  obtained  on  awakening  a  foretaste  of  the  delights  he 
promised  them  in  after-life  as  the  reward  for  their  obedience  and 
unfaltering  execution  of  his  orders.  Beautiful  maidens  gathered 
from  every  quarter  helped  in  fastening  his  chains  on  the  neck 
of  his  votaries.  His  emissaries,  actuated  by  varied  motives, 
but  all  subject  to  an  irresistible  driving  force,  abounded  in: 
every  city,  township  and  village  of  Central  and  Western 
Asia.  Every  household  contained  a  concealed  member  of  the! 
dread  fraternity.  Neither  heroic  service  to  the  Faith,  norj 
learning,  devoutness  or  nobihty  of  character  was  a  protection! 
against  these  nihihsts  of  Islam. ^  The  best  and  noblest  of' 
Moslems  were  struck  down  by  these  enemies  of  society.  Their 
propaganda  was  not  confined  among  Moslems  alone.  Jews, 
Christians,  Zoroastrians  and  Hindus  alike  became  the  victims! 
of  their  insidious  methods  of  proselytism.  Both  men  and" 
women,  and  even  children,  were  seduced  from  their  faith  by| 
alluring  hopes  of  immediate  reward  from  Heaven.  To  con-i 
tend  against  these  enemies  of  Islam  it  had  become  essentials 
to  galvanise  the  conservative  forces  into  fresh  vitality.  Whilst ', 
Asha'rism  had  hardened  into  a  rigid  formalism,  among  the, 
populace  the  cult  of  the  mystic  had  run  wild.  Every  man  or ' 
woman  who  found  the  discipline  of  the  Faith  irksome  turned' 

^  Compare  the  destructive  tendencies  of  Hasan  Sabbah's  cult  with  those 
of  the  Illuminati  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Professor  E.  G.  Browne  in 
his  Literary  History  of  Persia  gives  a  list  of  some  of  the  eminent  men  who 
fell  victims  to  the  daggers  of  the  Isma'ilis.  See  also  the  opening  chapter  in 
M.^Guyard's  Un  Grand  Maitre  des  Assassins  au  Temps  de  Saladin  ;  and  the 
life"  of  Hasan  Sabbah  by  Moulvi  Abdul  Halim  in  Urdu,  published  in  Lucknow. 


XI.      THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT        463 

to  Sufism,  to  a  life  independent  of  rules.  Philosophical 
reasoning  brought  no  immediate  reHef  or  consolation  to  minds 
in  terror  from  enemies  within  and  without.  There  was  a 
general  relaxation  in  ethical  conceptions  and  an  amazing 
deterioration  in  ideals.  It  was  just  at  this  critical  period  in 
the  life  of  Islam  that  al-Ghazzali's  call  to  a  mystical  life  in 
God,  and  to  the  attainment  of  truth  by  the  individual  soul  in 
direct  communion  with  the  Almighty,  struck  a  responsive 
chord  in  many  distracted  hearts.  It  relaxed  the  tension  and 
gave  orthodoxy  a  new  weapon  with  which  to  fight  the  dis- 
ruptive teachings  of  Hasan  Sabbah's  emissaries.^ 

It  is  a  dispensation  of  Providence  that  wherever  a  religion 
becomes  reduced  to  formalism  cross-currents  set  in  to  restore 
spiritual  vitaUty.  The  author  of  The  Foremnners  and 
Rivals  of  Christianity  enumerates  the  men,  each  of  whom, 
according  to  his  Hght,  tried  to  vitalise  the  old  creed  of  Palestine. 
But  it  was  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth  who,  by  his  mystical 
summons  to  the  worship  of  the  Spirit  in  place  of  the  national 
God  of  Israel,  infused  new  life  into  Judaism. 

Al-Ghazzali  was  preceded  by  other  intuitionalists  besides 
the  Apostolical  Imams.  Immediately  before  him  came  as- 
Sarraj  and  al-Kushairi.^  But  al-Ghazzali  set  the  coping  stone 
upon  their  work,  and  freed  the  Sunni  church  from  Asha'rite 
dogmatism. 

The  story  of  al-Ghazzali's  life  told  by  himself,  of  his  trials  and 
tribulations,  of  his  doubts  and  his  hopes,  of  his  final  emergence 
from  "  darkness  into  light,"  is  an  interesting  record  of  spiritual 
growth  finally  ending  in  Quietism,  a  form  of  spiritual  relief 
which  brings  solace  and  comfort  to  many  a  heart  tossed  on  the 
ocean  of  doubt. 

Al-Ghazzali  ^  was  born  in  450  of  the  Hegira  (1058  a.c.)  at 

^  In  Professor  Goldziher's  learned  chapter  on  "  Ascetism  et  Sufism  "  in 
Le  Dogme  et  la  lot  ds  V Islam,  which  I  read  only  after  I  had  sent  this  chapter 
to  the  press,  I  find  that  my  estimate  of  the  causes  which  brought  forward 
al-Ghazzali  is  in  general  accord  with  the  views  of  that  eminent  scholar  ; 
compare  also  the  masterly  essay  of  Professor  D.  B.  Macdonald  in  the  Journal 
of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  vol.  xx. 

*  AI-Kushairi  (Abu'l  Kasim)  died  in  465  a.h.  (a.c.  1074). 

^  Aba  Hamid  Mohammed  al-Ghazzali  surnamed,  says  Ibn  Khallikan, 
Hujjat-ul-Islam,  "the  Proof  of  Islam,"  and  Zain  iid-din,  "the  ornament 
of  Religion." 


464  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

Tus/  a  township  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Meshed  in  Khorasan. 
He  must  have  been  gifted  with  a  peculiarly  virile  and  inde- 
pendent mind,  for,  as  he  tells  us  in  the  Munkiz,  he  had  aban- 
doned in  early  youth  that  test  of  orthodoxy  in  all  creeds  caUed 
taklid  or  conformity.  To  abandon  taklid  and  strike  out  a  path 
for  the  exercise  of  individual  judgment  in  the  domain  of 
religious  thought  has  been  in  all  ages  and  in  aU  creeds  regarded 
by  dogmatic  theologians  as  a  sin  of  the  first  degree.  Orthodoxy 
in  the  Sunni  Church  meant  conformity  with  the  principles  of 
one  or  other  of  the  founders  of  the  four  schools  of  law.  Ghazzali, 
with  an  audacity  which  demands  admiration,  refused  to 
adhere  to  any  particular  dogma  without  independent  examina- 
tion. ^  But  as  he  always  called  himself  ash-Shafe'i',  he  must 
have  conformed  more  or  less  to  the  doctrines  of  that  school. 
Ibn  Khallikan,  in  fact,  says  al-Ghazzali  was  a  doctor  of  the 
Shafe'i  sect.  "  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  the  Shafe'is  had 
not  a  doctor  to  be  compared  to  him."  In  the  twentieth  year 
of  his  age  al-Ghazzali  proceeded  from  Tus  to  Naishapur,  a 
great  centre  of  learning  until  its  destruction  by  the  Mongols 
in  1256  A.c.  Here  he  enrolled  himself  in  the  Nizamieh  College, 
which  had  been  founded  only  a  few  years  before,  as  a  pupil  of 
the  Imam  ul-Haramain  al-Juwaini.  Al-Ghazzali  studied  with 
this  saintly  Imam  until  his  death  in  478  a.h.  (1084  a.c). 
Al-Ghazzali  was  then  in  his  twenty-eighth  year  ;  ambitious, 
energetic,  weU-versed  in  all  the  learning  of  the  Islamic  world, 
he  betook  himself  to  the  court  of  Nizam-ul-Mulk,^  the  great 
Vizier  of  the  Seljukide  sovereign  MaUk  Shah.  Nizam-ul-Mulk 
by  his  munificent  patronage  of  scholarship,  science  and  arts, 
had  gathered  round  him  a  brilliant  galaxy  of  savants  and 
learned  men.  He  recognised  the  worth  of  the  new  aspirant  for 
his  help  and  support,  and  after  a  short  probation  in  his  own 

1  Tus  is  also  the  birthplace  of  Firdousi,  the  greatest  of  Persian  poets.  Meshed, 
properly  Mashhad  (mausoleum),  is  venerated  by  the  Shiahs  as  the  eighth 
Apostolical  Imam  Ali  bin  Musa  ar-Riza  is  buried  there. 

*  It  is  only  in  recent  times  that  a  new  sect  has  grown  up  among  the  Moslems 
of  India,  which  bears  the  proud  name  of  '  Ghair  Mtikallid  '  {"  Non-confor- 
mists "),  see  ante,  p.  353. 

3  Abu  Ali  al-Hasan,  also  a  native  of  Tus.  He  is  the  author  of  the  Sidsat- 
Ndmeh,  a  book  on  the  administration  of  the  commonwealth — "  the  art  of 
government."  The  text  of  this  work  in  the  original  Persian  with  a  French 
translation  has  been  published  by  the  late  M.  Ch.  Schefer. 


XI.        THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       465 

entourage  conferred  on  al-Ghazzali  a  professorial  seat  in  one 
of  the  colleges  in  Bagdad.  Nothing  shows  so  clearly  the  extra- 
ordinary solidarity  of  the  intellectual  world  of  Islam  nor  the 
link  throughout  the  vast  extent  of  the  territories  over  which 
the  Seljukide  sovereigns  in  the  plenitude  of  their  power  held 
sway  as  the  manner  in  which  officials  of  every  rank,  including 
professors  and  lecturers,  were  transferred  from  one  centre  to 
another. 

In  Bagdad  al-Ghazzali  performed  his  professorial  duties  for 
six  years.  His  lectures  attracted  pupils  of  all  classes  from 
every  part  of  the  Empire  to  hear  his  discourses  on  scholastic 
theology  and  logic.  Towards  the  end  of  488  a.h.  (1095  A.c.) 
he  was  compelled  to  leave  Bagdad  in  consequence  of  a  severe 
nervous  breakdown.  The  very  subjects  on  which  he  lectured 
strengthened  his  doubts  in  the  teachings  of  the  schoolmen  and 
divines  of  his  Church.  Asha'ri  had  emerged  from  his  retreat 
after  a  fortnight's  contemplation  of  the  comparative  virtues 
of  Rationalism  and  Patristicism.  It  took  ten  years  for 
al-Ghazzali  to  find  the  resting-place  for  his  soul.  That  rest  he 
found,  as  he  tells  us  himself,  in  the  Master's  words  read  in  the 
light  of  the  revelation  which  the  Fashioner  of  the  Universe 
vouchsafes  to  all  hearts  that  seek  Him.  During  his  prolonged 
wanderings  he  visited  every  centre  of  learning  and  every 
scholastic  or  religious  institution,  where  he  found  scholars  or 
holy  men  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  secular  or 
divine.  Al-Ghazzali  was  in  Jerusalem  just  before  the  crusad- 
ing storm  burst  on  that  devoted  city  (Sha'ban  492).^  He 
seems  to  have  tarried  longest  at  Damascus,  where  he  lectured 
in  a  corner  of  the  cathedral  mosque  situated  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  river.  The  cloister  he  occupied  in  the  mosque  is  still 
called  the  Zdvia  of  Imam  al-GhazzdU.  When  he  returned  to 
Naishapur  after  his  long  wandering,  he  was  forty-eight  years 
of  age,  still  in  the  prime  of  life,  worn  and  scarred,  though  he 
had  found  what  he  sought — the  knowledge  of  God  and  peace 
of  soul.  His  great  and  generous  patron,  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  had 
been  assassinated  by  an  Isma'ih  Fiddi,  one  of  Hasan  Sabbah's 
emissaries,  in  485  a.h.  (1092  a.c),  whilst  al-Ghazzali  was  still 
lecturing  in  Bagdad.     Malik  Shah  had  died  six  months  after 

^  He  is  said  to  have  visited  in  his  wanderings  even  Alexandria. 
S.l.  2  G 


466  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii 

the  assassination  of  his  faithful  servant,  the  bulwark  of  hi: 
empire.  Sultan  Sanjar,  one  of  Malik  Shah's  sons,  now  reignec 
over  the  shrunken  patrimony  of  Tughril  and  Alp  Arslan,  anc 
Fakhr-ul-Mulk,  a  son  of  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  held  at  this  time  tht 
office  of  Vizier  under  Sanjar.  As  great  a  patron  of  learning  a: 
his  distinguished  father,  Fakhr-ul-Mulk  at  once  requisitionec 
the  services  of  Ghazzali  and  appointed  him  to  a  high  professoria 
post  in  the  Maimunieh-Nizamieh  College  ^  at  Naishapur.  Heri 
commenced  that  marvellous  activity  of  a  pro]ific  mind  whic] 
has  left  its  impress  on  the  emotional  and  mystical  side  o 
Islam. 

The  Mtmkiz-min-az-Zaldl  ("  The  deliverer  from  darkness  ") 
was  evidently  written  about  this  time.  In  this  book,  whicl 
is  not  more  than  a  discourse,  he  divides  the  "  seekers  of  truth  ' 
[at-tdlihin)  into  three  classes  or  groups  (sinf).  The  first  grou] 
consists  of  the  dogmatic  theologians  (the  Ashar'ite  Mutakal 
limtn).  These  people  base  their  conceptions  on  "  deductions  ' 
(rdi)  and  speculation  {nazar) .  Their  unsatisfactory  dogmatisn 
is  ruled  out  in  rather  a  measured  criticism.  In  the  secon( 
group  are  included  the  Batinis  or  Isma'iHas,^  those  wh« 
profess  to  derive  their  knowledge  from  a  "  living  Imam.' 
After  an  examination  of  the  views  of  the  philosophers,  amoni 
whom  are  included  the  authors  of  the  Ikhwdn-us-Safd,  "  whicl 
is  no  more  than  a  compilation  of  philosophy,"  al-Ghazzal 
subjects  the  teachings  of  the  Ta'limis,  that  is  the  Isma'ilias 
to  a  merciless  criticism  and  exposes  their  anti-Islamic  char 
acter.  To  their  assertion  that  they  follow  a  living  Imam 
he  replies,  "  There  is  the  Prophet,  why  should  we  follow  an 
other  leader."*  And  he  adds  that  these  misbelieving  heretic 
would  not  have  met  with  so  much  success  among  the  people 
had  their  opponents  (implying  the  dogmatists)  not  been  s 
remiss  and  feeble  in  their  arguments.     In  the  fourth  grou- 

1  The  old  Nizami^h  College  appears  to  have  been  extended  and  enlarge, 
by  Fakhr-ul-Mulk,  and  received  the  new  designation. 

J'uIjj^^^^j;.*      Printed   with    Schmolder's   Essai   sur  les   Jtcoles    Philosi 

phiques  chez  les  Arabes  ;   India  Office  copy. 

3  See  ante,  note,  p.  326. 

*  This  is  identical  in  spirit  to  the  famous  couplet  of  Sanai  already  quotec 
ante  p.  47. 


XI.        THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       467 

come  the  Sufis,  the  intuitionahsts,  people  of  "  vision  and 
manifestation."  In  other  words,  they  see  Truth  where  others 
find  the  Divine  Essence  from  reason.  According  to  the  his- 
torian Ibn-ul-Athir,  who  compiled  his  great  work  in  Mosul  not 
long  after  al-Ghazzali's  death,  the  Ihya-ul-Ulum'^  ("the  Re- 
vivification of  Knowledge  ")  was  written  before  the  Imam 
returned  to  Naishapur.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  on 
this  point  ;  although  by  consensus  it  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant of  his  productions.  The  Ihya-ul-'  Ulum  is  an  encyclopaedic 
work  dealing  comprehensively  with  the  philosophy  and  ethics 
of  Sufism. 

Al-Asha'ri  had  condemned  all  enquiry  into  the  mysteries 
of  existence.  Although  equally  dogmatic  in  his  denunciation 
of  philosophers  and  philosophy,  of  rationalism  and  its  ideals, 
al-Ghazzali  gives  them  a  hearing ;  appraises  their  work 
and  finds  it  wanting,  wanting  in  the  capacity  to  attain  the 
goal  to  which,  according  to  him,  humanity  should  strive. 
And  what  is  more,  as  people  of  the  same  kihleh  2  he  includes 
them  within  the  pale  of  Islam.  It  is  extraordinary  that  the 
greatest  mystics  of  the  succeeding  ages  make  little  reference  to 
him.  Jalal-ud-din  sings  of  Attar  and  Sanai  but  expresses 
no  obhgation  to  al-Ghazzali  for  his  transcendentalism.      Is 

^  iJ:.tJ\>  ^^')t}>']     Cairo  Ed.     India  Office  copy. 

A  short  reference  to  some  of  the  subjects  with  which  it  deals  will  show 
its  extraordinary  range  and  the  industry  and  intellectual  powers  of  the 
writer.  The  book  (in  vol.  i.)  opens  with  a  disquisition  on  the  excellence 
of  learning  (knowledge) — fazilat-ul-'Ilm ;  and  it  is  established  by  proofs 
furnished  by  reason  and  authority  {ash-shawdhid  ul-'aklieh  wa'l  naklieh)  ; 
there  is  a  disquisition  on  the  "excellence  of  Reason"  {Sharaf-id-'akT)  and  the 
difference  between  soul  {nafs)  and  Reason  ('akl)  ;  and  Islam  and  I  man  (faith). 
Toleration  is  extended  to  all  who  bow  to  the  same  kibleh  {i.e.  are  followers  of 
Islam).  In  vol.  ii.  he  deals  with  the  duties  of  man  to  man.  of  the  reciprocal 
duties  of  children  and  parents.  He  defines  here  the  meaning  of  nafs  (the 
soul)  and  rilh  (the  spirit),  of  kalb  (the  heart),  and  'akl  (Reason)  ;  he  points  out 
the  distinction  between  intuition  [ilham)  and  instruction  ila'allum).  And  in 
this  volume  he  deals  with  the  whole  philosophy  of  Sufism  {tank-us-Sufiyeh 
fi-istikshdf  il-Hak  wa-tarik  un-nazdir). 

The  other  two  volumes  are  mainly  concerned  with  the  ethics  of  Islam  ; 
he  condemns  pride,  anger  and  vindictiveness,  avarice  and  miserliness  ;  and 
commends  condescension  and  humility  {hilni),  forgiveness  and  mercy, 
generosity  (sakha)  and  kindness.  The  Ihya-ul-U'lmn  is  held  in  high  esteem 
also  among  the  Shiahs ;  in  the  Bihdr-id- Anwar,  in  the  thesis  on  Reason  and 
Knowledge  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  Isndds  or  "  supports." 

^  Kibleh  is  the  point  to  which  the  Moslem  turns  his  face  when  offering  his 
orisons,  i.e.  Mecca,  or  rather  the  Kaaba. 


468  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

it  because  the  impetus  he  gave  to  emotional  Islam  lost  its  force 
in  the  life  and  death  struggle  with  the  crusading  hordes  which 
lasted  for  nearly  two  centuries  ?  To  the  Christian  onslaught 
in  Western  Asia,  followed  by  the  Mongol  avalanche  which  swept 
over  mid-Asia,  destroying  in  its  course  every  vestige  of  civil- 
isation and  culture,  is  entirely  due  the  long  night  that  followed 
the  sack  of  Bagdad.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  force  of 
his  example  and  precept  became  barren  in  the  cataclysm  that 
overwhelmed  Islam  not  long  after  his  death.  And  yet  the 
faith  in  communion  with  the  Almighty,  with  its  aspirations 
and  inwardness,  survived  in  the  hearts  of  the  truly  earnest 
and  devout  disciples,  and  the  'drif  claimed  to  have  visions 
where  the  philosopher  and  the  rationalist  obtained  cognition 
by  reason.  The  emotional  part  of  al-Ghazzali's  mystical 
philosophy  found  refuge  in  the  monasteries  of  the  dervishes  ; 
zdvias,  rabdts  ^  and  khdnkdhs  ^  sprang  up  on  all  sides. 
Wherever  the  holy  men  who  claimed  a  transcendental  insight, 
an  insight  beyond  the  ken  of  reason,  took  up  their  abode, 
disciples  clustered  round  them  ;  they  founded  orders,  and 
imparted  mystical  knowledge  to  their  followers.  Many  were 
sincere  and  honest,  others  were  impostors.  The  influence  and 
teachings  of  the  first,  whilst  they  lasted,  were  undoubtedly 
beneficent  ;  the  influence  of  the  others,  with  their  sundering 
tendencies  from  Islam,  were  demoralising. 

Al-Ghazzali  himself  did  not  place  his  trust  in  dogmatic 
theology  [Kaldm]  and  denounces  it  as  opposed  to  reason, 
but  the  exact  sciences,  arithmetic,  geometry  and  the  connected 
branches,  are  considered  by  him  as  absolutely  unassailable 
and  not  open  to  doubt  or  controversy.  At  Naishapur  he  wrote, 
among  other  works,  the  Makdsid  ul-Faldsifa  ("  The  Aims  of 
Philosophy  "),  and  the  Tahdfut-ul-Faldsifa  ("  the  Destruction 
of  the  Philosophers  "),  both  directed  against  philosophy  and 
those  who  cultivated  it,  and  in  both  he  tries  to  prove  the 

1  From  the  word  rabat  is  derived  the  word  "  marabout."  In  the  eleventh 
century  the  Murabita  established  a  powerful  empire  in  Morocco  and  Spain  ; 
see  History  of  the  Saracens,  p.  532. 

2  Meninski  defines  a  khankah  thus  :  domus  propter  Deus  extructa  in  usum 
sophorum  aut  religiosorum ;  coenobium.  Richardson  calls  it  a  monasters'  or 
religious  structure  built  for  Eastern  Sufis  and  der\-ishes.  There  is  a  startling 
analog^^  between  those  Moslem  institutions  and  the  Hindu  Muths  in  southern 
India,  where  also  disciples  gather  for  religious  instruction. 


£i 


THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       469 

y  of  philosophic  reasoning  and  the  unsatisfying  character 
teachings  of  philosophy. 

the  assassination  of  his  patron. and  friend  Fakhr-ul-Mulk 
)y  an  emissary  of  that  arch-enemy  of  ordered  society  "the 
Ian  of  the  Mountain,"  Hasan  Sabbah,  in  the  Muharram 
D  A.H.  al-Ghazzali  retired  sorrow-stricken  to  his  native 
f  Tus,  where  he  had  built  a  raadrassa  for  students  and  a 
ah  (monastery)  for  his  disciples.  Here  he  lectured, 
.ere  he  laboured  on  his  works  which  have  made  him  a 
lahty  in  the  world  of  Islam.  The  great  Suh  died  on 
ay  the  14th  of  Jumadi  11.  505  a.h.  (i8th  December  mi). 
;h  him  passed  away  one  who,  in  spite  of  his  mysticism, 
ndowed  with  a  particularly  virile  character,  the  influence 
ich  lasted  long  after  his  death.  Imam  al-Ghazzali  as  a 
'er  of  Shafe'i,  was  bitterly  hostile  to  Imam  Abu  Hanifa, 
;  encouragement  of  analogical  reasoning  and  of  the 
se  of  ratiocination  ^  he  seems  to  have  strongly  dis- 
ved.  Whilst  on  the  one  hand  the  mystic  Imam  by  his 
ism  chilled  the  blood  in  the  veins  of  the  Moslem  races 
rrested  their  energies  ^  for  progress  and  development,  on 
ther  he  imparted  to  Ash'arism  an  idealism  it  did  not 
)usly  possess. 

I  desire  to  enforce  conformity  and  repress  "  heresy  " 
sen  the  curse  of  every  religious  system  where  ecclesiastics 
Legists  have  usurped  authority  in  the  church.  Islam 
lot  escaped  from  it,  though  it  has  been  less  harsh  to 
elievers  "  than  to  its  own  "  innovators,"  whom  ortho- 
designated  as  ahl-ul-hida' .  Men  suffering  from  spiritual 
ition,  or  whose  minds  had  become  unhinged  by  excessive 
lortification,  along  with  rationalists  and  reformers,  became 


470  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

is  one  of  the  most  pitiful  in  the  annals  of  mysticism.^  Farid- 
ud-din-'Attar  was,  like  Firdousi,  an  adherent  of  the  House  of 
Mohammed  ;  he  was  also  a  Sufi  of  the  first  degree.  In  the 
Mazhar-id-'Ajdih  ^  'Attar  gives  an  account  of  his  sufferings  ; 
of  his  expulsion  from  the  place  of  his  birth  (Tus)  ;  of  the  con- 
fiscation of  his  property  and  goods,  and  of  his  subsequent 
wanderings.  Many  of  them  suffered  the  penalty  of  death  ; 
in  the  case  of  others  the  punishment  was  posthumous  ;  their 
works  were  consigned  to  the  flames.  Even  al-Ghazzali's 
Ihya-ul-'Ulum  met  with  that  fate  in  Cordova,  at  one  time  the 
home  of  Saracenic  culture.^  But  these  repressive  methods 
did  not  succeed  in  stopping  the  spread  of  the  mystical  cult. 
Every  holy  man  round  whom  gathered  disciples  became  a 
saint  or  wall.  The  saints  were  credited  with  supernatural 
powers  ;  and  although  the  most  noted  Sufis  of  early  times  who 
rank  now  as  waits  of  the  first  rank,  like  Junaid  and  Bayezid 
Bistami,  strongly  discountenanced  thaumaturgic  practices,  the 
Tazkirat-nl-Awlia,  and  the  Nafahdt-ul-Uns  recount  remark- 
able acts  by  the  saints  outside  ordinary  human  experience. 
These  wonders  are  called  kardmdt,  performed  as  they  are  by 
virtue  of  the  powers  gifted  to  them  by  God.  In  these  days 
they  would  probably  be  attributed  to  what  is  called  "  psychic 
influence."  Hypnotism  and  mesmerism,  under  the  name  of 
tdsir  ul-anzdr,  and  telepathy  have  long  been  known  in  the 
East.  Some  of  the  acts  might  be  due  to  unconscious 
hypnotism. 

Sufism  travelled  speedily  from  Irak  and  Persia  into  India, 
where  it  found  a  congenial  soil.  A  large  number  of  Sufi  saints, 
both  men  and  women,  flourished  in  Hindustan  and  the  Deccan 
and  acquired  great  fame  in  their  lifetime  for  sanctity  and  good 
work.  Their  tombs  are  up  to  the  present  day  the  objects  of 
pilgrimage  to  Moslems  and,  remarkable  to  note,  to  Hindus  as 
well.*  These  saints  taught  their  disciples  who  congregated  in 
the  colleges  or  monasteries  they  established  Islamic  theosophy 

1  Tazkirat-ul-Awlia,  Pt.  ii.  p.  135. 

"  Mazhar-td-' Ajdih  is  a  title  of  the  Caliph  Ameer  nl-Mominin  Alt. 

'  This  happened  in  the  reign  of  'Ali  bin  Yusuf  Tashfin,  who  died  in  11 43  A.c. 

*  LutfuUah  in  his  QdnAni  Islam,  translated  by  Herklot,  gives  an  account  of 
most  of  these  walls,  with  the  practices  and  superstitions  common  among  the 
Indian  Sufis. 


XI.        THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       471 

and  Sufi  rules  of  life.  They,  like  their  successors,  were  called 
sajjdd  ana  shin. ^  They  are,  in  fact,  spiritual  preceptors.  In 
the  West  the  preceptor  is  called  the  sheikh  ;  in  India,  ptr  or 
murshid  ;  the  disciple  the  mund.  On  the  death  of  the  -ptr  his 
successor  assumes  the  privilege  of  initiating  the  disciples  into  the 
mysteries  of  dervishism  or  Suf'ism.  This  privilege  of  initiation, 
of  making  vmrtds,  of  imparting  to  them  spiritual  knowledge, 
is  one  of  the  functions  which  the  sajjddanashin  performs  or  is 
supposed  to  perform.  He  is  the  curator  of  the  mausoleum 
where  his  ancestor  is  buried,  and  in  him  is  supposed  to  con- 
tinue the  spiritual  line  {silsila).  The  shrines  [dargahs),  which 
are  to  be  found  all  over  India,  are  the  tombs  of  celebrated 
dervishes  who  in  their  lifetime  were  regarded  as  saints.  Some 
of  these  men  had  established  khdnkdhs  where  they  lived  and 
where  they  taught  their  Sufi  doctrines.  Many  did  not  possess 
khdnkdhs  and  when  they  died  their  tombs  became  shrines. 
They  were  mostly  Sufis  ;  but  some  were  undoubtedly  the 
disciples  of  Mian  Roushan  Bayezid,^  who  lived  about  the 
time  of  Akbar,  and  who  had  founded  an  independent  esoteric 
brotherhood,  in  which  the  chief  occupied  a  peculiarly  distinctive 
position.  They  called  themselves  dervishes  or  fakirs,  on  the 
hypothesis  that  they  had  abjured  the  world,  and  were  humble 
servitors  of  God  ;  by  their  followers  they  were  honoured  with 
the  title  of  shah  or  king.  Although  the  Persian  word 
"  dervish  "  is  significantly  Moslem  in  its  origin  and  meaning, 
"  dervishes "  have  always  existed  in  Western  Asia.  The 
minor  Prophets  of  the  Hebrews,  designated  nabiin,  were 
only  the  prototypes  of  the  modern  "  dervish."  John  the 
Baptist,  who  lost  his  life  for  his  temerity  before  Herod's 
wife,  acted  exactly  as  hundreds  of  dervishes  have  done  in 
later  ages,  challenging  kings  and  princes  in  their  palaces.  One 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  these  Indian  walis  is  Shah  Nizam 
uddin  Awha,  who  came  from  Ghazni  and  is  buried  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Delhi,  where  he  lived  for  many  years.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  in  1325.^     Khwaja  Mu'in  ud-din  Chishti 

^  Sajjada  is  a  prayer  mat  ;   and  nashin  is  the  person  seated  on  it. 

2  See  ante,  p.  345.  This  man  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  celebrated 
Bayezid  Bistami,  who  died  in  a.h.  261  (a.c.  874-5).  In  the  Surah  Bistami 
is  spelt  as  Bastami. 

^  In  the  reign  of  Ala-ud-din  Khilji,  who  was  his  murid. 


472  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

appears  to  have  preceded  Nizam  uddin  Awlia  into  India.  He 
died  at  Ajmere  at  the  age  of  97  in  663  a.h.  (1265  a.c).  His 
mausoleum  at  Ajmere  is  the  resort  of  pilgrims,  both  Moslem 
and  Hindu,  from  all  parts  of  India.  ^ 

Another  wall,  Burhan  ud-din,  is  buried  in  Burhanpur  (named 
after  him)  in  Central  India.  Shah  Kabir  Dervish  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Farrukh  Siyar  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
is  buried  in  Sasseram  in  Behar.  One  of  his  descendants  is 
still  in  charge  of  his  monastery.  Ameer  Khusni,  poet  laureate 
of  Ala-ud-din  Khilji,  the  Pathan  King  of  Delhi,  is  also  claimed 
as  a  Sufi  saint. 2 

In  the  West,  orders  of  dervishes  sprang  up  on  aU  sides.  One 
of  the  most  famous  and  probably  the  most  influential  is  the 
Kddiria  founded  by  the  celebrated  Sunni  saint  Sheikh  Muhi- 
ud-din  Abd  ul-Kadir  Ghilani.^  Another  was  founded  by 
Moulana  Jalal  ud-din,  which  is  called  after  his  title  the  Moulaviya 
and  has  a  great  reputation  for  the  holy  hfe  of  its  members. 
The  N akshhandia  is  another  powerful  order,  which  has  many 
adherents  in  India. 

But  it  is  given  to  few  to  be  saints  and  to  still  fewer  to  combine 
a  holy  life  of  concentrated  devotion  with  the  discharge  of  the 
daily  duties  of  life.  To  the  bulk  of  humanity  the  call  to 
abjure  the  world  and  to  betake  ourselves  to  complete  absorp- 
tion in  the  contemplation  of  the  Divinity  is  an  inducement  to 
mental  lethargy.  The  responsibihty  for  the  present  decadence 
of  the  Moslem  nations  must  be  shared  by  the  formalism  of  the 

1  Mu'in  ud-din  (usually  styled  among  Indian  Sufis  Moulana  Hazrat  Sultan 
ul-Mashaikh)  traced  his  silsila  through  Ibrahim  Adham,  and  through  Ibrahim 
Adham  to  Hasan  Basri,  and  through  him  to  the  Caliph  Ali,  and  through  him 
to  the  Prophet,  Sarwar-i-Kdindi,  "  Chief  of  the  Creation."  Mu'in  ud-din 
Chisti  is  the  founder  of  the  Chistia  order  in  India.  Three  hundred  years  later 
Sheikh  Selim  Chishi  became  the  spiritual  preceptor  of  the  great  Akbar,  who 
named  his  son  and  successor  Jehangir  after  his  mitrshid. 

Moulana  Jalal  ud-din  Rumi  traced  his  silsila  similarly  through  Junaid  to 
the  8th  Apostolical  Imam  Ali  son  of  Musa  (ar-Riza),  and  through  him  to  the 
Caliph  Ali  and  the  Prophet. 

2  See  Appendix  III. 

3  'Abdul  Kadir  was  a  descendant  of  Ali  and  is  credited  with  the  performance 
of  many  miracles.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of  the  Kurds  and  is  held  in  great 
veneration  among  the  Siifis  of  the  Sunni  sect  in  India.  He  is  usually  called 
"  Ghous  Azam."  According  to  the  authors  of  Les  Conjrcries  Religieuses 
Musulmanes  (MM.  Depont  et  Cappolani,  vol.  i.  p.  303)  the  Kadiria  order  has 
a  wide  influence  in  the  East,  which  extends  to  Java  and  China,  and  its  lodges 
{Zavias)  are  established  in  Mecca  and  Medina.     "Abnegation  of  self,"  say 


XI.        THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       473 

Asha'ri  and  the  quietism  of  the  Sufi.  Mystical  teachings  Hke 
the  following  : 

The  man  who  looks  on  the  beggar's  bowl  as  a  kingly  crown 
And  the  present  world  a  fleeting  bubble, 
He  alone  traverseth  the  ocean  of  Truth 
Who  looks  upon  life  as  a  fairy  tale.i 

can  have  but  one  result — intellectual  paralysis. 

I  must  now  return  to  al-Ghazzali's  conceptions  of  Sufi 
theosophy  and  theosophical  life.  He  certainly  did  not  claim 
any  exclusive  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  of  Creation  nor 
were  his  doctrines  so  esoteric  as  those  professed  by  latter-day 
Sufis.  Like  as-Sarraj  he  propounded  a  scheme  of  life  which 
he  considered  formed  the  true  Path  {tarikat)  to  the  ultimate 
goal  "  the  attainment  of  nearness  to  God,"  and  final  peace 
in  the  Beatific  Vision.  But  as  his  insistence  on  the  Path 
depends  on  the  larger  theory  of  the  Cosmos  it  is  necessary  to 
say  something  about  its  essential  features.  His  enunciation 
about  all  nature  and  all  existence  being  the  direct  Creation  of 
God  the  Almighty  is  but  an  echo  of  what  is  told  in  the  Koran. 
His  theory  assumes  a  broader  aspect  when  he  begins  to  state 
his  conception  of  the  universe  as  a  whole.  He  divides  Creation 
into  two  categories,  viz.  the  Visible  and  the  Invisible.  The 
Visible  world  {'dlam-iil-Mulk)  is  the  world  of  matter  ;  and 
is  subject  to  the  law  of  evolution,  to  change  and  growth.  Here 
he  is  in  accord  with  the  Rationalists  (the  Mu'tazilas). 

The  invisible  world,  imperceptible  to  human  sense,  he  divides 
into  two  sub-categories  ;  first,  the  'dlam-ul-jaharut,^  which 
stands  between  pure  matter  and  pure  spirit  ;  it  is  not  wholly 
matter  nor  wholly  spirit  but  partakes  of  the  character  of  both. 
The  forces  of  nature  belong  to  this  category.  Had  al-Ghazzali 
lived  in  these  days  he  would  probably  have  assigned  some  of 
the  discoveries  of  modern  science  like  the  properties  of  radium 

the  authors  of  the  Confr cries,  "  to  the  service  of  God  ;  ecstatic  mysticism 
bordering  on  hysteria  ;  philanthropic  principles  developed  to  the  highest 
degree,  without  distinction  of  race  or  creed  ;  intense  charity  ;  vigorous  piety, 
humiUty,  pervading  all  actions,  and  a  gentleness  of  spirit,  have  made  him 
(Abdul  Kadir)  the  most  popular  and  most  revered  saint  of  Islam." 

1  See  Appendix  III. 

*  "  Jabarut,  in  the  language  of  the  scilikdn  [those  who  strive  to  attain  Truth]," 
says  the  Farhang,  "  is  the  sublime  realm,  the  abode  of  angels  and  Divine 
Attributes"  {sifdt  Ilaki). 


474  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

to  the  'dlam-ul-jaharut.     His  idea  of  the  purely  spiritual  world.j 
al-' dlam-ul-nialakut ,^  forms  the  most  interesting  part   of  his 
theory.      The    ' dlam-ul-malakut    is    the    realm    of    "  Ideas. 
The  human  soul  belongs  to  this  world.     It  comes  as  a  sparl 
from  its  original  home  and  on  separation  from  the  earthh 
body,  it  files  back  to  the  region  whence  it  came.^ 

These  divisions  are  merely  al-Ghazzali's  deductions  froi 
the  Koran.  His  abhorrence  of  analogical  reasoning  does  not 
prevent  him  from  arriving  at  the  conclusion  by  the  usuc 
process  of  ratiocination.  Neither  the  theory  nor  the  divisioi 
was  altogether  new,  for  they  had  been  anticipated  by  al- 
Farabi  in  his  'Uyun-ul-Masdil.^  According  to  the  Mu'tazilas^ 
the  references  in  the  Koran  to  the  "  Balance  "  (Mizdn)  in  whicl 
human  actions  are  weighed,  to  the  "  Pen  "  (Kalani)  and  Tablet 
{Lauh)  with  which  and  on  which  the  decrees  of  Providence  are 
inscribed,  are  allegorical.  As  already  mentioned,  al-Asha' 
affirms  them  to  be  actual,  corporeal  objects.  Imam  al-j 
Ghazzali  takes  another  course  ;  he  relegates  them  to  the 
'dlavi  ul-malakut,  the  realm  of  "  abstract  ideas."  It  was 
thus  he  endeavoured  to  reconcile  Patristicism  with  his  doctrin( 
of  "  inward  light  "  and  its  longings  for  the  upward  flight  oi 
the  human  soul. 

Some  of  the  extreme  Sufis  believe  that  when  the  final  nearness 
is  attained  the  human  soul  becomes  absorbed  in  the  Divinity, 
This  is  called  hulul  (absorption)  and  sometimes  ittihdd  (union). 
But  this  pantheistic  conception  is  strongly  repudiated  botl 
by  as-Sarraj  and  al-Ghazzali ;  though  often  the  words  wisdl 
and  waslat  are  used  to  signify  the  closeness  of  the  approach 
to  the  Divine  Essence.  Even  when  the  SM  talks  of  fana- 
f'il  Alldh  (annihilation  in  God)  he  does  not  mean  to  imply  that 
the  human  soul  becomes  merged  in  the  Universal  Soul.  Al- 
Ghazzali's  notion,  like  that  of  his  great  predecessor,  is  that  the 
individual  soul  {riih)  at  the  Almighty's  bidding  emanates  from 
a  realm,  the  'dlam  ul-Malakut,  nearest  to  the  Divine  Essence, 
and  on  its  separation  from  the  corporeal  body  reverts  to  its 
original  home  ;    and  that  this  is  the  meaning  of  the  Koranic 

1  In  the  Farhang,  Malaktlt  is  defined  thus  :  "  in  the  language  of  the  Sufis, 
it  means  the  Realm  of  Ideas  "  {'dlami  ma'ni). 
*  See  ante,  p.  426. 


XI.        THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       475 

declaration  "  We  come  from  God  and  imto  Him  we 
return."  ^ 

The  Mu'tazili,  the  Asha'ri  and  the  follower  of  al-Ghazzali 
do  not  differ  in  the  essentials  ;  their  difference  is  due  more  to 
the  angle  from  which  they  look  at  the  dogmas  of  the  Faith. 
The  rationalist  holds  that  a  knowledge  of  God  is  attainable  by 
Reason.  He  appeals  to  Reason  because  the  call  of  the  Koran 
to  the  worship  of  one  God  is  based  on  Reason.  The  Asha'ri 
believes  because  he  is  so  taught  ;  the  Sufi  believes  because, 
as  he  says,  of  "  the  inward  light."  According  to  the  Sufi,  the 
seeker  for  Truth  by  intensive  "  inwardness  "  and  communion 
with  God  can  rise  by  successive  stages  of  exaltation  to  a  state 
when  he  can  actually  have  a  vision  of  the  Divine  Essence. 
The  first  step  for  the  novitiate  is  to  form  the  niyyat  (the  resolve 
or  intention)  ;  then  comes  tauha  (penitence  and  renunciation). 
He  is  now  on  the  forward  path,  this  stage  is  called  mujdhada 
(probation  or  striving).  After  a  prolonged  probation  the 
ecstatic  soul  appears  in  the  Presence  still  veiled.  Hafiz,  in  a 
mood  of  exaltation,  refers  to  this  stage,  technically  called 
Muhdzara,  as  huzuri,  when  the  soul  presents  itself  in  absolute 
surrender  to  God  and  "  abandonment  of  the  world  and  all  its 
vanities. ' '  ^  The  next  is  ' '  the  uplifting  of  the  veil ' '  {mukdshafa) , 
when  the  veil  which  curtained  off  the  Unseen  is  lifted  and  the 
God  becomes  revealed  to  the  worshipper's  heart ;  the  last  stage 
is  the  Vision  {mushdhada) ,  when  the  entranced  Soul  stands  in 
the  presence  of  Truth  itself,  and  the  light  falls  distinctly  on 
"  the  human  heart." 

Even  in  the  primary  stage,  the  psychological  effort  to  con- 
centrate all  thought  on  one  object  causes  the  disciple  (the 
nmrid)  to  see  visions,  hear  the  voices  of  angels  and  prophets, 
and  gain  from  them  guidance.  Exactly  parallel  forms  of 
psychological  exaltation  have  appeared  in  Christianity  in  all 
ages.  In  the  phraseology  of  the  Sufi  the  effort  by  which  each 
stage  is  gained  is  called  {hdl)  a  "  state."  It  is  a  condition 
of  joy  or   longing.     And   when   this   condition   seizes  on  the 

^^^>^)H-  ^^1  The  pious  Moslem  pronounces  these  words  whenever 
he  passes  a  bier  or  a  cemetery. 

*  Huziiri  gar  hami  khaki,  as-o  ghdib  mashaii  Hafiz 
Matd  md-talk,  man-tahwd  da'i  'd-dunyd  wa  amhilha. 


476  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  ii. 

"  seeker,"  he  falls  into  ecstasy  (wajd).  The  dervishes  in  their 
monasteries  may  be  seen  working  themselves  up  into  a  con- 
dition of  "  ecstasy."  ^  :.^ 
The  Sufi  holds  that  the  knowledge  of  God  is  vouchsafed  to  l,^,] 
him  by  inward  light ;  the  Rationalist  affirms  that  the  cognition  l|^ 
comes  to  him  from  Reason,  a  gift  of  the  Creator.  Does  not  ||||q 
the  Koran  constantly  appeal  to  human  reason  and  human 
intelligence  "  to  reflect,  to  consider,  to  speculate  "  about 
God's  Creation  and  the  mysteries  of  nature  ?  Had  the  Koran 
condemned  the  exercise  of  reason,  would  it  have  exhorted  the 
people  to  whom  it  spoke  to  look  at  the  marvels  of  nature  and 
draw  their  own  conclusions  whether  this  wonderful  world  was 
a  creation  of  accident,  or  was  brought  into  existence  by  an 
all-pervading  Intelligence.  Religion  and  Rationalism  are 
correlated  and  bound  together.  If  we  find  anything  in  the 
Koran  which  seems  superficially  to  be  in  conflict  with  the 
results  of  philosophy,  we  may  be  sure  there  is  an  underlying 
meaning,  which  it  should  be  the  work  of  reason  to  unravel. 
Ibn  Rushd  places  this  proposition  with  extreme  lucidity  in  his 
Fasl-nl-Makdl^  He  affirms  that  there  is  no  disagreement 
between  religion  and  philosophy  ;  rehgion  is  revelation  from 
God  ;  philosophy  is  the  product  of  the  human  mind.  He  was 
thus  not  far  removed  from  al-Ghazzali's  plane.  For  al-Ghazzali 
did  not  believe  like  Asha'ri  that  the  earth  was  flat  because  it 
was  said  in  the  Koran  "God  had  spread  it  out  as  a  carpet." 
He  accepts  all  the  revelations  of  science  and  the  conclusions  of 
mathematicians  and  astronomers.  The  stars  and  planets 
revolve  round  the  world  according  to  pre-ordained  laws. 
Nature  itself  contains  its  own  proof  of  the  Power,  Benevolence 
and  Intelligence  that  brought  it  into  existence.  He  is  thus  in 
complete  accord  with  Ibn  Sina,  Ibn  Rushd  and  the  rationahsts 
in  general.  Examined  closely  it  wiU  be  seen  that  the  mind  of 
al-Ghazzali,  who  saved  Asha'rism  from  becoming  a  hard- 
crusted  formahsm,  and  by  joining  it  to  an  exalted  form  of 

1  Zikr  is  the  name  of  the  function  in  which  the  dervishes  usually  congregate 
for  obtaining  the  ecstatic  condition.  There  is  an  excellent  description  of  a 
Zikr  in  an  Egyptian  Zdvia  by  Dr.  D.  B.  Macdonald  in  his  Aspects  of  Islam. 
In  India  Zikrs  are  usually  held  at  the  celebration  of  the  'Uvs  (anniversary 
ceremony  of  the  death  of  the  original  spiritual  preceptor). 

-  See  ante,  p.  427. 


% 


XI.        THE  MYSTICAL  AND  IDEALISTIC  SPIRIT       477 

emotionalism  infused  into  it  fresh  vitality,  ran  really  in  the 
same  groove  as  the  minds  of  those  masters. 

The  Senussi  confraternity  ^  is  not  a  religious  order  like  the 
Kaderia,  but  unquestionably,  in  the  civilising  and  uplifting 
work  it  is  doing  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa,  it  imparts  a 
mystical  meaning  into  the  teachings  of  its  Ikhwdn.  They 
convey  to  their  converts  and  disciples  some  of  the  lessons  of 
"  inward  knowledge  "  without  detaching  them  from  the 
world  of  struggle  and  advance. 

The  exalted  idealism  which  breathes  in  the  Prophet's  words, 
in  the  preachings  of  the  Imams  and  in  the  teachings  of  the 
expounders  of  "  inward  light,"  rationaHsts,  philosophers  and 
Sufis  alike,  has  modelled  the  lives  and  inspired  the  actions  of 
the  noblest  men  in  Islam.  Heroes  like  'Imad-ud-din  Zangi, 
rulers  like  Salah-ud-din  bin  Ayyub  (the  Saladin  of  European 
history)  have  found  in  it  their  guiding  star.  And  poets  like 
Sanai,  'Attar  and  Jalal  ud-din  have  given  fervent  expression 
to  that  universal  Divine  love,  which  pervades  nature  from  the 
lowest  type  of  creation  to  the  highest,  and  their  idylls  are 
regarded  by  many  Moslems  with  a  respect  only  less  than  that 
entertained  for  the  Koran. 

But  Sufism  in  the  Moslem  world,  like  its  counterpart  in 
Christendom,  has,  in  its  practical  effect,  been  productive  of 
many  mischievous  results.  In  perfectly  well-attuned  minds 
mysticism  takes  the  form  of  a  noble  type  of  ideahstic  philo- 
sophy ;  but  the  generality  of  mankind  are  more  likely  to 
unhinge  their  brains  by  busying  themselves  with  the  mysteries 
of  the  Divine  Essence  and  our  relations  thereto.  Every 
ignorant  and  idle  specimen  of  humanity,  who,  despising  real 
knowledge,  abandoned  the  fields  of  true  philosophy  and  betook 
himself  to  the  domains  of  mysticism,  would  thus  set  himself  up 
as  one  of  the  Ahl-i-Ma'rifat.  And  that  this  actually  occurred 
in  the  time  of  Ghazzali  we  see  by  his  bitter  complaint  that 
things  had  come  to  such  a  pass  that  husbandmen  were  leaving 
their  tillage  and  claiming  the  privileges  of  "  the  advanced." 
In  fact  the  greatest  objection  to  vulgar  mysticism,  whether  in 
Islam  or  in  Christendom,  is  that,  being  in  itself  no  religion, 
wherever  it  prevails  it  unsettles  the  mind  and  weakens  the 

1  See  Appendix  III. 


478  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  h. 

foundations    of    society    and    paralyses    human    energy ;    it:| 
naturally  drifts  into  anthropolatry  and  naturalistic  pantheism. 

Yet  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  nobler  type  of  idealistic !f 
philosophy  are  too  great  to  be  ignored  ;  and  the  Idealism  of 
Averroes  developed  in  Europe  the  conception  of  Universal 
Divinity.  Christian  Europe  owes  its  outburst  of  subjective 
pantheism— and  its  consequent  emancipation  from  the  intense 
materialism  of  a  mythological  creed — to  the  engrafting  of 
Moslem  ideahsm  on  the  Western  mind.  It  was  the  influence 
of  Averroistic  writings  that  attracted  the  attention  of  reflecting 
people  to  the  great  problem  of  the  connection  between  the 
worlds  of  matter  and  of  mind,  and  revived  the  conception  of 
an  all-pervading  spirit,  "  which  sleeps  in  the  stone,  dreams  in 
the  animal,  and  wakes  in  the  man,"  "  the  belief  that  the  hidden 
vital  principle  which  produces  the  varied  forms  of  organisation 
is  but  the  thrill  of  '  the  Divine  Essence  '  that  is  present  in 
them  all." 

"  I  would  have  said  He  was  the  Soul  of  the  Universe  if  I  had  known  the 
relation  of  the  human  soul  to  the  body,  for  He  is  present  and  hidden  in  the 
heart  of  every  atom." 


i; 


THE    END. 


i 


t 


ii 


I 


APPENDIX  I 

TRANSLATION  OF  THE  PERSIAN  AND  ARABIC  MOTTOES 
AT  THE  HEAD  OF  THE  CHAPTERS 

PAGE 

O  Thou  !  who  hast  no  place  in  any  place, 

Wonder-struck  I  am  that  Thou  art  at  every  place. 
Faith  and  no-Faith  are  both  engaged  in  Thy  search. 
Both  crying  aloud,  "  He  is  the  one,  He  is  the  all-Alone."    -      i.  Introd. 

He  attained  the  height  of  eminence  by  his  perfection  ; 
He  dispelled  the  darkness  (of  the  world)  by  his  grace  ; 

Excellent  were  all  his  qualities  ; 
Pray  for  blessings  on  him  and  his  posterity.        .         -         -         -  i 

Mohammed  is  the  lord  of  the  two  worlds  and  of  mankind  and  the 

Spirits. 
And  of  the  two  nations,  the  Arabs  and  the  'Ajam  (non-Arabs).     -         41 

Thou  hast  come  before  all  the  Teachers  of  the  world. 

Though  thou  hast  appeared  last  of  all ; 

Last  of  the  Prophets  thy  Nearness  has  become  known  to  me  ; 

Thou  comest  last,  as  thou  comest  from  a  distance.      -         -         -         51 

May  God  ever  convey  my  benedictions  and  greeting. 
To  the  Prophet  of  Arabia,  of  Medina, — of  Mecca  ; 
The  sun  of  excellence  and  of  splendour,  and  of  sublimest  eminence  ; 
The  light  of  full  moon,  of  elegance,  and  of  the  sky  of  generosity  ; 
The  noblest  of  creation  in  person  and  in  adoration  and  in  watch- 
fulness ; 
The  most  excellent  of  mankind  in  munificence  and  generosity     -         56 

He  is  hke  the  flower  in  dehcacy  and  like  the  full  moon  in  splendour. 

Like  the  ocean  in  liberality,  and  like  Time  in  resolution.     -         -         66 

He  called  towards  God,  and  those  who  took  hold  of  him 

Took  hold  of  a  rope  that  never  breaks.        -         -         -         -         -         83 

But  how  can  the  desire  of  the  eulogist  come  up  to 

What  is  in  him  of  nobility  of  disposition  and  nature  ?  -         -         92 

479 


48o  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM  | 

He  surpassed  all  the  Prophets  in  constitution  and  disposition. 
Nor  any  did  approach  him  either  in  knowledge  or  nobleness. 
Avoid  what  the  Christians  assert  about  their  Prophet  ; 
(But)  declare  whatever  else  thou  wishest  in  his  praise,  and  contend 

for  it.  ----......        loi 

Indeed  the  Prophet  is  a  light  from  which  guidance  is  sought, 

And  a  drawn  sword  out  of  God's  swords.    -         ...         -       loi 

Is  it  from  the  remembrance  of  the  neighbours  at  Zi-Salam 

That  thou  hast  mixed  tears  flowing  from  the  eyes  with  blood  ?  107 

When  the  help  of  God  and  victory  come  and  thou  seest  the 
people  entering  into  the  religion  of  God  in  troops. 

Celebrate  the  praise  of  thy  Lord,  and  ask  pardon  of  Him  ;    for 

He  is  the  Forgiver.      --------       109 

Hold  fast,  all  ye,  to  the  Rock  of  God 

And  be  not  disunited. 122 


Come  to  Me,  do  not  seek  except  Me  ; 

I  am  the  Beneficent  ;   seek  Me  thou  wilt  find  Me. 

Dost  thou  remember  any  night  in  which  thou  hast  called  to  Me 

secretly, 
And  I  did  not  hear  thee  ?     Then  seek  Me  thou  wilt  find  Me. 
When  the  afflicted  one  says  "  dost  not  Thou  seek  me  "  ? 
I  look  towards  him  ;   seek  Me,  thou  wilt  find  Me. 
Wlien  My  servant  disobeys  Me,  thou  wilt  find  Me 
Quick  in  chastising  ;   seek  Me,  thou  wilt  find  Me.         -         -         -       I37 

Say,  unto  whom  belongeth  whatsoever  is  in  heaven  and  earth  ? 
Say  unto  God  ;    He  hath  prescribed  unto  Himself  mercy.    -         -       159 
(For  translation  of  the  other  passage,  see  p.  173.) 

The  disputes  of  the  seventy-two  sects  put  them  all  aside. 

As  the}'  did  not  see  the  Truth  they  took  to  the  path  of  fiction    -       290 

He  is  the  Beginning  and  the  End, 

The  Manifest  and  the  Hidden,  V 

And  the  knower  of  all  things.      (Koran),   -----       45J:' 


APPENDIX   II 

p.  1 66 N_-.li!l  .  ^^  ))  r»  I  _jJL^  iJ 

Ibid. ^laJb  fJJA^  ^  ^^-J^^  ;[;5| 

p.  274  -  -         liij  ^  ijj  0^  U'OlX^  A/O  t>»  Uv«^  *^  c^  ^  v^r^ 

C^^J  J*;  /^^'  \j^:>  ^^'^  3'  ^^  v:/*  r**^-'  ^-^^-^"^  vi5^  *^^J 

p.  273     -     -     J^  rv^^'  ^^^  ^^r^-h  sj^r^-  h  '^^ 

k;"  -'j  ct^  ^.r^'  "^7-^  c/'*  c;y^-  ^j  '^^ ^j  ^  r*^  r"^"  ^ 
p.  274 r*^^  r^  ;^  u^-^' s'^' 


'  3  j,Vo--  '^j)  ^^\  ^}^K^ 3  u 

P-  457 -         -    -  ^3>  \ 

S.I.  481  * " 


APPENDIX   III 


Whatever  the  sins  of  the  Babis  may  have  been,  their  punishment,  in 
its  barbarous  inhumanity,  far  exceeded  their  deserts — a  punishment 
borne  with  subhme  fortitude  which  cannot  help  evoking  the  admiration 
of  every  heart  not  steeped  in  racial  or  religious  fanaticism  and  which  is 
bearing  its  natural  fruit.  The  sect,  instead  of  dying  out,  is  increasing 
in  number,  and  judging  from  the  few  professed  Babis  I  have  met, 
actuated  with  bitter  hatred  against  the  MuUahs  whom  they  believe  to 
be  the  primary  cause  of  their  persecution. 

The  cruelties  to  which  the  Babis  were  subjected  were  the  acts  of  an 
ignorant  populace  and  a  frightened  governor  hounded  on  by  fanatical 
priests.  In  China,  in  our  own  times,  under  the  eyes  of  the  civilised 
world,  disciplined  troops  of  certain  civilised  Powers  perpetrated  the 
most  diabolical  and  nameless  horrors  upon  unoffending  citizens  and 
helpless  women  and  children.  Crimes  like  these  destroy  one's  faith  in 
humanity  and  progress.  (p.  359) 

The  astronomer  Ali  Ibn  Yunus  was  a  man  of  versatile  talent.  "  He 
made  astronomy  his  particular  study,"  says  Ibn  Khallikan,  "  but  he 
was  well-versed  in  other  sciences  and  displayed  an  eminent  talent  for 
poetry."  (p.  377) 

The  Indian  Social  Reformer  of  Bombay  (of  the  28th  of  July,  1901), 
in  an  appreciative  article  on  "  The  Liberal  Movement  in  Islam,"  drew 
my  attention  to  certain  statements  of  M.  Renan  in  one  of  his  lectures 
delivered  in  March,  1883,  at  the  Sarbonne.^  In  this  lecture  M.  Renan 
has  tried  to  show  that  Islam  is  opposed  to  science,  and  that  scientific 
pursuits  came  into  vogue  among  the  Moslems  only  when  the  religion 
became  weakened.  "  Omar,"  he  says,  "  did  not  burn,  as  we  are  often 
told,  the  library  of  Alexandria  ;  that  library  had,  by  his  time,  nearly 
disappeared.  But  the  principle  which  he  caused  to  triumph  in  the 
world  was  in  a  very  real  sense  destructive  of  learned  research  and  of  the 
varied  work  of  the  mind." 

The  correctness  of  this  somewhat  wild  and  reckless  assertion,  which, 
coming  from  the  author  of  Averroes  and  Averroism,  is  startling,  was  at 
once  challenged  by  the  learned  Shaikh  Jamal  ud-din  who  was  residing 
at  Paris  at  the  time.  M.  Renan 's  reply  to  the  Shaikh's  criticism  is 
instructive.     The  learned  Frenchman  had  to  qualify  his  generalisations 

*  The  lecture  is  headed  "  Islamism  and  Science,"  and  is  printed  in  a  book 
called  The  Poetry  of  the  Celtic  Races  and  Other  Studies. 

482 


APPENDIX  III  483 

and  to  acknowledge  that  by  Islam  he  meant  the  religion  of  Mohammed 
as  accepted  and  practised  by  the  ignorant  and  fanatical  sections  of  the 
Moslem  communities.  I  will  quote  here  the  passage  in  which  he  limits 
his  strictures,  as  it  may  perhaps  be  of  some  help  in  awakening  the 
Musulmans  themselves  to  a  sense  of  their  responsibilities  : — "  One 
aspect  in  which  I  have  appeared  unjust  to  the  Shaikh  is  that  I  have  not 
sufi&ciently  developed  the  idea  that  all  revealed  religion  is  forced  to 
show  hostility  to  positive  science  ;  and  that,  in  this  respect,  Christianity 
has  no  reason  to  boast  over  Islam.  About  that  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
Galileo  was  not  treated  more  kindly  by  Catholicism  than  was  Averroes 
by  Islam.  Galileo  found  truth  in  a  Catholic  country  despite  Catholi- 
cism, as  Averroes  nobly  philosophised  in  a  Moslem  country  despite 
Islam.  If  I  did  not  insist  more  strongly  upon  this  point,  it  was,  to  tell  the 
truth,  because  my  opinions  on  this  matter  are  so  well  known  that  there 
was  no  need  for  me  to  recur  to  them  again  before  a  public  conversant 
with  my  writings.  I  have  said,  sufficiently  often  to  preclude  any 
necessity  for  repeating  it,  that  the  human  mind  must  be  detached  from 
all  supernatural  belief  if  it  desires  to  labour  at  its  own  essential  task, 
which  is  the  construction  of  positive  science.  This  does  not  imply  any 
violent  destruction  or  hasty  rupture.  It  does  not  mean  that  the 
Christian  should  forsake  Christianity,  or  that  the  Musulman  should 
abandon  Islam.  It  means  that  the  enlightened  parts  of  Christendom 
and  Islam  should  arrive  at  that  state  of  benevolent  indifference  in  which 
religious  beliefs  become  inoffensive.  This  is  half  accomplished  in  nearly 
all  Christian  countries.  Let  us  hope  that  the  like  will  be  the  case  for 
Islam.  Naturally  on  that  day  the  Shaikh  and  I  will  be  at  one,  and 
ready  to  applaud  heartily.  ...  I  did  not  assert  that  all  Musulmans, 
without  distinction  of  race,  are  and  always  will  be  sunk  in  ignorance. 
I  said  that  Islamism  puts  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  science,  and 
unfortunately  has  succeeded  for  five  or  six  hundred  years  in  almost 
suppressing  it  in  the  countries  under  its  sway  ;  and  that  this  is  for  these 
countries  a  cause  of  extreme  weakness.  I  believe,  in  point  of  fact,  that 
the  regeneration  of  the  Mohammedan  countries  will  not  be  the  work  of 
Islam  ;  it  will  come  to  pass  through  the  enfeeblement  of  Islam,  as  indeed 
the  great  advance  of  the  countries  called  Christian  commenced  with  the 
destruction  of  the  tyrannical  church  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Some  persons 
have  seen  in  my  lecture  a  thought  hostile  to  the  individuals  who  profess 
the  Mohammedan  religion.  That  is  by  no  means  true  ;  Musulmans 
are  themselves  the  first  victims  of  Islam.  More  than  once  in  my 
Eastern  travels  I  have  been  in  a  position  to  notice  how  fanaticism 
proceeds  from  a  small  number  of  dangerous  men  who  keep  the  others 
in  the  practice  of  religion  by  terror.  To  emancipate  the  Musulman 
from  his  religion  would  be  the  greatest  service  that  one  could  render 
him.  In  wishing  these  populations,  in  which  so  many  good  elements 
exist,  a  deliverance  from  the  yoke  that  weighs  them  down,  I  do  not 
believe  that  I  have  any  unkindly  thought  for  them.  And,  let  me  say 
also,  since  the  Shaikh  Jam^l  ud-din  desires  me  to  hold  the  balance 
equally  between  different  faiths,  I  should  not  any  the  more  believe  that 


484  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

I  was  wishing  evil  of  certain  European  countries  if  I  expressed  a  hope 
that  Christianity  should  have  a  less  dominant  influence  upon  them." 

It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  European  scholars,  generally  speaking, 
should  persist  in  comparing  the  lowest  form  of  Islam  with  the  highest 
form  of  Christianity.  All  religions  have  different  phases  :  they  vary 
according  to  the  climatic  and  economic  conditions  of  the  country,  the 
environments  and  education  of  the  people,  their  national  characteristics 
and  a  multitude  of  other  causes.  To  compare  modern  idealistic 
Christianity  with  a  debased  form  of  Islam  is  an  insult  to  common  sense 
and  intelligence.  In  this  work  I  have  endeavoured  to  show  how  Islam 
furthered  the  intellectual  movement  of  the  world,  how  it  brought  to  life 
a  dying  world,  how  it  promoted  culture  and  civilisation.  It  was  not  the 
Islam  which  is  professed  to-day  by  the  ignorant  bigot,  the  intriguing 
self-seeker,  but  it  was  nevertheless  Islam — Isia.m  in  its  truest,  highest 
and  noblest  sense.  I  have  tried  to  show  the  cause  of  the  blight  that 
has  fallen  on  Moslem  nations.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  my  views 
will  not  satisfy  the  critic  of  Islam  who  has  started  with  a  preconceived 
bias,  or  who  judges  of  the  Faith  by  its  latter-day  professors.  All  the 
same  I  venture  to  assert  that  my  statements  are  founded  on  historical 
facts. 

One  assertion  of  M.  Renan  requires  a  categorical  refutation.  He 
has  alleged  in  his  lecture  "  as  a  very  remarkable  thing  that  among  the 
philosophers  and  learned  men  called  Arabic,  there  was  but  one  alone, 
Alkindi,  who  was  of  Arabic  origin  :  all  the  others  were  Persians,  Trans- 
oxians,  Spaniards,  natives  of  Bokhara,  of  Samarcand,  of  Cordova,  of 
Seville.  Not  only  were  those  men  not  Arabs  by  blood,  but  they  were 
in  nowise  Arabs  in  mind."  The  memory  of  this  great  French  scholar, 
whose  acquaintance  I  had  the  privilege  of  making,  deserves  every 
respect.  But  surely  this  sweeping  observation  is  very  wide  of  the  truth. 
A  glance  at  the  Wafidt  nl-Aydn  (Ibn  Khallikan's  great  Biographical 
Dictionary),  the  Tdrikh  ul-Hiikama  and  other  works  of  the  like  nature, 
will  show  how  utterly  unfounded  the  assertion  is.  From  the  genealogy 
of  the  eminent  men  whose  lives  are  contained  in  these  books,  it  will  be 
seen  that  a  vast  number  of  the  great  scholars,  doctors  and  savants, 
although  born  in  places  outside  Arabia,  were  Arabs  by  descent. 

Probably  M.  Renan  would  not  have  admitted  that  Ali  (the  Caliph) 
was  a  philosopher,  but  his  descendants  Ja'far  as-Sadik  and  Ali  ar-Riz4  I 
were  unquestionably  entitled  to  be  included  in  that  designation.  And 
Ja'far  as-SMik  was  a  scientist  besides.  Jabir  ibn  Haiyyan  (Geber), 
the  father  of  modern  chemistry,  worked  in  fact  with  the  materials 
gathered  by  Ja'far.  It  is  admitted  that  Al  Kindi,  "  the  Philosopher 
of  the  Arabs,"  was  descended  from  the  royal  family  of  Kinda  and  was 
an  Arab  of  the  Arabs.  But  it  is  not  known  that  Yahya  ibn  Ali  Mansur 
(see  ante,  p.  374)  was  a  pure  Arab.  Nor  is  it  known  that  Ali  ibn  Yunus 
[ante,  p.  377)  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  as-Sadaf — "  a  great  branch,"  says 
Ibn  KhalUk^n,  "  of  the  tribe  of  Himyar  which  settled  in  Egypt." 
Al-Jahiz,  Abu  Osman  Amr  al-Kindni  al-Laisi,  the  celebrated  Mutazilite 


APPENDIX  III  485 

philosopher,  who  died  at  Basra  in  a.h.  255  (868-9  a.c),  was  a  pure 
Arab,  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Kinana.  Avenpace  {ante,  p.  428)  was  a 
Tujibite  by  descent.  "  Tujibi  pronounced  also  Tajibi,"  says  Ibn 
KhaUikan,  "  means  descended  from  Tujib  the  mother  of  'Adi  and 
Sa'd,  the  sons  of  Ashras  ibn  us-Sakun.  She  herself  was  the  daughter 
of  SaubS,n  bin  Sulaim  ibn  Mazis,  and  her  sons  were  surnamed  after  her." 

The  Avenzoars  [ante,  p.  386)  belonged  to  the  Arabian  tribe  of  lyAz 
ibn  Nizar,  and  hence  bore  the  title  of  al-Iyazi. 

The  great  grammarian  al-Khalil  ibn  Ahmed  was  a  member  of  the 
tribe  of  Azd.  The  Spanish  historian  and  philosopher  Ibn  Bash-kuwal 
was  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  Medinite  Ansar  who  had  settled  in  Spain. 
Mas'udi  {ante,  p.  390)  was  a  direct  descendant  of  one  of  the  Prophet's 
immediate  companions  and  disciples,  Ibn  Masud,  hence  the  title ; 
whilst  Ibn  ul-Athir  was  a  member  of  the  celebrated  tribe  of  Shaiban. 

The  political  economist  and  jurisconsult,  al-Mawardi,  a  native  of 
Basra,  was  a  pure  Arab.^ 

The  soldier,  statesman,  philosopher  and  poet,  Osama  was  a  member 
of  the  tribe  of  Kinana. 

Sharif  al-Murtaza,  the  author  of  the  Ghitrar  wa'd  Durar,  one  of  the 
greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  was  descended  from  Imam  Ali  ar-Riz£l. 

Ibn  Tufail  {ante,  pp.  386,  429)  was  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Kais,  and 
hence  the  title  of  al-Kaisi. 

Ibn  Khaldun  was  descended  from  an  Yemenite  family  which  had 
settled  in  Spain.  They  came  from  Hazramaut  and  were  therefore  called 
al-Hazrami. 

I  have  given  only  a  few  names  picked  out  at  random,  but  the  curious 
reader  will  find  numberless  instances  in  the  books  I  have  mentioned.^ 

To  say  that  these  men  were  not  Arabs  and  had  no  Arab  blood  in 
them  is  surely  a  bold  assertion.  I  might  with  equal  effrontery  assert 
that,  because  Longfellow,  Channing,  Emerson,  Draper  were  born  in 
America,  they  were  not  Anglo-Saxons. 

Ibn  Khallikan  calls  al-Farabi  "  the  greatest  philosopher  of  the 
Moslems,"  and  speaks  of  him  in  the  following  terms  : — 

U4»xc  J  ^ix^yJi]  ^  j^laiJf^^j  k*-iulojJ)  ««^i.U»  .^'^iU.JI  ^^\ 

^)  &'  c;"*"  r*"'  \:^^-  r^  c/^^***^'  i^iii^l  ^*  j  c^'c;'* 
jsZ^  AxiXi  B^j  ^jaJI  >ljju«  ^1  ^.  y]  u-^>"  :>  ^y^  J" 

*Two  of  his  most  important  works  are  the  Ahkdm  us-Salt&niyyah  and 
as-Si&.sat  ul-Mudan,  both  spoken  of  highly  by  Von  Hammer. 

»  See  also  Wfistenfeld's  Geschichte  der  Arabischer  Aerzte,  Tdrikh  xd-Isl&m 
of  Zahabl,  and  Casiri's  Bibliotheca  Arabica. 


486  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

"  Abu  Nasr  Mohammed  bin  Mohammed  bin  Turkhan  bin  Auslagh 
al-Farabi  at-Turki  (the  Turk),  a  celebrated  philosopher,  author  of  many 
works  in  logic,  music,  and  other  sciences.  He  was  the  greatest  of 
philosophers  among  the  Moslems,  and  no  one  among  them  attained  a 
rank  equal  to  his  in  the  sciences.  And  the  chief  (of  philosophers)  Abu 
Ali  Ibn  Sina,  whom  I  have  mentioned  before,  derived  benefit  from  his 
writings."  (p.  382) 

Abu'l  Kasim  Kinderski  was  a  famous  poet  and  Avicennistic  philo- 
sopher of  Persia  in  the  eighteenth  century 


Hayy  ibn    Yakzdn   was   translated   into   English   and   published   in 
London  so  long  ago  as  1686.  (p.  429) 

Sanai  has  given  expression  to  his  admiration  for  Ibn  Sina  and  his 
devotion  to  philosophy  in  the  following  lines  : 


f    V.O    .0    Aril    \  j^M  jO    A^    („;>sCL 


"  I  do  not  seek  for  any  reward  in  this  world  or  the  next. 

"  Every  moment  I  pray,  whether  in  prosperity  or  in  adversity. 

"  O  my  Lord,  bestow  on  Sanai  the  proficiency  in  philosophy  and 

sciences 
"  Such  as  would  make  even  the  soul  of  Bu  Ali  Sina  jealous." 

The  position  of  San^i  in  the  world  of  Islam  can  be  gathered  from  the 
following  lines  of  Jalal  ud-din  Ruml,  revered  nowadays  by  educated 
Musulmans  throughout  Asia  and  Egypt  : 

"  'Attar  was  its  soul  [of  the  philosophy  of  mysticism],  Sanai  was  its 
eyes  ;    I  only  walked  in  the  footsteps  of  'Attar  and  Sanai."  (p  457) 


The  reactionary  character  of  the  influence  exercised  by  Abu'l  Hasan 
Ali  al-Asha'ri  and  Ahmed  al-Ghazzali  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 
It  has  been  happily  summed  up  in  a  few  words  by  the  learned  editor  of 
al-Beiruni's  al-Asdr  ul-Bdkieh — "  but  for  al-Asha'ri  and  al-Ghazzali  the 
Arabs  might  have  been  a  nation  of  Galileos,  Keplers  and  Newtons." 
By  their  denunciations  of  science  and  philosophy,  by  their  exhortations 


APPENDIX  III  487 

that  besides  theology  and  law  no  other  knowledge  was  worth  acquiring, 
they  did  more  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  Moslem  world  than  most  other 
Moslem  scholiasts.  And  up  to  this  day  their  example  is  held  forth  as  a 
reason  for  ignorance  and  stagnation. 

Al-Asha'ri  was  born  at  Basra  in  883-4  A.c.  (270  a.m.),  and  died  at 
Bagdad  ;  but  the  year  of  his  death  is  not  certain  ;  it  occurred  probably 
some  time  between  941  and  952  a.c.  (300  and  340  a.h.).  He  was 
originally  a  Mu'tazili  and  publicly  taught  the  rationalistic  doctrines. 
A  clever,  ambitious  man  he  saw  no  opportunity  of  power  or  influence 
among  the  Rationalists  ;  an  alliance  with  the  party  of  retrogression 
meant  fame  and  tangible  reward.  He,  accordingly,  made  a  public 
renunciation  of  his  former  creed  in  man's  free  will  and  "  of  his  opinion 
that  the  Koran  was  created."  This  happened  on  a  Friday  at  the 
Cathedral  mosque  of  Basra.  Whilst  seated  on  his  chair  lecturing  to 
his  pupils,  he  suddenly  sprang  up,  and  cried  aloud  to  the  assembled 
multitude  : — "  They  who  know  me,  know  who  I  am,  as  for  those  who 
do  not  know  me,  I  shall  tell  them  :  I  am  Ali  ibn  Isma'il  al-Asha'ri, 
and  I  used  to  hold  that  the  Koran  was  created,  that  the  eyes  {of  men) 
shall  not  see  God,  and  that  we  ourselves  are  the  authors  of  our  evil 
deeds  ;  now  I  have  returned  to  the  truth,  I  renounce  these  opinions 
and  I  take  the  engagement  to  refute  the  Mu'tazilites  and  expose  their 
infamy  and  turpitude."  And  with  the  recantation  of  each  doctrine 
that  he  formerly  professed,  he  tore  off  from  his  person  some  garment 
saying,  "  I  repudiate  this  belief  as  I  repudiate  this  dress."  First  went 
the  turban,  then  the  mantle  and  so  on.  The  effect  of  this  theatrical 
display  was  immense  among  the  impressionable  inhabitants  of  Basra, 
and  the  fame  of  al-Asha'ri  spread  so  rapidly  among  the  people  that  he 
soon  became  their  recognised  leader.  Ibn  Khallikfln  calls  him  "a 
great  upholder  of  the  orthodox  doctrines." 


Upon  the  death  of  the  last  Fatimide  Caliph  al-'Azid  li-din  lUah, 
Saladin,  who  was  Commander-in-chief  and  Prime  Minister,  proclaimed 
the  Abbaside  Mustazii  and  thus  restored  Egypt  to  the  spiritual 
sovereignty  of  Bagdad.  Asha'rism  henceforth  became  dominant  in 
that  country. 

The  theological  students,  who  were  chiefly  the  followers  of  Ibn  Hanbal, 
under  the  weaker  Abbaside  Caliphs  became  a  source  of  great  trouble 
in  Bagdad.  They  constituted  themselves  into  a  body  of  irresponsible 
censors  ;  they  used  forcibly  to  enter  houses,  break  musical  instruments, 
and  commit  similar  acts  of  vandalism. 


APPENDIX  lll—contd. 

ADDITIONAL  NOTES 
P.  17.    The  word  Ikra  might  be  rendered  also  as  "  recite." 

P.  106.  The  incident  to  which  reference  is  made  in  the  footnote 
at  p.  106  has  been  immortalised  by  the  Persian  Poet  Sa'di.  The  poem 
opens  with  the  following  lines,  which  are  difficult  to  render  properly 
into  another  language  ; 


p.  264.     The  following  lines  evince  the  estimation  in  which  Meshed 
is  held  by  the  Shiahs 

Mash-had  afzal  tari  rui  Zamin  ast. 

Ke  dn-jd  nur-i  Rabb  ul-'dlanim  ast. 
"  Mashhad  is  the  most  excellent  spot  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  for  there  is 
to  be  found  the  light  of  the  Lord  of  the  Creation  (God)." 


P.  279.  Moslem  toleration. — "  In  the  first  century  of  Arab  rule," 
says  Sir  Thomas  Arnold  in  his  Preaching  of  Isldm,  "  the  various 
Christian  churches  enjoyed  a  toleration  and  a  freedom  of  religious  life, 
such  as  had  been  unknown  for  generations  under  the  Byzantine  Govern-  1 
ment."  And  he  adds,  "  In  the  course  of  the  long  struggles  with  the  1 
Byzantine  Empire,  the  Caliphs  had  had  occasion  to  distrust  the  loyalty  I 
of  their  Christian  subjects,  and  the  treachery  of  Nikophoros  was  not  | 
improbably  one  of  the  reasons  for  Harun's  order  that  the  Christians 
should  wear  a  distinctive  dress  and  give  up  the  good  posts  they  held." 

Abvl  Yusuf 's  appeal  to  Harun  ar-Rashid  on  behalf  of  the  non-Moslem 
subjects  is  noteworthy. 

"  It  is  incumbent  on  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful  (May  God  grant 
thee  His  aid  !)  that  thou  deal  gently  with  those  that  have  a  covenant 
with  thy  Prophet  and  thy  cousin  Mohammed  (the  peace  and  blessing 
of  God  be  upon  him),  and  that  thou  take  care  that  they  be  not  wronged 
or  ill-treated  and  that  no  burden  be  laid  upon  them  beyond  their  strength  IjiEg  j 

488 


APPENDIX  III  489 

and  that  no  part  of  their  belongings  be  taken  from  them  beyond  what 
they  are  in  duty  bound  to  pay,  for  it  is  related  of  the  Apostle  of  God 
(the  peace  and  blessing  of  God  be  upon  him  !)  that  he  said  whosoever 
wrongs  a  zimmi  or  imposes  a  burden  upon  him  beyond  his  strength  I 
shall  be  his  accuser  on  the  Day  of  Judgment "  ;   (Arnold). 

P.  279.  The  Zimmis. — The  following  was  the  charter  granted  by 
the  Caliph  Omar  at  the  capitulation  of  Jerusalem  surrendered  in  638 
A.H.  "  In  the  name  of  God,  the  Merciful,  the  Compassionate.  This  is 
the  security  which  Omar  the  Servant  of  God,  the  Commander  of  the 
Faithful,  grants  to  the  people  of  Aelia.  He  grants  to  all,  whether  sick 
or  sound,  security  for  their  lives,  their  possessions,  their  churches  and 
their  crosses,  and  for  all  that  concerns  their  religion.  Their  churches 
shall  not  be  changed  into  dwelling  places  nor  destroyed,  neither  shall 
they  nor  their  appurtenances  be  in  any  way  diminished,  nor  the  crosses 
of  the  inhabitants,  nor  aught  of  their  possessions,  nor  shall  any  con- 
straint be  put  upon  them  in  the  matter  of  their  faith,  nor  shall  anyone 
of  them  be  harmed  "  ;  Baldzuri,  p.  132  ;  Kitdh  ul-Khardj,  p.  54 ;  Al- 
Makin,  Historia  Saracenica,  p.  11. 

Prophet's  declaration  : — "  Whoever  wrongs  a  Zimmi  and  lays  on 
him  a  burden  beyond  his  strength  I  shall  be  his  accuser." 

"  Whoever  torments  the  Zimmis  torments  me." 

Omar's  injunction  to  Osman  : — "  I  commend  to  your  care  the 
Zimmis  of  the  apostle  of  God  ;  see  that  the  agreement  with  them  is 
kept,  and  they  be  defended  against  their  enemies,  and  that  no  burden 
is  laid  on  them  beyond  their  strength,"  Abu  Yusuf,  p.  71. 

In  similar  terms  is  Ali's  injunction  to  Mohammed  Ibn  Abu  Bakr. 
Governor  of  Egypt  in  36  a.h.     Tabari,  in  loco.     See  also  D'Ohsson,  p.  44. 

P.  285.  In  the  times  of  the  later  Abbaside  Caliphs  three  more 
Diwdns  or  departments  came  into  existence,  viz.,  the  Diwdn-iil-Kazd 
(the  Ministry  of  Justice),  the  Diwdn  ul-'Arz  (the  Paymaster  General's 
office),  and  the  Diwdn  ut-Tughra,  where  the  imperial  seals  were  kept 
and  the  documents  checked. 

P.  288.  In  my  former  edition  of  the  book  I  had  said  as  follows  : 
"  The  importance  which  Islam  attaches  to  the  duties  of  sovereigns 
towards  their  subjects,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  promotes  the  freedom 
and  equality  of  the  people  and  protects  them  against  the  oppres- 
sion of  their  rulers  is  shown  in  a  remarkable  work  by  the  celebrated 
publicist  Imam  Fakhruddin  Razi  {i.e.  of  Rhages)  on  "  the  Reciprocal 
Rights  of  Sovereigns  and  Subjects,"  edited  and  enlarged  afterwards 
by  Mohammed  bin  Ali  bin  Taba  Taba,  commonly  known  as  Ibn 
Tiktaka." 

This  statement  represents  the  view  commonly  entertained  by  the 
Moulvis  of  India.  In  his  work  on  the  history  of  Arabic  literature 
(Weimar  and  Berlin,  1898- 1902),  Brockelmann  apparently  entertained 


490  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

the  same  opinion.  And  he  was  not  singular  among  the  scholars  of 
Europe  on  this  point.  Noel  Devergers  and  apparently  de  Sacy  and 
several  others  were  in  agreement  with  him.  Hartwig  Derenbourg, 
however,  strongly  challenged  this  view  ;  and  Brockelmann  in  his  later 
work  {the  Nachtrdge,  Vol.  II.  p.  708)  altered  his  opinion.  What  has 
influenced  me,  however,  to  cut  out  the  attribution  of  the  authorship 
of  the  Tdrikh  ud-duwal  to  Imam  Fakhr  ud  din  Razi  is  the  fact  that  in 
his  enumeration  of  the  works  of  this  great  scholar  Ibn  Khallikan  does 
not  include  the  Tdrikh-ud-duwal.  His  omission  is  by  no  means  con- 
clusive, for  he  often  leaves  out  important  works,  as  in  the  case  of  Ibn 
Ab'il  Hadid,  to  whose  great  commentary  on  the  Nahj-ul-Baldghat  he 
does  not  make  the  slightest  reference.  It  has,  however,  been  a  deter- 
mining factor  in  my  omission  of  the  passage  in  the  new  edition. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  C.  A.  Storey  of  the  India  Ofi&ce  for  the  following 
passage  from  Brockelmann's  works  bearing  on  this  point : 

C.  Brockelmann  in  his  Geschichte  der  Arabischen  Litteratur  (Weimar 
and  Berlin,  1898- 1902),  Vol.  I.  p.  506,  has  the  following  entry  under 
Fahraddin  Abfi  'Abdallah  M.  b.  'Omar  b.  al-Hosain  b.  al  Hatib  ar- 
R^zi  : 

"2.  ta'rih  adduwal  in  2  Teilen  :  (a)  Staatswissenschaft,  [b)  Gesch. 
der  4  ersten  Chalifen,  der  Bujiden,  Selgilqen  und  Fatimiden,  Paris,  895, 
Ausziige  von  Jourdain,  Fundgruben  d.  Or.,  V.  23.  D.  R.  Henzius, 
Fragmenta  Arabica  e.  Codd.  mss.  nunc  primum  ed.  (Fachraddini 
Razii  hist.  Chal.  prim.)  Petrop.  1828." 

In  the  Nachtrdge  (Vol.  II.  p.  705)  he  has  the  following  entry  : 

"  506,  6,  2.  zu  streichen,  =  al  Fahri  von  b.  at  Tiqtaqa." 

The  entry  relating  to  Ibn  al  Tiqtaqa  (Vol.  II.  p.  161)  is  as  follows: 

"  M.  b.  'All  b.  Tabataba  b.  a^  Tiqtaqa,  geb.  um  660/1261,  schrieb 
701/1301  wahrend  eines  Aufenthaltes  in  M6sul  fiir  den  dortigen  Statt- 
halter  Fahraddin  'Isa  b.  Ibrahim  : 

Al  k.  al^ahri  fil  adab  as  Sultanija  wad  duwal  al  islamija.  Paris  2441, 
Flirstenspiegel  und  Geschichte  der  islamischen  Reiche  von  Anfang  bis 
zu  Ende  des  Chalifats,  hrsg.  v.  W.  Ahlwardt,  Goth,  i860,  v.  H.  Deren- 
bourg, Paris,  1895,  Bibl.  de  I'ecole  des  hautes  Etudes,  fs.  105.  Auszug 
vom  Verf.  Paris  2442  ;   vgl.  Cherbonneau  JAP.  s.  4  t. 7. 8.9. 2  " 

A  footnote  to  this  page  says  : 

"  2  Damit  identisch  ist  der  tu'rU  ad  duwal.  Bd.  I.  p.  506  mit  Wieder- 
holung  eines  alten  Irrtums  dem  Fahraddin  ar  Razi  zugeschrieben." 

P.  288.  Justice. — In  the,  Kitdb-itl-Mizdn  ul-Hikma  {"  The  Balance 
of  Wisdom  "),  written  in  the  12th  century,  occurs  the  following  definition 
of  justice  : — "  Justice  is  the  stay  of  all  virtues  and  the  support  of  all 
excellences.  In  order  to  place  justice  on  the  pinnacle  of  perfection, 
the   Supreme   Creator    {al-Bdri    Ta'dla)    made   himself   known   to   the 


^^ 


APPENDIX  III  491 

choicest  of  His  Servants  under  the  name  of  the  Just  ;  and  it  was 
by  the  light  of  justice  that  the  world  became  complete  and  perfected 
and  was  brought  to  perfect  order — to  which  there  is  allusion  in  the  words 
of  him  on  whom  there  be  blessings  :  "By  Justice  were  the  Heavens 
and  the  Earth  established." 

P.  340.  Although  some  Western  scholars  have  doubted  the  accuracy 
of  the  story  that  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  Omar  Khayyam  and  Hasan  bin 
Sabbah  were  fellow  students,  the  latest  biographer  of  "  The  Old  Man  of 
the  Mountain  "  re-afhrms  that  all  three  were  at  one  time  pupils  of  Imam 
Musik  ud-din  (Muwaffak  ud-din)  (?).  This  new  life  of  Hasan  Sabbah 
is  by  the  pen  of  a  learned  Moulvi  of  Lucknow  (Moulvi  Abdul  Halim 
surnamed  Sharar),  and  gives  in  a  short  compass  an  exhaustive  and 
well-balanced  summary  of  Hasan  Sabbah's  life  and  objects,  and  of  the 
pernicious  character  of  his  propaganda. 

P.  340.  Hasan  Sabbdh. — Moulvi  Abdul  Halim  points  out  how  Hasan 
Sabbah's  followers  worked  with  hashish  in  carrying  out  their  pernicious 
propaganda  ;  how  they  drugged  the  minds  of  their  proselytes  for  the 
furtherance  of  their  designs  against  the  existing  order.  He  also  de- 
scribes the  hydra-headed  character  of  the  occult  doctrine  professed  by 
these  enemies  of  society  ;  how  on  the  destruction  of  the  Kardmita 
the  Isma'ilias  sprang  into  existence. 

P.  359.  Bdbis. — The  Babis,  who  have  now  split  up  into  several 
sections,  are  to  be  found  chiefly  in  foreign  countries.  They  are  said 
to  abound  in  the  United  States  ;  many  of  them  are  settled  in  Beyrout 
and  not  a  few  in  Bombay  and  Calcutta.  The  greatest  authority  in 
England  on  Babism,  Professor  E.  G.  Browne,  says  that  the  Babi  cult 
has  nothing  in  common  with  Sufism.  One  fundamental  difference 
between  the  two  cults  lies  in  their  mentality  ;  whilst  Siifism  shows 
great  charity  towards  differing  systems,  Babism  is  intensely  exclusive, 
not  to  say  fanatical. 

P.  400.  Safawi. — A  new  theory  appears  to  have  been  recently 
started  attributing  the  derivation  of  the  term  "  Safawi,"  the  designation 
of  the  dynasty  founded  by  Shah  Isma'il  in  Persia,  to  the  word  Safi 
which  forms  part  of  the  name  of  Safi-ud-din,  the  ancestor  of  Shah 
Isma'il  ;  and  not  to  "  Sufi,"  the  title  borne  by  Safi  ud-din.  To  this 
theory  I  venture  to  enter  a  respectful  protest.  For  several  centuries 
after  the  foundation  of  the  Persian  Empire  the  Shahs  of  Persia  were 
styled  by  European  travellers,  merchants,  and  chroniclers  "  The 
Grand  Sophi,"  in  contradistinction  to  "  The  Grand  Mogul  "  and  "  The 
Grand  Turk."  The  reason  is  obvious.  Among  oriental  writers  the 
word  "  safawi  "  has  always  been  recognised  as  derived  from  Sufi,  just 
as  the  other  designation  of  this  dynasty,  "  Musawi,"  is  derived  from  the 
Imam  Musa  al-Kazim.  The  Rizawi  Syeds  trace  their  descent  from 
Imam  AU,  son  of  the  Imam  Mfisa. 

P.  402.     The  sack  of  Bagdad.— In  the  following  couplet  Sa'di  has 


492  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


expressed  his  horror  at  the  terrible  scenes  he  witnessed  at  the  sack  < 
Bagdad  : 

"  It  is  meet  that  Heaven  should  rain  tears  of  blood  on  earth 
At  the  destruction  that  has  befallen 
The  Empire  of  Musta'sim,  Commander  of  the  Faithful. 
O  Mohammed  !     If  in  the  Day  of  Judgment  you  will  raise  you 

head  above  the  earth 
Raise  your  head  and  see  the  tribulation  of  the  people  now." 
The  effect  of  the  picture  drawn  by  the  poet  is  lost  in  the  translation. 

p.  406.  Predestination. — The  following  tradition  reported  b 
'Ubayy  ibn  Ka'b  throws  considerable  light  on  the  view  held  by  th 
Prophet  on  the  subject  of  predestination  : — "  the  most  prosperous  ma 
is  he  who  becomes  prosperous  by  his  own  exertions  ;  and  the  mos 
wretched  man  is  he  who  becomes  wretched  by  his  own  actions." 

The  great  Caliph  Omar  is  reported  to  have  inflicted  double  punist 
ment  on  a  man  who  was  caught  in  the  act  of  committing  an  evil  dee 
and  had  said  in  exculpation  that  he  was  led  to  do  it  by  the  decre 
of  God. 

Ameer-ul-Mominin  Ali  (The  Caliph) ,  in  answer  to  one  of  his  men  wh 
had  fought  at  Sif&n,  and  had  enquired  whether  it  was  the  decree  of  Go 
that  had  led  them  to  Syria,  is  reported  to  have  said  as  follows  : 

"  Perhaps  you  consider  predestination  to  be  necessary  and  th 
particular  decree  to  be  irreversible  ;  if  it  were  so,  then  would  rewar^ 
and  punishment  be  vain,  and  the  promise  and  the  threat  would  be  c 
no  account ;  and  surely  blame  would  not  have  come  from  God  for  th 
sinner  nor  praise  for  the  righteous,  nor  would  the  righteous  be  mor 
worthy  of  the  reward  of  his  good  deeds  than  the  wicked,  nor  the  wickei 
be  more  deserving  of  the  punishment  of  his  sin  than  the  righteous 
Such  a  remark  (savours)  of  the  brethren  of  devils  and  the  worshippers  c 
idols  and  of  the  enemies  of  the  Merciful  and  of  those  who  bear  witnes 
to  falsehood  and  of  those  that  are  blind  to  the  right  in  their  concerns- 
such  as  the  fatalists  and  the  Magians  of  this  church.  God  hath  ordainei 
the  giving  of  choice  (to  men)  and  forbidden  the  putting  (of  them)  ii 
fear  ;  and  He  hath  not  laid  duties  upon  men  by  force,  nor  sent  Hi, 
Prophets  in  sport.  This  is  the  notion  of  unbelievers,  and  woe  unto  th 
unbelievers  in  hell  !  "  Then  asked  the  old  man  :  "  What  is  this  pre 
destination  and  particular  decree  which  drove  us  ?  "  He  answered 
"  The  command  of  God  therein  and  His  purpose."  Then  he  repeatec 
(the  verse)  :  "  The  Lord  hath  ordained  (predestined)  that  ye  worshi] 
none  but  Him,  and  kindness  to  your  parents." 


APPENDIX  III  493 

The  second  apostolical  Imam's  letter  to  the  people  of  Basra  also 
contains  the  follo%\dng  passage  which  is  worthy  of  note  :  "  Whoever 
makes  his  Lord  responsible  for  his  sin  is  a  transgressor  ;  God  does  not 
make  people  obey  Him  against  their  will,  nor  force  them  to  sin  against 
their  will." 

P.  414.  The  word  Mu'tazila. — In  the  Ghyas-ul-Lughat  and  the 
Farhang  (Lucknow)  the  word  J^J^  is  spelt  Avith  a  fatha  on  the 
third  syllable,  which  would  make  it  in  its  English  garb  Mu'tazala. 
The  Farhang  is  the  work  of  three  of  the  most  learned  Moslem  scholars 
of  India,  and  is  the  best  and  most  comprehensive  lexicon  of  its  kind, 
a  real  encyclopaedia.  In  its  compilation  the  authors  have  used  every 
existing  lexicon,  among  them  the  Kashf-ul-Lughdt,  the  Surdh  the 
Tdj-ul-'Uriis  and  a  number  of  others,  so  that  it  cannot  be  said  they  have 
decided  lightly.     In  Richardson's  Dictionary  the  word  is  spelt  similarly. 

In  the  Lisdn-ul-'Arab  the  word  is  printed  with  a  Kesra  under  the  third 
syllable,  which  would  make  it  read  Mu'tazila.  And  Western  Oriental- 
ists have  almost  entirely  adopted  this  view. 

The  difference,  which  to  an  outsider  unacquainted  with  the  Arabic 
language  may  sound  like  a  distinction  without  a  difference,  arises  from 
the  question,  did  Wasil  bin  'Ata  leave  the  majlis  of  his  own  accord,  or 
was  he  asked  on  account  of  his  disagreement  with  the  Imam  to  with- 
draw ?  Ibn  Khallikan  says  he  was  "  expelled."  In  the  first  case  the 
active  participle  would  be  the  right  form,  and  the  word  would  be 
mu'tazila  ;  in  the  latter  case  it  would  be  mu'tazala.  The  Indian  Moulvis 
hold  the  opinion  that  he  was  asked  to  leave  ;  in  which  they  are  sup- 
ported by  Ibn  Khallikan.  And  yet  de  Slane,  the  translator  of  the 
Wafi'dt  al-Aydn  transliterates  the  word  as  Mu'tazilite. 

In  all  my  previous  works  I  have  followed  the  Ghyds  and  the  Farhang, 
but  in  view  of  the  unanimity  among  Western  Orientalists  and  in  order 
to  avoid  confusing  the  reader  I  have  decided  in  this  Edition  to  range 
myself  with  them.  This  does  not,  however,  alter  my  adherence  to 
the  scholars  of  my  country. 

P.  419.  Mu'tazila  doctrines. — "  The  Mu'tazilas  are  agreed  that  the 
world  has  a  Creator,  Eternal,  Almighty,  Omniscient,  Living.  He  is 
neither  a  body  nor  an  accident  nor  a  substance  ;  He  is  self-sufficient. 
One,  incomprehensible  by  sense.  Just,  All- wise,  doth  no  wrong;  nor 
purposeth  any  ;  He  lays  duties  on  human  beings  by  way  of  indicating 
retribution  to  them.  He  renders  man  capable  of  action,  removes 
hindrance  out  of  the  way,  and  retribution  is  absolutely  necessary  ; 
further,  they  agree  upon  the  necessity  of  the  sending  of  a  Prophet  when 
a  sending  is  desirable,  and  that  the  Prophet  must  bring  a  new  law  or 
revive  one  of  which  no  trace  is  left,  or  provide  some  new  life  to  human- 
ity ;  and  they  are  agreed  that  the  last  of  the  Prophets  is  Mohammed ; 
and  that  faith  is  a  declaration  and  knowledge  and  action.  And  they 
agree  that  man's  action  is  not  created  in  him  ;  they  agree  in  having 
friendly  feelings  towards  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet,  but  they 
disagree  about  Osmin  after  the  events  that  he  brought  about ;    most 


494  THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 

of  them,  however,  have  friendly  feeHngs  towards  him  and  offer  explanajj 
tions  for  his  conduct.     And  most  of  them  are  agreed  about  standing 
aloof  from  Mu'awiyah  and  'Amr  ibn  al-'As  and  they  are  agreed  upon  the 
necessity  of  enjoining  good  acts  and  the  forbidding  of  evil." 

P.  472.  Ameer  Khusru,  although  he  has  been  accorded  a  ph 
amongst  the  Awlia  (the  Sufi  saints),  was  certainly  not  a  professed  Suf 
Most  of  the  Moslem  poets  of  India  bear  more  than  a  tinge  of  mysticisr 
and  have  given  expression  to  it  in  their  poetry.  I  have  alreac 
mentioned  Dabir  [ante,  p.  460).  The  three  brothers,  Anis,  Munis,  ai 
Uns  {noms  de  plume  derived  from  one  and  the  same  root),  were  cor 
temporaries  of  Dabfr  and  their  thoughts  run  in  the  same  channe 
Altaf  Husain  Khan  Hdli  and  Asad  ullah  Khan  Ghdlib,  like  the  ur 
fortunate  Bahadur  Shah,  the  last  titular  King  of  Delhi,  who  wa 
deported  by  the  British  to  Rangoon  after  the  Mutiny,  were  "  intuitional- 
ists  "  In  one  of  his  finest  poems  Ghalib  speaks  of  Bahadur  Shah' 
in  these  terms  : 

Shah-i-roushan  dil  Bahddur  Shah  kehai 
Rdz-i-hasti  uspeh  sar-ta-sar  khula. 
The  King  Bahadur  Shah  of  the  illumined  heart. 
He  has  had  opened  to  him  fully  the  mysteries  of  existence. 
P.  472.     Sennusi. — The  Sennusiya  order,  if  it  can  be  so  called,  was 
founded  by  Mohammed  bin  Ali  as-Sennusi  al-Idrisi.     He  was  a  descend- 
ant of  the  Prophet  through  Idris,  who  had  escaped  into  the  Maghrib 
(West  Africa)  from  the  massacre  in  Medina  by  Yezid's  troops.     He  was 
born  in  a  place  called  Mustaghanem  in  Algeria  in  1787.     He  appears  to 
have  been  a  man  of  a  particularly  virile  character.     He  travelled  much 
in  the   Islamic  countries  which  were  easy  of  access,   and  noted  the 
deterioration  in  morals  which  resulted  to  the  Arabs  and  other  Moslems 
of  North  Africa  from  contact  with  the  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean 
littoral.     He  also  observed  how  the  Moslems  had  fallen  away  from  the 
old  teachings,  and  how  lethargic  and  fatalistic  they  had  become.     He 
uplifted  them  by  directing  their  energies  to  such  industries  as  conduced 
to  material  prosperity  and  their  minds  to  the  duties  imposed  by  their 
religion. 

Sidi  Mohammed  bin  Ali,  before  his  death  in  1859,  had  founded  numbers 
of  zavias  or  lodges  in  the  Hijaz  and  Yemen,  in  the  Libyan  Oases,  in 
Cyrenaica  and  Algeria.  And  those  lodges,  in  mid-Africa  at  least,  exer- 
cised considerable  moral  influence.  In  Morocco  his  disciples,  who  are 
usually  called  Brothers  ("  Ikhwan  "),  made  little  or  no  progress  in 
consequence  of  the  old  established  Moulai  Tyyib  order.  Sidi  Mohammed 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mohammed  al-Mahdi  as  the  head  of  the 
fraternity. 

P.  473.     I  am  quoting  from  memory — 

Kajkol  ko  tdj  khusrawdni  sahmjhai 

Aur  dunyd  dani  ko  fdni  samjhai 

Dariai  Hakikat  wahi  jawai  pair 

Jo  Kisai  'umar  ko  kahdni  samjhai. 


APPENDIX  III  495 

Apostasy. — The  punishment  for  apostasy  provided  by  the  ecclesiastical 
laws  of  Islam  has  recently  caused  some  amount  of  perturbation  among 
politicians  and  others  in  England.  "  Apostasy  "  has  always  from  the 
earUest  times  been  regarded  as  a  capital  offence  in  all  the  religious 
and  civil  systems  of  the  world,  as  it  formed  a  breach  of  loyalty  to 
established  order.  The  Romans  condemned  the  early  Christians  to 
death  because  they  had  set  themselves  up  against  the  government  and 
the  State-religion.  The  Christians,  when  they  obtained  supremacy, 
followed  the  Roman  example.  The  Romish  Church  burnt  apostates, 
heretics,  men,  women  and  even  children,  without  mercy  all  over  the 
globe.  The  Reformed  Churches  were  not  lacking  in  ardour  in  the 
cause  of  orthodoxy  and  maintenance  of  conformity.  Apostates  were 
subject  to  the  penalty  of  death  up  to  very  recent  times  in  England. 
At  the  present  time  a  person  renouncing  Christianity  is  not  put  to 
death,  but  is  subject  to  social  and  civil  ostracism.  The  Prophet  of 
IslS.m  never  condemned  freedom  of  conscience,  but  treason  to  the 
Commonwealth  was  punished  with  death.  It  was  frequently  the  case 
that  the  Meccans  made  a  profession  of  the  faith  in  order  to  get  into  the 
city  of  Medina,  and  after  obtaining  all  the  information  connected 
with  the  security  of  the  little  Moslem  State  returned  to  Mecca  and 
threw  ofE  Islam.  When  captured  they  were  condemned  to  execution. 
Treason  is  still  in  our  own  days,  throughout  the  world,  punishable 
with  death,  and  no  objection  can  be  taken  to  these  executions.  The 
Moslem  ecclesiastical  law  that  an  apostate  must  undergo  the  penalty 
of  death  is  based  on  this  rule.  But  women  are  not  punishable  with 
death,  they  are  only  imprisoned  ;  nor  is  any  cliild  subject  to  that 
penalty.  This  is  the  difference  between  Islam  and  Christianity  in  the 
matter  of  humanity  and  freedom  of  conscience.  If  I  am  not  mistaken, 
the  penalty  of  death  for  "  apostasy  "  was  abolished  in  Turkey  in  the 
reign  of  Sultan  Selim  II.  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


APPENDIX   IV 

For  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Saracenic  Caliphs  and  Sovereigna 
see  my  Short  History  of  the  Saracens.     I  give  here  the  names  of  the 
Ommeyyade  Caliphs  of  Damascus  and  Spain,  of  the  Abbaside  Calipl: 
of  Bagdad  and  the  Fatimide  Caliphs  of  Cairo,  with  the  dates  of  theii 
accession  to  make  the  text  intelligible. 

THE  RASHIDIN  CALIPHS. 

A.H.      A.C. 

1.  Abu  Bakr ii=  632 

2.  Omar 13=  634 

3.  Osman 23=  644 

4-  All 35  =  656 


THE  OMMEYYADE  SOVEREIGNS  OF  DAMASCUS. 

AH.  A.C. 

1.  Mu'awiyah  I.           -------  41=  661 

2.  Yezid     ---------  61  =  681 

3.  Muawiya'i  II.          -------  64   =  683 

4.  Merwan  I. 65=  684 

5.  Abdul  Malik  - 65   =  685 

6.  Walid  I.          -.-.----  86  =  705 

7.  Sulaiman -  96=  715 

8.  Omar  bin  Abdul  Aziz -  99   =  71? 

9.  Yezid  II.         --------  loi    =  720 

10.  Hisham           --------  105   =  724 

11.  Walid  II. 125   =  743 

12.  Yezid  III.       -                   -         -         -         -         -         -  126   =  744 

13.  Ibrahim          --------  126  =  744 

14.  Mervvan  II. 127   =  745 

THE  ABBASIDE  CALIPHS  OF  BAGDAD. 

1.  As-Saff4h,  Abu' I  Abbds  (Abdullah)  - 

2.  Al-Mansur,  Abd  Ja'far 

496 


A.H. 

A.C. 

132    = 

750 

136    = 

754 

APPENDIX  IV 


497 


AH.  A.C. 

3.  Al-Mahdi  (Mohammed) 158=  775 

4.  Al-Hadi  (Musa) 168  =  785 

5.  Ar-Rashid  (Harun) 170=  786 

6.  Al-Amin  (Mohammed)    -         -         -         -         -         -  193=  809 

g7.  Al-Mamun  (Abdullah) 198  =  813 

8.  Al-Mu'tasim  b'lUah  (Abu  Ishak  Mohammed)  -         -  218  =  833 

9.  Al-Wasik  b'lllah  (Abu  Jaafar  Harun)      -         -         -  227  =  842 

10.  Al-Mutawakkil  'ala-Illah  (Jaafar)    -         -         -         -  232  =  847 

11.  Al-Muntasir  b'lllah  (Mohammed)    -         -         .         -  247  =  861 

12.  Al-Mustain  b'lllah  (Ahmed)    -----  248  =  862 

13.  Al-Mu'tazz  b'lllah  (Mohammed)      -         -         -         -  252  =  866 

14.  Al-Muhtadi  b'lllah  (Mohammed  Abfl  Ishak)    -         -  255  =  869 

15.  Al-Mu'tamid  al'-Allah  (Ahmed,  Abu'l  Abb^s)           -  256  =  870 

16.  Al-Mutazid  b'lllah  (Ahmed,  Abu'l  Abbas)        -         -  279  =  892 

17.  Al-Muktafi  b'lllah  (Ali,  Abu  Mohammed)         -         -  289  =  902 

18.  Al-Muktadir  b'lllah  (Ja'far,  Abu'l  Fazl)           -         -  295  =  908 

19.  Al-Kahir  b'lllah  (Mohammed,  Abu  Mansur)    -         -  320  =  932 

20.  Ar-Razi  b'lllah  (Mohammed  Abu'l  Abbas)  -  -  322  =  934 
:i.  Al-Muttaki  b'lllah  (Ibrahim,  Abu'l  Ishak)       -         -  329  =  940 

22.  Al-Mustakfi  b'lllah  (Abdullah,  Abu'l  Kasim)            -  333  =  944 

23.  Al-Muti  'Ullah  (Fazl,  Abul  Kasim)  ...  334  =  946 
>4.  At-Tai  b'lllah  (Abdul  Karim,  Abu  Bakr)  -  -  363  =  974 
>5.  Al-Kadir  b'lllah  (Ahmed,  Abu'l  Abbas)  -  -  -  381  =  991 
•6.  Al-Kaim  biamr  Illah  (Abdullah,  Abu  Jaafar)  -  -  422  =  1031 
•7.  Al-Muktadi  bi'amr-Illah  (Abdullah,  Abu'l  Kasim)  -  467  =  1075 
:8.  Al-Mustazhir  b'lllah  (Ahmed,  Abu'l  Abbas)  -  -  487  =  1094 
■9.  Al-Mustarshid  b'lllah  (Fazl,  Abu'l  Mansur)  -  -  512  =  1118 
,0.  Ar-Rashid  b'lllah  (Mansur,  Abu  Jaafar)           -         -  529  =1135 

1.  Al-Muktaii  bi'amr-Illah  (Mohammed,  Abu  Abdullah)  530  =  1136 

2.  Al-Mustanjid  b'lllah  (Yusuf,  Abu'l  Muzaffar)  -  555  -^1160 

3.  Al-Mustazii  bi'amr-Illah  (Hasan,  Abu  Mohammed)  566  =  1170 

4.  An-NS,sir  li-din-Iliah  (Ahmed,  Abu'l  Abbas)    -         -  575  =1180 

5.  Az-Zahir  bi'amr-Illah  (Mohammed,  AbQ  Nasr)         -  622  =  1225 

6.  Al-Mustansir  b'lllah  (Mansur,  Abu  Ja'far)       -         -  623  =  1226 

7.  Al-Musta'sim  b'lllah  (Abdullah,  Abu  Ahmed)           -  640  =  1242 


I         THE  FATIMIDE  CALIPHS  OF  EGYPT 

1  A.H.  A.C. 

1.  Al-Mahdi,  ObaiduUah     -         -         -         -         -         -  296  =     908 

2.  Al-Kaim  bi-amr-IUah 322   ^     934 

5.  Al-Mansur  bi-amr-Illah  ------  334   =     945 

\.  Al-Muizz  li-din-IUah    i— 34^=     953 

).  Al-Aziz  b'lllah -  3^5   =     975 

■).  Al-Hakim  bi-amr-Illah   -         -         -         -         -         -  386  =     996 

;'.  Az-Zahir  r-az&z-din-Illah        -----  411    =1021 

!i.  Al-Mustansir  b'lllah 427   =  1036 

s.i,  2  I 


498 

9- 

lO. 

II. 

12. 

13- 

14. 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  ISLAM 


Al-Musta'li  b'lllah  - 
Al-'Amir  bi-Ahkam-Illah 
Al-Hafiz  li-din-Illah 
Az-Zafir  bi-amr-Illah 
Al-Faiz  bi-amr-Illah 
Al-'Azid-li-din-IUah 


A.H. 

A.C. 

487 

= 

1094 

494 

= 

IIOI 

523 

= 

II30 

544 

= 

1 149 

549 

= 

II54 

555 

= 

ii6a 

THE  OMMEYYADE  CALIPHS  OF  CORDOVA. 

138-422,   756-1031  A.C. 

A.H. 

Abdur  Rahman  I.  (ad  Ddkhil) 138   =     756 

Hisham  I.  (Abu'l  Walid) 172   =     788J 

Hakam  I.,  al-Muntasir  -         -         -         -         -         -  180=     7961 

Abdur  Rahman  II.  [al-Ausat)        -----  206  =     822 

Mohammed  I.       -------         -  238   =     852 

Munzir  ---------  273   =     88^ 

Abdullah -         -         -  275   =     888 

An-Nasir  li-din-Illah,  Abdur  Rahman  III.     -         -         -  300   =     912 

Al-Mustansir  b'lllah,  Hakam  II.  -         -         -         -         -  350   =    961 

Al-Muwayyid  b'lllah,  Hisham  II.  -         -         -         -  366   =    97( 

Al-Mahdi,  Mohammed  II.     -         -         -         -         -         -  399   =  looc 

Al-Musta'in  b'lllah,  Sulaiman       -----  400   =  ioo( 

Mohammed  II  (again)  - -  400   =  loi* 

Hisham  II.  (again)         -------  400  =  iok 

Sulaiman  (again)  --------  403   =  loi 

Ali  bin  Hamud  {An-Ndsir  the  Idriside)  .         .         .  407   ==  loi' 

Abdur  Rahman  IV  {al-Mttrtaza)   -----  408   =  lor 

Kasim  bin  Hamud  (al-Mdmun)     -----  408   =  loi 

Yahya  bin  Ali  bin  Hamud  [al-Mnsta'li)         -         -         -  412   =  102 

Kasim  bin  Hamud  (again) -  413   =  102 

.\bdur  Rahman  V.  [al-Mustazhir  h'llldh)        -         -         -  414   =  102 

Mohammed  III.  [al-Miistakfi  b'llldh)     -         -         -         -  414   =  102 

Yahya  bin  AU  bin  Hamud  (again)  -         -         -         -  416   =  102 

Hisham  III.  [al-Mn'tazz  h'llldh)    -         -         -         -         -  418   =  102 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

N.B. — In  the  following  index  the  definite  article  al  before  proper  names 
is  disregarded,  while  the  prefix  Banu  or  Bajii  ("  sons  of  .  .  .  ")  before  the 
names  of  tribes  is  omitted  ;  al-Hallaj,  e.g.  should  be  sought  under  H,  and 
Banu-Abbas  under  A. 

The  letter  b.  between  two  names  stands  for  ibn  ("  son  of  .  .  .  "),  and  n 
for  note. 


Abbas,  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  6,  7,  9  n, 

14.  44,  113,  128,  305-6. 
Abbas  II.,  Shah  of  Persia,  451. 
Abbasides  (Banu-Abbas),  276,  283-4, 

285,  304,  305.  307-13.  315.  316,  324, 

325,  326,  339,  367,  371,  372,  389. 
Abdullah,  father  of  the  Prophet,  7,  8, 

128. 
Abdullah  Abu'l  Abbas,  see  Saffah. 
Abdullah    Abu    Ja'far,    see    Mansur 

(Cahph). 
Abdullah  b.  Abbas,  237,  274,  296,  306, 

363.  436. 
Abdullah  b.   Abu   Kuhafa,   see  Abu 

Bakr. 
Abdullah  b.  Ahmed  b.  Ali  al-Beithar, 

386. 
Abdullah  b.  Juda'an,  13. 
Abdullah  b.  Maimun  al-Kaddah,  326, 

330-5.  336,  337- 
Abdullah  b.  Sa'd  b.  Surrah,  295. 
Abdullah  b.  Ubayy,  57,  60,  68.   76, 

103,  115  n. 
Abdullah  b.  Zubair,  7  n. 
Abd  ud-Dar  b.  Kosayy,  4,  5. 
Abd  ul-Halim  Sharar,  Moulvi,  494. 
Abd  ul-Kabir,  a  friend  of  Ibn-Rushd, 

431- 
Abd  ul-Kadir  Ghilani,  Sheikh,  343  n, 

369.  472. 
Abd  ul-Kais,  tribe  of,  Ixvi. 
Abd  ul-Malik  b.  Merwan,   128,   254, 


303  w.  355- 
\bd  ul-Mahk  II. 


Caliph,  3  n. 


499 


Abd(u)  Manaf,  see  AbG  Talib. 

Abd(u)  Manaf  b.  Kosayy,  4,  5  «. 

Abd  ul-Muttalib,  grandfather  of  the 
Prophet,  Ixviii,  5,  6,  7,  9,  10,  13, 
128. 

Abd  ur-Rahm&n  b.  'Auf,  21. 

Abd  ur-Rahman  al-Hazini,  astrono- 
mer, 381. 

Abd  ur-Rahman  Sufi,  physicist,  376. 

Abd  ur-Razzak  b.  Ali  b.  Hasan 
al-Lahiji,  451,  452. 

Abd  us-Salam  ar-Rukn,  physician, 
450. 

Abd  ush-Shams  b.  Abd(u)  Manaf,  4, 

5  «• 
Abd    ush-Shams,    surnamed    '  Saba,' 

Ixii-lxiii. 
Abd  ul-'Uzza,  see  Abu  Lahab. 
Abelard,  397. 
Aben-Bethar,  see  Abdullah  b.  Ahmed 

b.  AH  al-Beithar. 
Abraha  al-Ashram,  Ixiii  n,  7-8. 
Abraham,  Ixiv,  Ixx,  20. 
Abu'l  Abbas,  see  Saffah. 
Abu  Abdullah  b.  al-Mubarak,  351. 
Abu  Abdullah  Mohammed  b.  Karram, 

443- 
Abu  Abdullah  Mohammed  b.  Sa'id, 

poet,  107  n. 
Abfi  Ali  Mohammed  al-Jubbai,  415, 

420,  452. 
Abii  Bakr,  Caliph,  6,  21,  26,  27,  38.  46, 

47,  48,  69,  86,  103,  116,  122,  126, 

127,  234,  264,  278,  280,  293,  294, 

323.  460. 

2  I  2 


500 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Abu  Bakr  Mohammed  b.  Yahya,  see 

Ibn-Baja. 
Abu    Bakr    Mohammed    b.    Zakaria 

ar-Razi,  385. 
Abucara,  Theodorus,  365. 
Abu'l  Feda,  geographer,  384,  390,  391. 
Abu   Hanifa,   Imam,    186,   351,    369, 

436-7.  438,  444.  445.  469- 
Abu'l  Hasan,  optician,  375. 
Abu'l  Hasan,  see  Asha'ri. 
Abu'l    Hasan    b.    Tilmiz,    physician, 

386  «. 
Abu'l  Hasan  Ali  b.  Amajur,  astrono- 
mer, 375. 
Abu  Hashim  Klialid  b.  Yazid,  364. 
Abu  Huraira,  120,  199. 
Abu'l  Huzail  Hamdan,  415,  419. 
Abu    Ja'far    Ahmed    b.    Mohammed 

at-Talib,  physician,  386  n. 
Abu  Jahl,  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  7  n, 

47,  61,  62. 
Abu  Jariya,  55. 
Abu'l    Kasim  Ahmed,  ist  Abbaside 

Caliph  in  Egypt,  130. 
Abu'l  Kasim  Kinderski,  486. 
Abu  Lahab,  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  7  n, 

37.  39- 
Abu'l  Ma'ali  al-Juwaini,  420,  421. 
Abu  Ma'shar,  astronomer,  374. 
Abu  Mohammed   Abdullah,   founder 

of     the     Fatimide     dynasty,     see 

Obaidullah. 
Abfi    Mughais    b.    Mansfir,    see    al- 

Hallaj. 
Abu  Musa  al- Asha'ri,  298,  355,  441. 
Abu  Musa  Jabir,  chemist,  384,  484. 
Abu    Muslim    Khorasani,    308,    309, 

311-12. 
Abu  Nasr  Farabi,  see  al-Farabi. 
Abu  Nasr  as-Sarraj,   460,   461,   463, 

473.  474- 
Abu   Noumy,    son   of   the   Sherif   of 

Mecca,  132. 
Abu  Obaidah,  279. 
Abfl  Raf'e  Sallam  b.  Abu'l  Hukaik,  73. 
Abu  Sa'id  b.  Abi'l  Khair,  459  n. 
Abu    Salma   Ja'far   b.    Sulaiman   al- 

Khallal,  309-10. 
Abu  Sufian,  6,  57,  67,  68,  69  n,  71,  78, 

79,  90,  105,  299. 
Abu  Talib,  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  6, 

J  n,  g  n,  10,  14,  20-21,  23,  26,  36-37, 

39,  41,  128. 
Abfl  Thumama  Haran  b.  Habib,  see 

Mosaihma. 


Abu'l  Ula,  poet,  395. 

Abu  'Uzza,  poet,  73  n. 

Abu'l  Wafa,  mathematician,  376. 

Abu  Ya'kub  Yusuf,  Almohade,  429. 

Abu  Yflsuf,  Imam,  186,  273,  437,  491. 

Abyssinia,  29,  38. 

Accadians,  the,  xix,  xxxi. 

'Ad,  tribe  of,  lix,  Ix,  Ixx,  25. 

'Adi  b.  Hatim,  106. 

'Adi  b.  Ka'b,  family  of,  37. 

'adl,  doctrine  of,  418,  419. 

'Adnan,  progenitor  of  the  Koreish,  2. 

Aelia,  492. 

Afghanistan,  343,  344. 

Afrasiab,  xxx. 

Afshanah,  near  Bokhara,  387. 

Aghlabites,  the,  324,  375. 

Agricola,  Johannes,  461. 

Ahirman,  Persian  god,  xxx,  192. 

Ahmed  b.  Halt,  415. 

Ahmed  b.  Mohammed,  poet,  396. 

Ahmed  b.  Mohammed  an-Nehavendi, 
astronomer,  373-4. 

Ajarida,  the,  356. 

'Ajlan,  tribe  of,  65. 

Ajmere,  472. 

Ajnadin,  battle  of,  276. 

'Akaba,  hill  of,  43,  45. 

Akbar,     the    Moghul    Emperor,    x\,\ 
472  n. 

Akhb&ris,  the,  346-9. 

'Akil  b.  Abu  Talib,  14. 

'Ala   ud-Dowla,    Ameer   of    Isfaht 
387. 

'dlam  ul-jabarM,  473,  474. 

'dlam  ul-malaMt,  474. 

'dlam  til-mulk,  473. 

Alamiit,  340,  342. 

Albigenses,  the,  80,  220,  313,  397,  35 

Albucasis,  physician,  385,  386. 

Alexander  the  Great,  xxxiv,  xxxv, 
liii,  Ixiii  n. 

Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  339  n. 

Alexandria,  75,  140,  482. 

Algeria,  497. 

Alhazen,  see  Hasan  b.  Haitham. 

Ali,  Caliph,  14,  20-21,  23,  38,  46,  47I 
49,  62,  67  n,  68  n,  69,  70,  97,  103I 
104,  106,  108,  115,  117,  122-3,  I26| 
127,  128,  132,  163,  166,  234,  250J 
254,  274,  280,  281,  283,  293,  295I 
296-7,  298,  303,  306,  307,  308,  32l| 
323,  328,  345,  354,  355,  362,  363* 
409,  414,  416,  436,  440,  458,  4591 
460,  472  n,  484,  492,  495. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


501 


Ali   II.    (Zain  ul-'Abidin),   302,    307, 

321,  345.  458. 
Ali  b.  Abbas,  physician,  385. 
Ali  b.  Abdullah  b.  Abbas,  306. 
Ali  b.  Amajur,  astronomer,  375. 
Ali  Mohammed,  the  Bab,  358. 
Ali  b.  Musa  Riza,   Imam,   312,   345, 

352,  412,  461  n,  464  n,  494. 
Ali  Naki,  Imam,  346. 
Ali  Shah  al-Bokhari,  philosopher,  382. 
Ah  Sh^r  Ameer,  383. 
Ali  b.  Yunus,  astronomer,   see  Ibn- 

Yunus. 
Almagest,  the,  374. 
Almeria,  392. 

Almohades,  the  129,  400  n. 
Almoravides,  the,  129,  400  n. 
Alp  Arslan,  Sultan,  444. 
Altaf  Husain  Hali,  poet,  497. 
'Amalekites,  the,  lix,  Ix,  Ixi,  53. 
Ameer  Khusru,  poet,  472,  497. 
Amina,  mother  of  the  Prophet,  7,  9. 
'Amir,  tribe  of,  71. 
'Ammar  b.  Yasar.  27. 
Ammonius  Saccas,  xlv,  xlvi. 
'Amr,  the  Ghassanide,  14. 
'Amr  b.  al-'As  (Amru),  liii,  94  n,  297, 

298,  497. 
'Amr  b.  'Auf,  clan  of,  49. 
Anabaptists,  219. 

Anas,  servant  of  the  Prophet,  119. 
Anis,  Indian  poet,  497. 
'Antar,  the  hero,  254. 
Anushirvan  the  Just,  xxxvii,  Ixiii  n, 

Ixix,  8  n,  218,  326,  327,  367. 
Anwari,  poet,  368,  396. 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  185. 
Arabia,  xxxi,  Ivi,  Ixiv,  53,  290. 
Arcadius,  Emperor,  226. 
Ardeshir  Babekan,  xxxv,  xxxvi. 
Arians  and  Arianism,  1,  219,  220,  277, 

327- 
Aristotle,  xxxiv,  181. 
Arius,  1. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  141. 
Arnold,  Sir  Thomas,  491. 
Arphaxad,  ancestor  of  Kahtan,  lix. 
,  Arslan  al-Basasiri,  315  n. 
.  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  xxxiii. 
Arthur,  the  Knight,  252. 
.  Arvenius,  patriarch,  377  n. 
Arwa,  daughter  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib, 

7«. 
Aryans,  the,  xxi,  xxii,  xxix. 
Aryat,  the  Abyssinian  general,  Ixiii  «. 


Asad,  tribe  of,  Ixvi. 

Asad  ullah  Khan  Gh&lib,  poet,  497. 

Asha'ri  and    Asha'rism,    441-8,    452, 

453,  462,  465,  467,  473,  474.  476, 

486,  487. 
Ashtaroth,  goddess,  xix,  187. 
Asia  Minor,  330. 
Asoka,  Emperor,  iii  n. 
Asshur,  religion  of,  xxx,  xxxi. 
Assyria,  xxxi. 
Aswad,  of  the  house  of  Abd  ul-'Uzza, 

6. 
al- Aswad,  'Ayhala  b.  Ka'b,  115-6. 
Asyr,  border  of  Yemen,  Ivii. 
Athenians,  the,  223,  242,  248. 
'Atika,  daughter  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib, 

7«. 
Attila,  402. 
Augustine,  St.,  225. 
Augustus  Caesar,  372. 
Aurungzeb,  Emperor,  315. 
Aus,  tribe  of,  53,  58,  74,  205. 
Autas,  valley  of,  98. 
Avenpace,  see  Ibn-Baja. 
Aven-Zoar,  see  Ibn-Zuhr. 
Averroes,  see  Ibn-Rushd. 
Avicenna,  see  Ibn-Sina. 
Awwam,  7  n. 
'Ayesha,  wife  of  the  Prophet,   117, 

234,  250,  296-7. 
'Ayhala  b.  Ka'b,  see  al- Aswad. 
ayydm  ul-mina,  the,  4. 
Ayyubides,  the,  284,  445. 
Azar,  father  of  Abraham,  xx  n. 
Azarbaijan,  xix. 
Azarika,  the,  356-7. 
al-'Azid,  Fatimide  Caliph,  487. 
Aziz  b'illah,  Fatimide  Caliph,  377. 
azlam,  the,  7. 
Aztecs,  the,  398. 
'Azud    ud-Dowla,    the   Buyide,    376, 

386  n,  444. 

B. 

Baal,  god,  xix,  187. 

Babek  Khurrami,  327. 

Babis  and  Babiism,  357-8.  482,  494. 

Babylon,  Babylonia  and  Babylonians, 

xix,  xxxi,  xxxii,  248. 
Bactria,  xix,  xxxiv. 
Badakhshan,  xx. 

Badr,  battle  of,  61-63,  66,  73,  279. 
Badr  ud-Din  Chach,  poet,  131. 
Bagdad,  129,  130,  131,  362,  367-70, 

371,  397.  402  n,  440,  465,  468,  487. 


502 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Bahadur  Shah,  last  King  of  Delhi, 

497- 
Bahaism,  359  n. 

Bahmani  sovereigns  of  India,  315. 
al-Bahrain,  Ivii,  336,  355. 
Baibars,  Sultan,  130. 
Baki,  suburb  of  Medina,  68  n. 
Bakr,  tribe  of,  95. 
Balazuri,  historian,  389. 
Balkh,  XX. 
Balkis,  Ixiii. 

Barbarossa,  Frederick,  342  n. 
Barcelona,  392. 
Barmekides,  the,  312. 
Barra,  daughter  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib, 

jn. 
Basra,  11  n,  55,  296,  367,  432,  441, 

485.  487- 
al-Batani,  mathematician,  375. 
Batha,  near  Mecca,  27,  40. 
Batinias,  the,  344. 
Bayezid  Bistami,  461,  470. 
Bayezid,   founder  of  the   Roushenia 

order,  343-4,  471. 
Bazan,    governor   of   Yemen,   Ixiii  n, 

116. 
al-Beiruni,  astronomer  and  historian, 

380,  384,  390. 
Beltis,  goddess,  xix. 
Beyrout,  494. 

Bhagavad  Gita,  xxiii,  xxiv,  xxv,  455. 
Bibi  Khanum,  Timur's  Consort,  383. 
Bibi  Pakdaman,  461  11. 
Bilal,  the  Muezzin,  27. 
Bir-Ma'una,  71. 

Blagovestchenk,  in  Manchuria,  87  « 
Boccaccio,  254. 
Bokhara,  382,  484. 
Bombay,  494. 

Brahe,  Tycho,  mathematician,  376. 
Brahmanism,  xxvii,  160. 
Brockelmann,  C,  492,  493. 
Buddhism,  xxvi,  xxvii. 
Bundehesh,  the,  191. 
Buran,  wife  of  Mamun,  255. 
Burhan  ud-Din,  saint,  472. 
Busra,  near  Damascus,  90. 
Buyides,  the,  284,  376,  444,  447-8. 


Cadiz,  392. 

Cairo,   129.   130,   131,   324,   337,   340, 
362,  371,  372,  375,  376,  393  n,  4^o. 
Calcutta,  494. 
Caliphate,  theory  of,  122-8. 


Calvin,  211  n,  330,  454. 

Cansoya,  193  m. 

Carthagena,  392. 

Catherine,  St.,  Monastery  of,  84.  !  ;: 

Catholics  and  Catholicism,  219,  454,   \M 

Caussin  de  Perceval,  8,  40,  49,  70  n,!' 
72  n,  95  n. 

Celts,  the,  xx. 

Cerinthus,  xlv. 

Chalcedon,  Council  of,  li. 

Charlemagne,  211,  220. 

Charles  Martel,  398.  1 

Chaucer,  254.  jB 

Chedorlaomer,  Ixi.  ; 

Chengiz,  368,  382. 

China,  249,  381,  482. 

Chinevad,  the  bridge  in  Hell,  191,  192. 

Chiragh  Ali,  Moulvi,  230  n. 

Chrysostom,  St.,  251. 

Chyroseir  the  Paulician,  330,  336. 

Clovis,  Christian,  220. 

Clytus,  xxxiv. 

Co-Cheou-King,     Chinese     mathe- 
matician, 383. 

CoUyridians,  the,  142. 

Conrad  of  Montferrat,  342  n. 

Constantine,  xli,  1,  lii,  Ixiii  n,  66,  iii  «, 
212,  221,  226,  372. 

Constantinople,  liv,  Ixix,  132-3,  392, 
398,  399 

Cordova,   129,   362,   371,   378-9,   392, 
■^    397.  470.  484- 

Corea,  249. 

Corsairs,  the,  400. 

Cromwell  [OUver],  81,  265  n. 

Cybele,  Egyptian  god,  xl. 

Cyrenaica,  497. 

Cyril,  St.,  h,  255. 

Cyrus,  xxxi,  xxxii. 


Dabir,  Indian  poet,  497. 
Dahna,  desert  of,  Iviii. 
Dakiki,  poet,  380. 
Damascus,  11  n,  365,  367,  397. 
ad-Damiri,  zoologist,  387. 
Daniel,  190. 

Darius  Hystaspes,  xxii,  xxxii. 
Ddr  un-Nadwa,  the,  3,  46. 
David,  47,  81,  240. 
Deccan,  the,  470. 
Demeter,  god,  xl,  xli. 
Demiurge,  deity,  xlvi,  xlvii. 
Demosthenes,  223. 
Derenbourg,  Hartwig,  492. 


I 


GENERAL  INDEX 


503 


Dhirar  b.  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  7  n. 

Diocletian,  xxxiii. 

Dionysus,  god,  xl,  xli. 

Dioscorides,  3S5,  387. 

Dives,  xlii. 

diyai,  6. 

Docetes,  the,  xxxix,  Ixx. 

Dominicans,  the,  342. 

Drogheda,  81,  265  h. 

Duff,  Gordon,  Lady,  230. 

Dumat  ul-Jandal,  Ixvi,  77  n,  86,  298, 

355- 
Durthur,  a  Bedouin  warrior,  67. 

E. 

Eber,  ancestor  of  Kahtan,  lix. 

Ebionites,  the,  xxxix. 

Eckhart,  456. 

Edessa,  365. 

Edom,  Ixi. 

Edomites,  the,  Ixi. 

Egypt,  Iv,  Ix,  Ixix,  324,  438,  445,  487. 

Elephant,  year  of  the,  8. 

Ehjah,  44  n,  192  n. 

England,  219,  256,  498. 

Ephesus,  336. 

,  Council  of,  li. 

Epiphanes,  Antiochus,  xxxv. 

Essenians,  the,  xxxvii,  168,  224. 

Etruscans,  the,  223,  248, 

Ezekiel,  190. 

Ezra,  140,  151. 

F. 

Fakhr  ud-Din  'Isa  b.  Ibrahim,  Ameer 
of  Mosul,  288,  493. 

Fakhr     ud-Din     al-Maraghi,     philo- 
sopher, 382. 

Fakhr   ud-Din    Razi,    Imam,    341  tt, 
492-3- 

Fakhr  ul-Mulk  b.  Nizam  ul-Mulk,  466, 
469. 

fakirs,  the,  471. 

fandf'illah,  doctrine  of,  474. 

al-Farabi,  425,  426,  433,  449,  474,  485. 

Farid  ud-Din  'Attar,  396,  457,  460, 
467,  470,  477. 

Farid  un,  xxx  n. 

Fath  b.   Nabeghah   Khakani,   philo- 
sopher, 382. 

Fatima,  daughter  of  the  Prophet,  14, 
68  n,  122,  123,  126,  250,  393  n,  458. 

Fatima,  daughter  of  'Amr  Makhrumi, 

7M. 

F&timides,   the,   312,   314,   315,   324, 
325,  326,  332,  336,  339.  375.  376. 


Fazal,  of  Jurhum,  13. 
Fazl,  of  Jurhum,  13. 
Fazl  b.  'Abbas,  117,  306. 
Fazl  al-Hadathi,  415. 
Fez,  322,  375,  400. 
Fidak,  53, 

Fihr  (also  called  Koreish),  2. 
Firdousi,  380,  396,  464  n. 
Fizara,  tribe  of,  84,  92. 
Franciscans,  the,  342. 
Frisians,  the,  220. 
Fuzail.  of  Jurhum,  13. 


Gahleo,  483. 

Gautama,  xxvi. 

Geber   the   chemist,    see   Abu    Musa 

Jabir. 
Ghailan  Dimishki,  413. 
Ghair-Mukallidism,  353. 
Ghassanides,  the,  Ixvi,  Ixix. 
Ghatafan,  tribe  of,  73,  84,  92. 
Ghazza  (or  Gaza),  in  Syria,  5,  90. 
al-Ghazzali,    Imam,    166,    167,    199, 

448-469,  470,  473-4,  475,  476,  486. 
Ghilan,  xix. 

Ghulat  (or  Ghallia),  the,  343. 
Giralda  (tower  of  Seville),  379. 
Goths,  the,  401. 
Granada,  392,  397. 
Greece,  xxxiii,  xxxiv. 
Gregory  the  Great,  Pope,  372. 
Grotius,  211  n. 

H. 

Habrar,  a  Koreishite,  85. 

Hadrian,  xxxvii,  xlv,  260. 

Hafiz,  poet,  396,  457,  475. 

Hafsa,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  234-5. 

Hajjaj  b.  Yusuf,  310,  357. 

Hakim  bi  Amr'illah,  Fatimide,  339  n, 

377- 
Hakim  b.  Hashim  al-Mokanna,  327. 
hdl,  Sufi  doctrine  of,  475. 
Hala,  wife  of  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  7  «. 
al-Hallaj,  141,  142,  469. 
Hamadan,  xix. 
Hamadani,  historian,  389. 
Hamid  b.  Sulaiman,  351. 
Hamza  b.  Abd  ul-Muttalib,   7  n,  25, 

38,  62,   69,   70. 
Hanifa,  tribe  of,  Ixviii,  85. 
Hanzala,  poet,  13. 
Harith  b.  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  7  n. 
Harith  b.  Abu-Zirar,  87. 


504 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Harith  b.  'Amr,  6,  g  n. 

Harith  b.  Ka'b,  Christian  tribe,  Ixvi, 

Ixviii. 
Harith  b.  Kais,  7. 
Harun,    Abbaside   Caliph,    312,   314, 

345.  439.  491- 
Hasan,  Imam,  128,  298-9,  300,  345. 
Hasan  al-'Askari,  Imam,  123,  346. 
Hasan  al-Basri,  414,  460,  472  ■». 
Hasan  b.   Haitham,   mathematician, 

377.  424- 
Hasan  b.  Ka'b,  house  of,  7. 
Hasan  b.  Kahtaba,  309. 
Hasan  b.  Mohammed  of  Alamut,  341. 
Hasan  Sabbah,  316,  339-41,  462,  469, 

494- 
Hashim,  ancestor  of  the  Prophet,  4,  5, 

6,  10. 
,  Family  of.  13,  37,  38,  39,  41, 

128,  281-2,  292,  293,  366. 
Hashim  b.  Mohammed  al-Hanafiya, 

307- 
Hashimias,  the,  343. 
Hawazin,  tribe  of,  Ixvi,  97-8. 
Hazramaut,  Ivii. 
Heraclius,  Emperor,  lii,  90,  102. 
Hibatullah,  physician,  386  n. 
hijdbat,  office  of,  4,  5. 
Hijaz,  Ivii,  Ix,  Ixii,  Ixiii  n,  Ixiv,  Ixviii, 

497- 
Hijr,  in  Yemen,  Ivii,  Ixi. 
hilf  ul-fuzHl,  13. 
Hillel,  school  of,  242. 
Himyar  b.  Saba,  Ixiii. 
Hind,  wife  of  Abu  Sufian,  70. 
Hind     Umm-Salma,     wife     of     the 

Prophet,  235. 
Hira,  mount,  15. 
HIra,  Ixix,  216,  273,  362. 
Hisham,  uncle  of  Osman,  294. 
Hisham  b.  Abd  ul-Malik,  Cahph,  321. 
Hisham  b.  'Amr,  39. 
Hobal.  pagan  god,  Ixiv. 
Holayl,  Khuzaite  chief,  2. 
Honorius,  Emperor,  226. 
Horus  Happocrates,  xl,  xli. 
Hoshang,  Persian  king,  xxi. 
Hroswitha,  nun,  378. 
Hue,  Abbe,  230. 
Hudaibiya,  peace  of,  89,  95. 
Huguenots,  the,  220,  313,  326,  398 
Hulaku,  313,  342. 
hulill,  Sufi  doctrine  of,  474. 
Humaida,  wife  of  Faruk,  254-5. 
Humayun,  Emperor,  254  n. 


Hunain,  battle  of,  98,  105. 

Husain,  Imam,  177,  275,  300-2,  313, 

345- 
Huss,  330. 

Huzail,  tribe  of,  114  j;. 
huzuri,  Sufi  doctrine,  475. 
Huksos,  the,  Ix. 
Hypatia,  liii,  255. 

I. 

'Ibad,  the,  Ixvi. 

'Ibadhia,  the,  356,  357. 

Ibn  abi'l  Hadid,  458  n. 

Ibn  'Asakir,  443,  445,  446. 

Ibn  ul-Athir,  390,  391,  485. 

Ibn-Baja,  397,  425,  428. 

Ibn-Bakillani,  444  n. 

Ibn-Bash-kuwal,  485. 

Ibn-Batuta,  393. 

Ibn-Duraid,  poet,  395. 

Ibn  ul-Faridh,  poet,  395. 

Ibn-Gebrol,  Ivi. 

Ibn-Hanbal,  Imam,  352,  438,  445, 
487. 

Ibn-Haukal,  384. 

Ibn-Hisham,  biographer  of  the  Pro- 
phet, 8,  58. 

Ibn-Khaldun,  123,  126-7,  ^7^  w.  3i9W, 
331.  390,  391,  485- 

Ibn-Khallikan,  496. 

Ibn  un-Nabdi,  mathematician,  377. 

Ibn-Rabi'a  b.  Harith,  114. 

Ibn-Rushd,  289,  379,  386,  397,  399, 
425,  429-31.  476.  478,  483- 

Ibn-Sa'ud  of  Najd,  126. 

Ibn-Shathir,  mathematician,  383. 

Ibn-Sina,  349,  382,  385,  386-7,  425, 
426-8,  431,  433,  449,  476.  486. 

Ibn      ut-Tiktaka,      historian,      288, 

492-3- 
Ibn-Tufail,  425,  429,  456,  485. 
Ibn-Tumart,  445. 
Ibn  ul-Wardi,  geographer,  384. 
Ibn-Yunus,    astronomer,     377,    482, 

484. 
Ibn-Zuhr,  physician,  386. 
Ibrahim    b.     Abdullah,     brother    of 

an-Nafs  uz-Zakiya,  322. 
Ibrahim  b.  Adham,  461,  472  n. 
Ibrahim  b.  Mohammed  b.  Ali,  308, 

309- 
Ibrahim  b.  Sayyar  an-Nazzam,  415, 

419. 
Idris,  founder  of  the  Idriside  Dynasty, 

322,  497- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


505 


Idrisides,  the,  372,  375,  422. 

al-Idrisi,  geographer,  384. 

ikhtiar,  doctrine  of,  411. 

Ikhwan  us-Safa,  the,  432-4,  466. 

'Ikrama  b.  Abu  Jahl,  86,  95. 

'Imad  ud-Din  Zangi,  477. 

Imamate,  theory  of,  122-8. 

Imam  ul-Haramain,  461,  464. 

Incas,  the,  398. 

India,  xxii,  xxxiv,  470. 

'Irak,  Iviii,  Ix,  Ixii,  445,  470. 

Irving,  Washington,  67. 

'Isa,  nephew  of  the  Cahph  Mansur, 

322. 
Ishak  b.as-Sabbah,  father  of  al-Kindi, 

425- 
Ishakias,  the,  343. 
Isis,  Egyptian  god,  xl,  xli,  xhi,  xliii. 
Isma'il,  Shah  of  Persia,  132,  314,  494. 
Isma'il  b.  Ja'far  as-Sadik,  323. 
Ismaihas  and  Ismailism,  xlviii,  323, 

335.  336.  344- 
Isna-'Ashariaism,  314,  344,  346. 
Israelites,  the,  xxxii,  xxxvii,  222,  259. 
al-Istakhri,  geographer,  384. 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  339  n. 

J- 

Jabala,  the  Ghassanide,  279. 

Jabir  b.  Afiah,  mathematician,  379. 

jabr,  doctrine  of,  41 1-2,  453. 

Jabria,  the,  412-3. 

Jacob,  bishop  of  Edessa,  li. 

Jacobites,  the,  Ixvi. 

Jadis,  tribe  of,  lix. 

Ja'far  b.  Abu  Talib,  14,  29,  90,  95  n. 

Ja'far  b.  al-Muktafi,  376. 

Ja'far  al-Musaddak,  Imam,  323. 

Ja'far  as-Sadik,  Imam,  267,  309,  322, 

323.  345,  351.  364.  365.   366,  411, 

436.  437.  460.  484. 
al-Jahiz,  Abu  Osman  'Amr,  484. 
Jahm  b.  Safwan,  412. 
Jahmia,  the,  413. 
Jainism,  xxvi. 
Jalal  ud-Din  Rumi,  179,  396,  425,  427, 

457.  472,  477.  486. 
Jamal  ud-Din,  Sheikh,  482,  483. 
Jami,  poet,  383. 
Jarudias,  the,  322. 
Java,  250  n. 
Jazima,  tribe  of,  97. 
J  add  ah,  Ivii. 

Jeremiah,  patriarch,  377  n. 
Jerusalem,  xlv,  li,  44  n,  220,  465,  492. 


Jesus,  xxxvi,  xxxviii,  xl,  xlv,  xlvi, 
xlvii,  xlix,  Ixx,  16,  27,  31,  44  n,  46, 
64,  III,  140,  141,  142,  151,  162,  168, 
173.  179.  192,  193-4.  195.  196,  200. 
207-8,  213,  225,  238,  239,  240,  243, 
252,  259,  459. 

Jews,  the,  xxxvii,  Ivi,  219,  227,  271, 
276,  287. 

Jews  of  Medina,  53,  57-60,  72-82. 

Jodham,  tribe  of,  Ixvi. 

Johannes  Damascenus,  365. 

John  the  Baptist,  xliii,  471. 

John,  King  of  England,  339  n. 

Joshua,  III  M. 

Jouhar,  general  of  the  Caliph  al- 
Mu'izz,  324. 

Judaea,  xxxi. 

Julian,  Emperor,  Hi  n. 

Julius  Caesar,  381. 

Junaid,   Sheikh,   369,  460,   461,   470, 

472  M. 

Jurhumites,  the,  Ix,  Ixi,  Ixii,  2,  13. 
Justinian,  Emperor,  liii,  liv,  220,  224, 

226. 
Juwairiya,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  87, 

236-7. 

K. 
Kaaba,  Ixiv,  Ixvii,  Ixviii,  2,  3,  14,  36, 

38,  88,  107,  132,  139,  167. 
Ka'b  b.  Ashraf,  73. 
Ka'b  b.  Zuhair,  poet,  106-7. 
Kadesia,  battle  of,  217,  276,  308. 
Kadir  b'illah,  Cahph,  324,  325. 
Kadiria  order  of  Siifis,  472. 
Kahtan,  lix,  Ixii. 

,  children  of,  Ixi. 

Kai-Kaus,  xxx. 

Kaim  bi  Amr'illah,  Caliph,  315  n. 

Kainuka',  tribe  of,  53,  59,  74-76,  80. 

Kairowan,  375. 

Kaisanias,  the,  343. 

Kais-'Aylan,  tribe  of,  Ixvi,  10. 

Kaithan  b.  'Abbas,  306. 

Kaiumurs,  ancient  king  of  Persia,  xxi. 

Kalb,  Christian  tribe,  Ixvi,  86. 

al-Kamus,  fortress  of,  92,  93. 

Kanguedez  (in  Khorasan),  193  n. 

Karaites,  the,  222. 

kardmat,  470. 

Karmath  and  Karmathites,  334,  336. 

Kazwan  (in  Yemen),  5. 

Kazwini,  geographer,  384. 

Kepler,  astronomer,  383. 

Kerbela,  301. 


5o6 


GENERAL  INDEX 


1 


Khadijah,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  12,  14, 

15,  18,  20,  39,  233. 
Khaibar,  Ixvi,  53,  73,  77,  86,  92-3, 

115- 

khaimmeh,  office  of,  6. 

KhS.kani,  poet,  396,  457. 

Khalid  b.  Abd  ul-Malik,  astronomer, 

374- 
Khalid  b.  Walid,  6,  69,  94  n,  97,  216, 

237.  273- 
Khalil  b.  Ahmad,  grammarian,  485. 
Khalil  b.  Ishak,  jurist,  126  n. 
khdnkdhs,  the,  468. 
Khawarij      and    Khawarijism,     314, 

354-5- 

khazina,  office  of,  6. 

KhazraJ,  tribe  of,  53,  58,  74,  205. 

Khitabias,  the,  343. 

Khizr,  the  Prophet,  123. 

Khobaib  b.  'Adi,  27  m. 

Khoda-Bendah,  Sultan,  382. 

Khojas  of  India,  342. 

Khoraiba,  297. 

Khorasan,  123,  308,  309,  344. 

Khui,  in  Persia,  340. 

Khumm,  near  Mecca,  293. 

Khusru  Parvlz,  Ixiii  «,  90. 

Khuza'a,  tribe  of,  2,  3  n,  95. 

Kinana,  tribe  of,  Ixvi,  10,  68. 

Kinana  the  Jew,  93  n. 

Kindah,  tribes  of,  Ixvi,  110,  228. 

al-Kindi,  philosopher,  374,  425,  484. 

Koba,  near  Medina,  48. 

Kodayd,  Ixvii  n. 

al-Kohi,  astronomer,  376. 

Koreish,  tribe  of,  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10,  12, 
22,  23,  24,  26,  27,  29,  30,  34,  36-7, 
39.  41.  45.  46,  47.  48.  49.  53.  57.  60, 
62,  69,  70,  73,  78,  79,  88,  89,  94,  95, 
no,  127,  128,  228. 

Kosayy,  founder  of  Mecca,  2-4. 

Kubilai,  Mongol  Emperor,  382. 

Kfifa,   128,  296,  298,   300,   309,   310, 

355.  367.  437- 
Kuhlan  b.  Saba,  Ixiii. 
al-Kumi,  geographer,  384. 
Kuraizha,  Jewish  tribe,  Ixvi,  53,  59, 

72,  76,  78,  79-82,  92. 
Kurrat  ul-'Ayn,  Babi  heroine,  358. 
al-Kushairi,  463. 
Kutb  ud-Din,  Emperor  of  Delhi,  264. 

L. 

Lactantius.  St.,  87. 
Laith,  tribe  of,  114  n. 


al-Lat,  goddess,  Ixvi,  34,  36,  loi. 

Lazarus,  xlii. 

Libyan  Oases,  the,  497. 

Libyan,  tribe  of,  83. 

liwd,  office  of,  3,  4,  6. 

Lollards,  the,  330. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  342. 

Luther  [Martin],  330,  344,  454. 

Lydians,  the,  223. 

M. 
Ma'add  b.  'Adnan,  2. 
Ma'bad  al-Juhani,  413. 
Madain  (Ctesiphon),  Ixix,  217. 
Ma'di    Karib    b.    Saif    Zu'l    Yezen, 

Ixiii  n. 
Magdeburg,  sack  of,  220. 
Mahavira,  founder  of  Jainism,  xxvi, 
Mahdi,  the,  123-4. 
al-Mahdi,  Caliph,  327,  368. 
MahdiSh,  324,  338. 
Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  264,  380,  387. 
Mahmud,  Ottoman  Sultan,  498. 
Mahra,  district  of,  Ivii. 
Maimonides,  Ivi. 

Maimuna,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  237. 
Majna,  near  Mecca,  10. 
al-Makin,  historian,  391. 
Makkari,  historian,  390. 
Makrizi,  historian,    325,    326  n,    384, 

390.  391- 
Malaga,  392,  397. 
Malek  al-Ashtar,  297,  298,  299. 
Malik  b.  Anas,  Imam,  304  n,  352,  436, 

437- 
Malik  Shah  the  Seljuk,  381,  465. 
Malik  Zahir,  107  n. 
Mameluke  Sultans,  131,  132,  445. 
al-Mamun,  CaHph,  229,  274,  284,  286, 

312,  316,  370,  373,  374,  384.  422, 

439.  444- 
Manat,  goddess,  Ixvi,  34,  36,  loi. 
Mani,  xlviii,  xHx,  329,  332,  335  «. 
Manicheism,  Ixx,  328,  332. 
Mansur,  Caliph,   129,  284,   308,  314. 

322,  345,  367,  370,  422. 
al-Mansur,  the  chancellor  in   Spain, 

448. 
Mansur,  see  al-Hallaj. 
Mansuri^h,  368. 

Manu,  Code  of,  xxviii,  xxix,  xxxiii. 
MarHgha,  375. 
Marcionites,  the,  xxxix,   xlvi,  xlvii, 

Ixx,  343. 
Mariolatry,  cult  of,  251.  252,  329. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


507 


Marr  uz-Zuhran,  near  Mecca,  10. 

Ma'ruf  Karkhi,  461. 

Mary  the  Copt,  wife  of  the  Prophet, 

235- 

Mary  the  Virgin,  xHii,  142,  143. 

Marzbana,  wife  of  Shahr,  116. 

Mashallah,  astronomer,  373. 

Maslamah,  invader  of  Constantinople, 
399. 

Mas'udi,  historian,  384,  390,  485. 

Maurice,  Emperor,  Uv. 

Mauritania,  322. 

al-Mawardi,  politician,  485. 

Maxentius,  66  n. 

Maximilla,  prophetess,  xlvii. 

Mazdak  and  Mazdakism,  xxxvi,  327. 

Mecca,  Ivii,  Iviii,  Ixiv,  Ixvi,  i,  2,  3-4,  5, 
8,  39,  40,  41,  42,  46,  49,  52,  85,  94, 
95-7.  113.  132,  167,  213,  282.  303, 
360,  498. 

Media,  xxx. 

Medina,  Ivii,  52-3,  56,  60,  61,  67,  68, 
69  «,  70,  71.  72,  73,  75,  78,  79,  87, 
loi,  109,  123,  132,  303,  360,  365, 
410,  436,  497,  498.  See  also 
Yathrib. 

Meghass  b.  'Amr,  the  Jurhumite 
chief,  Ixiv. 

Merv,  309. 

Merwan  I.,  Caliph,  128. 

Merwan  II.,  128,  308,  309,  355,  356. 

Merwan  b.  Hisham,  Osman's  cousin, 
294. 

Meshed,  491. 

Mesopotamia,  Ixii,  115,  438. 

Messiah,  the,  124,  192,  193,  195,  205. 

Miknasa,  375. 

Milman  [H.  H.],  22,  193. 

Milvian  Bridge,  66. 

Mina,  suburb  of  Mecca,  4. 

Mirkhond,  historian,  390. 

mizan,  the,  474. 

Mohammed  the  Prophet  ;  is  called 
al-amin,  1,14;  birth  of,  8  ;  loses 
his  parents,  9  ;  taken  charge  of  by 
Abu  Talib,  10  ;  journeys  to  Syria, 
II  ;  marries  Khadija,  12  ;  joins 
the  hilf  ul-fuzM,  13  ;  settles  a  dis- 
pute at  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Kaaba,  14  ;  takes  charge  of  'Ali, 
14  ;  gives  himself  up  to  solitude 
and  meditation,  15-16  ;  receives 
his  first  revelation,  17-18;  com- 
mencement of  his  ministry,  19-20  ; 
his    first    converts,     20-21  ;      his 


sincerity,  21-2  ;  he  is  firm  in  his 
teaching,  22-3  ;  is  persecuted  by 
the  Koreish  along  with  his  dis- 
ciples, 24-7  ;  is  tempted  by  the 
Koreish,  27,  30  ;  moral  evidences 
of  his  mission,  31-2  ;  his  appeal  to 
reason,  33  ;  is  tempted  to  com- 
promise with  the  Koreish,  34-6  ; 
Koreishite  league  against  him, 
37-9  ;  visits  Tayef,  41-2  ;  takes 
the  pledge  of  'Akaba,  42-3,  45  ;  his 
vision  of  the  Ascension,  44  ;  plot  of 
his  assassination  by  the  Koreish, 
46-7  ;  his  flight  to  Medina,  47-9  ; 
his  character,  51-2,  117-121  ;  his 
teachings  at  Medina,  54-5  ;  his 
treatment  of  the  Jews,  57-60, 
72-82  ;  calumnies  against  him,  65  ; 
clemency  of  his  nature,  85-7  ;  his 
messages  to  Heraclius  and  Parviz, 
90-91  ;  conquers  Mecca,  95-7  ;  suc- 
cess of  his  mission,  109-112  ;  his 
last  daj-s  and  death,  11 3-7;  his 
marriages  examined,  232-8. 

Mohammed  b.  Abdullah,  an-Nafs 
uz-Zakiya,  322. 

Mohammed  b.  Abu  Bakr,  295,  492. 

Mohammed  Abu'l  Barakat,  Sherif  of 
Mecca,  132. 

Mohammed  b.  Ali  b.  Abdullah,  307, 
308,  309. 

Mohammed  b.  Ali  as-Sennusi,  497. 

Mohammed  al-Bakir,  Imam,  321,  345, 
366. 

Mohammed  al-Habib,  Imam,  323. 

Mohammed  b.  al-Hanafiyah,  307. 

Mohammed  b.  'Isa,  astronomer,  375. 

Mohammed  Juna  KhanTughlak,  131. 

Mohammed  al-Mahdi,  Imam,  123, 
346. 

Mohammed  al-Mahdi,  son  of  as- 
Sennusi.  497. 

Mohammed  al-Maktum,  323. 

Mohammed  b.  Mubashshir,  philo- 
sopher, 382. 

Mohammed  b.  Mfisa  al-Khwarazmi, 
mathematician,  374. 

Mohammed  Shah  Kajar,  357. 

Mohammed  ash-Shaibani,  Im^m,  186, 

437- 

Mohammed  Taki,  Imam,  346. 

Mohyi  ud-Din  al-Maghribi,  philo- 
sopher, 382. 

Moloch,  god,  xix,  187. 

Mongols,  the,  130,  402  n,  464. 


5o8 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Monophysites,  the,  li. 
Monothelites,  the,  lii. 
Montanus,  xlvii,  Iv. 
Montanists,  the,  xlvii,  327. 
Morocco,  129. 

Mosailima,  the  false  prophet,  116. 
Moses,  104,  III,  140,  222,  237,  240. 
Moulai  Tayyib  order,  the,  497. 
Moulaviya  order  of  dervishes,  472. 
Mu'ammar  b.  'Abbad  as-Sulami,  419, 

420. 
Mu'awiyah,     105,     107,     127-8,    267, 

280  n,    283,    294,    295,    297,    298, 

299-300,   313,   314.   355.   414.   430, 

497- 
Mu'az  b.  Jabal,  115,  183. 
Mubashshar  b.  Ahmad,  philosopher, 

382. 
Mufazzal  of  Jurhum,  13. 
Mughira,  nephew  of  Orwa  of  Tayef, 

105. 
Mu'in  ud-Din  Chishti,  471. 
Muir,  Sir  William,  40,  43,  72  n. 
al-Mu'izz    li    Din'illah,    founder    of 

Cairo.  324,  339,  372. 
Mu'izz  ud-Dowla  Deilemite,  312-3. 
mujdhada,  Sufi  doctrine,  475. 
mukdshafa,  Sufi  doctrine,  475. 
Mukawwim  b.  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  7  n. 
Muktadi,  Caliph,  129. 
Miinis,  Indian  poet,  497. 
Muntasir,  Cahph,  312,  319  m. 
Munzirs,  dynasty  of,  216. 
Murcia,  in  Spain,  392. 
murid,  a  Sufi  term,  471. 
murshid,  a  Sufi  term,  471. 
Musa  al-Kazim,  Imam,  323,  345,  369, 

494. 
Musa  b.  Shakir,  sons  of,  374. 
Muselo,  in  Algeria,  497. 
Mushabbihas,  the,  414. 
mushdhada,  Siifi  doctrine,  475. 
Muslimah  al-Maghribi,  physicist,  379. 
Mustaghanem,  in  Algeria,  497. 
Mustalik,  tribe  of,  87,  236-7. 
Mustaniid,  Caliph,  434,  450. 
Mustansarifeh,  370. 
Mustansir   b'illah,    Fatimide   Caliph, 

341,  440. 
Mustansir  b'illah,    Abbaside   Caliph, 

370. 
Musta'sim  b'illah,  Caliph,   130,   313, 

495- 
Mustazhir,  Caliph,  129. 
Mustazii,  Caliph,  487. 


Muta,  battle  of,  95,  115,  214. 
Mu'tamid,  Caliph,  123. 
Mutanabbi,  poet,  395. 
Mu'tasim   b'illah.    Caliph,    312,    327, 

346,  422,  439. 
Mutawakkil,   Caliph,    123,    230,    275, 

312,  319  w,  346,  435,  439-40. 
al-Mutawakkil    'ala-Allah,    the    last 

Abbaside  Caliph  in  Egypt,  132. 
Mu'tazid  b'illah,  Saffah  II.,  323,  336, 

370,  440- 
Mu'tazila    and    Mu'tazilaism,    414-5, 

416-8,    421,    422,    424,    441,    444, 

445-6,  447-8,  452,  453,  454,  496. 
Muti',  Caliph,  313. 
Muttalib,  brother  of  Hashim,  5. 

,  family  of,  13,  37,  38,  39. 

Muwaffak  ud-Din,  Imam,  494. 
Muwaid  ud-Din  al-Orezi,  philosopher, 

382. 
Mythra.  the  sun-god,  xxxiii,  xli,  xlii. 

N. 
Nadir  Shah,  401. 

nadwa  (council-hall  at  Mecca),  3,  4,  6, 
Nahrwan,  354,  355. 
an-Nairdzi,  astronomer,  375. 
Naishapur,  464,  468. 
Najd,  Ivii,  Iviii,  Ixii,  2,  102,  125. 
Najjaria,  the,  413. 
Najran,  Christians  of,  Ixvi,  271,  273. 
Nakhla  near  Mecca,  Ixvi,  10. 
Nakshbandia  order  of  Sufis,  472. 
Nar,  tribe  of,  65. 
Narses,  Iv. 

nasi  (shifting  of  months),  50. 
Nasir  ud-Din  Tusi,  377,  382. 
Naufal  b.  Abd(u)  Manaf,  5  «,  6,  9  n. 
Nazir,  Jewish  tribe,  Ixvi,  53,  59,  72, 

73.  74.  76-7.  80,  92. 
Nazr  b.  Harith,  62  n. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  xxxi,  xxxii,  Ixiv, 
Negus,  29. 
Nehavend,  217. 
Nejdat-Azarika,  the,  356. 
Neo-Platonism,  456. 
Nestorius,  li. 
Nestorians,  the,  li,  Iv,  Ixvi,  219,  365, 

366. 
Nice,  Council  of,  xl,  1,  141,  142. 
Nikophoros,  Byzantine  Emperor,  491. 
Nineveh,  xxx  n,  xxxi. 
Nisibis,  365. 

niyyat  ("  intention  "),  475. 
Nizami,  poet,  396,  457. 


geni:ral  index 


509 


Nizami^h,  the,  370. 

Nizam  ud-Din  Awliya,  471-2. 

Nizam  ul-Mulk,   340,   370,   381,   444, 

464,  465,  494. 
Nizar,  Fatimide  Caliph,  462. 
Noah,  25. 
Normans,  the,  287. 
Noubakht,  astronomer,  369. 
Nu'manias,  the,  343. 
Nusairis,  the,  343. 
Nutayla,   wife   of   'Abd   ul-MuttaUb, 

7  n. 
Nuwairi,  historian,  390. 


Obaidah,  62. 

ObaiduUah  b.  Abbas,  306. 

Obaidullah  al-Mahdi,   323,  324,   325, 

332  n,  336. 
Obaidullah  b.  Ziyad,  301,  302. 
Ohod,  battle  of,  68-71,  73,  279. 
Okba  b.  Abu  Mu'ait,  65. 
Oman,  355,  356,  357. 
Omar   b.    Abdul   Aziz,    Caliph,    303, 

458  n. 
Omar  b.  Khaldun,  physicist,  379. 
Omar  b.  al-Khattab,  Caliph,  6,  37-8, 

49,  69,   115  M,   122,   127,  216,  220, 

234,  274,  275  n,  278,  279,  280,  281, 

294,  321,  323,  355,  492.  495- 
Omar  Khayyam,  340,  377,  381,  494. 
Omayma,  daughter  of  Abd   ul-Mut- 

talib,  7  n. 
Omeyya  b.  Khalaf,  27. 
Omeyyades,  Ixv  n,  41,  128,  281-3,  295. 

302-5,    307,    308,    314,    316,    326, 

363-4.  365.  366,  371.  412,  436. 
Ophites,  the,  xlvii. 
Origen,  xlvi,  xlix. 
Ormuzd,  god,  xxx,  xxxiii,  161,  191, 

192. 
Orphics,  the,  xliii. 
'Orwa,  the  Tayefite  chief,  104-5. 
Osama,  poet,  485. 
Osama  b.  Zaid,  115,  264. 
Oscheder  Bami,  prophet,  192  n. 
Oschedermah,  prophet,  192  n. 
Osiris,  Egyptian  god,  xl,  189. 
Osman  b.  'Aifan,  Cahph,  21,  67,  88  n, 

103,  122,  127,  234,  274,  282-3,  293. 

294-6,  297,  323,  363,  366,  492,  496. 
Osman  b.  Huwairith,  13,  14. 
Osman  b.  Mahzun,  67  h. 
Osman  b.  Talha,  5. 
Otba  b.  Rabi'a,  27-8,  46. 


Paine,  Tom,  440. 

Parmenio,  xxxiv. 

Parthians,  the,  xxxv,  Iv. 

Patripassians,  the,  xxxix. 

Paul,  St.,  xxxviii,  xxxi.x,  239. 

Paul,  Pope,  339  n. 

Paulicians,  the,  220,  330,  332. 

,  Manichaean,  327,  329. 

Pelasgians,  the,  xx,  223,  277. 

Perishek  Khanum,  secretary  to  Sul- 
tan Mustafa,  393  n. 

Persepolis,  xxxiv. 

Persia,  xxix,  xxxiv,  liv,  Ixiii  «,  227, 
232,  470. 

Peter,  St.,  xxxix. 

Petrarch,  254. 

Philotas,  xxxiv. 

Pilate,  Ixx. 

Plato,  III,  181. 

Praxeus,  xlvii. 

Presbyterians,  the,  219. 

Priscilla,  prophetess,  xlvii. 

Pythagoreans,  the,  xliii. 


r abuts,  the,  468. 

Rabi'a  al-Basri,  229,  461. 

Rabi'a  b.  Nizar,  family  of,  Ixvi. 

Rabi'a  b.  Omeyya  b.  Khalaf,  114  n. 

Raihana,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  82. 

Ramdha,  hill  of,  27. 

Renan,  M.,  482,  484. 

Richard,    King    of    England,    339 ", 

342  w. 
rifada,  a  kind  of  poor-tax,  3,  4,  5,  6. 

gn. 
Rigaud,  Archbishop,  252. 
Roderick  the  Goth,  287. 
Rodha,  in  Najd,  Ixvii  n. 
Roland,  the  Knight,  252. 
Rome,  sack  of,  220,  303. 
Roushan  Bayezid,  see  Bayezid. 
Roushenias,  the,  343. 
Rukaiya,  daughter  of  the  Prophet,  67. 
Rustam,  family  of,  375. 

S. 
Sabellians,  the,  xlix. 
Sa'd,  tribe  of,  9. 
Sa'd  b.  Abi  Wakkas.  21. 
Sa'd  b.  Mu'az,  78.  79-80,  81. 
Sa'd  b.  'Ubada,  78. 
Sadducees,  the,  xxxvii. 
Sa'di,  poet,  106  w,  396.  457-  49i.  495- 


510 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Sadra,  MuUa,  349,  451. 

Sadr  ud-Din,  Pir.  343. 

Safa,  hill  of,  23,  96. 

Safawis,  the,  400,  451. 

Saflfah,  Abbaside  Caliph,  128-9,  308, 

309,  310-11,  315,  367. 
Safi  ud-Din,  ancestor  of  the  Safawis, 

494- 
Safiya,  daughter  of  Abd  al-MuttaUb, 

7  n. 
Safiya,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  237. 
Safra,  65. 

Safwan,  brother  of  Abu  Sufian,  7. 
Safwan  b.  Omeyya,  95. 
Saif  b.  Zu'l  Yezen,  10. 
Saif  ud-Dowla,  prince  of  Aleppo,  395, 

426. 
sajjddanasktns,  the,  471. 
Sakina,  daughter  of  Imam  Husain, 

255- 
Sakran,    former  husband    of   Sauda, 

233- 
Sakya-Muni  (Buddha),  11 1. 
Saladin,  221,  314,  381,  448,  477,  487. 
Salehias,  the,  322-3. 
Salerno,  362,  397. 
Salibah,  in  Spain,  392. 
Salma,  wife  of  Hashim,  5. 
Salman  the  Persian,  186  n,  308. 
Samanides,  the,  284,  376. 
Samarcand,  382,  383,  484. 
Samarra,  123. 
Samiya,  wife  of  Yasar,  27. 
Samuel,  the  prophet,  16,  87. 
San'a,  in  Yemen,  7,  8,  9,  116. 
Sanai,    Persian   poet,   40,   47  n,    199, 

313  «,  396,  431,  457,  467,  477,  486. 
Sanjar,  Sultan,  466. 
Sardinia,  324. 
Sarraj,  see  Abu  Nasr. 
Sassanides,  the,  xxxv,  xxxvi,  326. 
Sauda,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  233. 
Sauda,  Indian  poet,  396  n. 
Saxons,  the,  220. 
scholasticism,  422,  424. 
Scotland,  219. 
Scotus,  Johannes,  456. 
S^dillot,  historian,  244. 
Segelmessa,  375. 
Seir,  mount,  Ixi. 
Seleucidae,  xxxv. 
Selim  Chishti,  sheikh,  472  n. 
SeUm  I.,  Sultan,  132,  133,  313  «,  401. 
Seljukides,  the,  284,  381,  465. 
Send  b.  Ali,  astronomer,  374. 


Sennacherib,  8. 

Sennusiya  order,  the,  497. 

Serapis,  god,  xl,  xlii. 

Servetus,  211  n. 

Seville,  392,  484. 

Sforza,  Galeazzo  Maria,  339  n. 

Shaddad,  King,  Ix,  Ixiii  n,  Ixix. 

Shafei,  Imam,  352,  437. 

Shah  Kabir  Dervish,  472. 

Shahr  b.  Bazan,  governor  of  Yemen, 

116. 
Shah  Rukh  Mirza,  Timur's  son,  383. 
Shammaites,  the,  139,  242. 
Shams  ud-Dowla,   Ameer  of  Hama- 

dan,  387. 
Sharif  al-Murtaza,  485. 
Shayba    b.    Hashim,     see    Abd    ul- 

Muttalib. 
Sheikha  Shuhda,  255. 
Shiahism,  329. 
Shibli,  Sheikh,  369. 
Shihab  ud-Din  Suhrwardi,  434. 
Sicily,  324. 

Siculus,  Diodorus,  Ixi. 
Siddhanta,  the,  374. 
sifdrat,  office  of,  6. 
Sifatias,  the,  413,  418. 
Siffin,  battle  of,  297,  354. 
sikaya,  office  of,  4,  5,  6,  9  n. 
Silman,  in  Irak,  5  n. 
Sisebut,  the  Visigoth,  Ivi. 
Socinus  of  Sienna,  1  n. 
Solon,  74  n. 

Solyman  the  Magnificent,  133,  401. 
Sophia,  xlvii. 

Sophronius,  patriarch,  220. 
Sosiosch,  prophet,  123,  192  n. 
Soter,  Ptolemy,  xl. 
Spain,  1,  219,  286,  287,  292,  320,  375, 

378,  392,  398,  400,  422,  448. 
Spartans,  the,  223. 
Stagyrite,  the,  434. 
Sufana,  daughter  of  Hatim,  106  n. 
Sufaruz  Ziadia,  the,  356. 
Suhaili,  poet,  383. 
Sulaim,  tribe  of,  71,  73. 
Sulaiman  b.  Jaris,  322. 
Sulaimanias,  the,  322-3. 
Surra-man-raa,  346. 
Suriish,  the  angel,  xxxix. 
Susiana,  xxx. 
Suwailim  the  Jew,  103  n. 
Suwayka,  near  Medina,  67  n. 
Suzeni,  poet,  396. 
Syed  Ahmad  Khan,  44  n. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


511 


Sylvanus,  Constantine,  329. 
Sylvester  II.,  Pope,  371  n. 
Syria,  Ix,  5,  11,  15,  77  n,  102,  115,  127, 
128,  324,  438,  445. 

T. 
Tabari,  historian,  42,  96,  390-1. 
Tabaristan,  322. 
Tabuk,  expedition  of,  104. 
Tacitus,  225. 

tafwiz,  doctrine  of,  41 1-2,  413,  453. 
Taghli bites,  the,  Ixvi. 
Tahart,  375. 

Taherides  of  Khorasan,  375. 
Taj  ud-Din,  Kazi  of  Cairo,  130. 
taheyya,  practice  of,  335-6. 
Talha,    companion   of   the   Prophet, 

296. 
Talha,  standard  bearer  of  the  Koreish, 

69  n. 
Talmud,  the,  222. 
Tantarani,  poet,  395. 
tashbih,  doctrine  of,  412. 
Tasso,  254. 

tauba,  doctrine  of,  475. 
tauhid,  doctrine  of,  417,  423. 
tawaf      (circumambulation      of      the 

Kaaba),  3. 
Tay,  tribe  of,  Ixvi,  Ixviii,  106. 
Tayef,  Ixvi,  10,  41,  98,  104. 
Taym,  family  of,  13. 
Taym  b.  Murra,  6. 
Teraphim,  the,  140,  151. 
Tertullian,  St.,  xxix,  251. 
Thakif,  tribe  of,  41,  97-8,  99,  105  n. 
Thamud,  tribe  of,  lix,  Ix,  Ixx,  25. 
Thaur,  mount,  47. 
Theodora,  liii,  330  n. 
Thompson,  Joseph,  African  traveller, 

266  n. 
Thracians,  the,  223. 
Thumama  b.  Uthal,  85. 
Tihama,  Ivii,  Ixii,  68. 
Timur,  383. 
Titus,  xxxvii. 
Tlemcen,  375. 
Toledo,  392. 

Tours,  in  France,  69,  292. 
Treitheism,  doctrine  of,  xlix-1. 
Tughlakabad,  131. 
Tughril,  Sultan,  315  n,  444. 
Tulaiha  b.  Khuwaihd,  116. 
Turanians,  the,  xix,  xxx. 
Tus,  464,  469. 
Tyre,  sack  of,  xxxiv. 


U. 
'Ukaz,  fair  of ,  Iviii,  lo-ii,  12. 
Ulugh  Beg.  Shah  Rukh's  son,  383. 
Umm  ul-Fazl.  MSmun's  sister,   255, 

312,  345. 
Umm  ul-Habib,  M&mfin's  daughter, 

255-  346. 
Umm-Hablba,  wife  of  the  Prophet, 

235- 
Umm-Hakini,   daughter  of   Abd   ul- 

MuttaUb,  7  n. 
Umm  ul-Jamll,  ^vife  of  Abu  Lahab, 

24. 
Uns,  Indian  poet,  497. 
'Unsuri,  poet,  380. 
Upanishads,  the,  xxii,  xxiii. 
Ur,  in  Chaldsea,  xx. 
Usulis,  the,  346-9. 
Uzbegs,  the,  400,  402. 
al-'Uzza,  goddess,  Ixvi,  34,  36,  loi. 


Valentinian,  Emperor,  226. 
Valentinians,  the,  xlvii,  Ixx,  343. 
Vandals,  the,  401. 
Vasudeva- Krishna,  xxiv,  xxv. 
Vendidad,  the,  191. 

W. 
Wahabis  and  Wahabism,  125-6,  353, 

356,  357- 
Wahb,  grandfather  of  the  Prophet,  7. 
Wahraz,  Marzban  of  Yemen,  Ixiii  «. 
wajd,  a  Sufi  term,  476. 
Walid,  Cahph,  128,  319  «• 
Walid,  Osman's  uterine  brother,  295. 
waits,  the,  470. 

Waraka  b.  Naufal,  15  n.  18,  19. 
Wasil  b.  'Ata  al-Ghazzal,  414-5.  496- 
Wathik,  Caliph,  312,  422,  439. 
Watwat,  poet,  396. 
Welhngton,  Duke  of,  80. 
wisdl,  a  Sufi  term,  474. 
Wychffe,  397. 


X. 


Xerxes,  68. 


Yahya,  grandson  of  Zain  ul-'AbidIn, 

308,  322. 
Yahya  b.   Abi  Mansur,   astronomer, 

374.  484-  ,   ^ 

Yakhzum  b.  Murra,  house  of,  6. 


512 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Yaktan,  brother  of  Kahtan,  Ixii. 

Ya'kub  al-Mansur,  Almohade,  429. 

Ya'kub  b.  Tarik,  physicist,  379. 

Yareb  b.  Kahtan,  Ixii. 

Yasar,  27. 

Yathrib,  Ivii,  Ixvi,  5,  8,  42,  43,  46,  48, 

49.  51.  53.  59-     See  also  Medina. 
Yazatas  ("  Izad  "  in  modem  Persian), 

191. 
Yemama,  Iviii,  85,  115. 
Yemen,    Ivii,    Ix,    Ixii,    Ixiii  n,    Ixv, 

Ixviii,  Ixix,  2,  5,  115,  116,  497. 
Yermuk,  battle  of,  276. 
Yeshhad  b.  Yareb,  Ixii. 
Yezdjard,  King  of  Persia,  216,  217. 
Yezid  b.  Abu  Sufian,  86. 
Yezid  b.  Mu'awiyah,  300. 
Yunus  al-Aswari,  413. 
Yusuf  b.  Tashfin,  129,  386  n,  400  n. 

Z. 
Zahhak,  xxx  n. 
Zahir  Faryabi,  poet,  396. 
Zaid  b.  Ali    (Zain    ul-'Abidin),    320, 

321. 
Zaid  b.   Harith,    14-5,   21,   41,   95  n. 

235-6,  264. 
Zaid  b.  Rifa'a,  432. 
Zaidias,  the,  320-2. 


Zainab,  wife  of  the  Prophet,  235-6. 
Zainab,  sister  of  Imam  Husain,  250, 

302. 
Zain  ul-'Abidin,  see  Ali  II. 
Zallaka,  battle  of,  129. 
Zamurud  Khatun,  wife  of  Nasir  ud- 

Dowla  of  Hems,  393  n. 
Zat  ul-Hemma,  255. 
zavias,  the,  468. 
Zealots,  the,  xxxvii,  139. 
Z6b  un-Nisa,  393  n. 
Zemzem,  the  sacred  well,  5,  6,  9  n. 
Zend  Avesta,  191,  227. 
Zeus,  xl. 

zikr,  a  Sufi  term,  476  n. 
Ziraria,  the,  413. 
Zoroaster    (Zarathustra),    xxi,    xxii, 

III. 
Zubaida,  wife  of  Harun,  254,  393  n. 
Zubair  b.  Abd  ul-Muttalib,  7  n. 
Zubair  b.  Abu  Omeyya,  39. 
Zubair  b.  al-'Awwam,  21,  296. 
Zuhra,  family  of,  13. 
Zu'1-karnain  al-Himyari,  Ixiii. 
Zu'1-khulasa,  temple  of,  Ixvii  n. 
Zu'l  Majaz,  near  Mount  'Arafat,  10. 
Zu  Nawas,  Tubba',  Ixiii  n,  Ixviii. 
Zu's-Sabat  (in  'Irak),  Ixvii  n. 
Zu  Shinatir.  Tubba'.  Ixiii  n. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 

Akhldk  Muhsini  (Mulla  Husain  Waliz). 

Akhldk  Ndsiri  (Nasir  ud-din  Abdur  Rahim  Ibn  Abi  Mansur). 

al-Asdr  lU-Bdkieh  (Al-Beiruni). 

Al-Karrdr  {Life  of  the  Caliph  All)  (Riza  Ali). 

Al-Luma'  (Abu  Nasr  as-Sarraj). 

Aiesh  Kadeh  (Lutf  Ali  Azar) . 

Bihdr-ul-Anwdr  (Mulla  Bakir  Majisi). 

Dabistdni  Mazdhib  (Mohsini  Fani). 

Diwdni  Hdfiz  (Shams  ud-din  Hafiz) . 

The  Durrul-makhtdr . 

Fasl-ul-Makdl  (Ibn  Rushd). 

The  Fatdwai  Alamgiri. 

Fi't  Tahktk  ma  I'il  Hind  (Al-Beiruni). 

FutiVi  ul-Bulddn  (Balazuri). 

Ghurar  wa'durar  (Sharif  al-Murtaza) . 

Gouhar-i-Murdd  (Mulla  Abdur  Razzak). 

Hadika  (Sanai). 

Hayy  ibn  Yakzdn  (Ibn  Tufail). 

Ihya  ul-'Ulum  (Imam  al-Ghazzali) . 

Ihtijdj  ui-Tabrasi  (Shaikh  at-Tabrasi). 

'Ijdz  ut-Tanzil  (Khalifa  Mohammed  Hasan). 

Insdn  ul  '  Uyun  (al-Halabi) . 

fdyni'-ul-Akhbdr. 

J  ami' -ut-Tivmizi  (ImS,m  Tirmizi). 

Kashf  uz-Zunun  Haji  Khalifa). 

Kirdn  us-Sa'dain  (Ameer  Khusru  M.  E.  1228  A.H.). 

Kitdb  ul-Ishtikdk  (Ibn  Doreid). 

Kitdb-ul-Khardj  (Im^m  Abu  Yusuf). 

Kitdb  ul-Mustatraf. 

Kitdb  al-Tawdsin  {The  poems  of  al-Halldj)  (M.  Louis  Massignon,  Paris, 

1913)- 
Kitdb  Ridz  al-Jindn  (Ashraf  Ali  Ibn  Abdul  Wall). 
Kitdb  ud-duwal  al-Fakhri  (Ibn  Tiktaka,  Derenbourg  ed.  1877). 
Kitdb  ul-Tabyin  (Ibn  Asakir  (pub.  Report  Congress  Orientalists,  1876  ; 

Vol.  II.)  ). 
Lisdn  ul-Arab  (Jamaiuddin  bin  Mohammed  al-Misri). 
Luma't-ul  Baiza  (Sermons  of  Fatima't  az-Zahra). 
Makkari  (Umdat  ut-Talib) . 
Mdkhaz-'UliXm  (Syed  Ker^mat  Ali). 

513 


514  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Mandkihi  Martazawi. 

Masnavi  (Moulana  Jalil  ud-din  Rumi). 

Milal  wa'Nihal  (Shahristani). 

Mishkdt  al-Masdbih. 

Mu'jam-ul-Bulddn  (Yakut). 

Munkiz-min  azzaldl  (Imam  al-Ghazzali) . 

Muruj  uz-Zahab  (Mas'udi). 

Nafahdt  td-Uns  (Nur-uddin  Jami). 

Nahaj-ul-Baldghat  (Sermons  of  Ameer  ul-Mominin  Ali  ibn  Abi  Talib). 

Nahaj  ul-Baldghat  (Sharh  of  Ibn  Abi'l  Hadid  on  the). 

an-Nujum  uz-Zdhira  (Jamal  ud-Din  Abu'l  Mahasin  Ibn  Taghri-bardi). 

The  Radd  ul-Mnhtdr. 

Sharhi  Nahaj  ul-Baldghat  (LutfuUah  Kash^ni). 

Sidsatnameh  (Nizam  ul-Mulk). 

Strut  ur-Rasul  (Ibn  Hisham). 

Strat  ur-Nabawiyeh  wa'l  Asdr  ul-Mohammediya  (Syed  Ahmed  Zaini). 

Tafsir  al-Kasshdf  (Imam  Zamakhshari) . 

Takhrij  ul-Hedaya  (Zail'yi). 

Tdrikh-iil-Isldm  (az-Zahabi). 

Tdrikh  al-Kdmil  (Ibn  ul-Athir). 

Tdrikh  ul-Imdnt  Ibn  Khaldun. 

Tdrikh  Wassdf. 

Tdrikh  ul-Khulafd  (Suy'uti). 

Tdrikh  ul-Hukama  (Jamal  ud-din  Kifti). 

Tazkirat-ul-Awlia  (Farid  ud-din  'Attar). 

Umdat  iit-Tdlib  (Makkari). 

'  Uyiin  ul-Masdil  (Abu  Nasr  Farabi) . 

Wafidt  ul-'Aydn  (Ibn  Khallikan). 

Etc. 

A  Literary  History  of  Persia  (E.  G.  Browne). 

Ancient  History  of  the  East  (Lenormant). 

Angel-Messiah  (de  Bunsen). 

Arnold's  Sermons. 

Aspects  of  Isldm  (Duncan  Black  Macdonald). 

Code  Rabbinique . 

Concubina  (du  Cange). 

Conflict  of  Religion  and  Science  (Draper). 

Culturgeschichte  des  Orients  unter  den  Caliphen  (Von  Kremer). 

Curiosities  of  Literature  (Disraeli). 

Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  (Gibbon) . 

Ecclesiastical  History  (Mosheim) . 

Essay  on  Isldm  (Emmanuel  Deutsch). 

Essay  on  Mahommed's  Place  in  the  Church  (de  Bunsen). 

Hallam's  History  of  England. 

Hindu  Religion  and  Castes  (H.  H.  Wilson). 

Hindu  Tribes  and  Castes  (Sherring). 

Hisioire  des  Arabes  (Sedillot). 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX  515 

Histoire  des  Musulmanes  d'Espagne  (Dozy). 

Histoire  des  Philosaphes  et  les  Theologiens  Musulmanes  (Gustave  Dugat). 

History  of  Ancient  Egypt  (Rawlinson). 

History  of  Latin  Christianity  (Milman). 

History  of  Christianity  (Milman). 

History  of  Christian  Theology  in  the  Apostolic  Age  (Reuss). 

History  of  Greece  (Grote). 

History  of  Rationalism  (Leclcy) . 

History  of  the  Jews  (Milman). 

History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Future  Life  (Alger). 

History  of  the  Christian  Church  (Blunt). 

History  of  the  Church  of  Christ  (Milner). 

Ibn  Khallikdn  (De  Slane's  Translation). 

Intellectual  Development  of  Europe  (Draper). 

Islam  under  the  Arabs  (Osborne). 

J t' wish  Literature  and  Modern  Education  (Maitland). 

Law  of  Nature  and  Natioyis  (Pufendorfi). 

Le  Dogme  et  la  Loi  de  V Islam  (Goldziher). 

L' Influence  des  Croissades  sur  I'etat  des  Peuples  de  I' Europe  (d'Aillecourt) . 

Les  Confreries  Religieuses  Musulmanes  (Dupont  et  Coppolani). 

Les  Ecoles  Philosophiques  chez  les  Arabes  (Auguste  Schmolders). 

Les  Effects  de  la  Religion  de  Muhammed  (Oelsner). 

Les  Riligions  et  les  Philosophies  dans  I'Asie  Centrale  (Gobineau). 

Life  of  Jesus  (Strauss). 

Life  of  Mahomet  (Muir). 

Life  of  Mohammed  (Bosworth-Smith) . 

Literature  and  Dogma  (Matthew  Arnold). 

Manichaeism  (Beausobre) . 

Materials  for  the  Study  of  the  Babi  Religion  (E.  G.  Browne). 

Melange  de  Philosophic  Juive  et  Arabe  (Munk). 

Oriental  Religions  (Johnson). 

Philosophic  und  Theologie  von  Averroes  (Miiller). 

Religion  des  Druzes  (de  Sacy). 

Religions  of  India  (Hopkins). 

Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius  (Samuel  Dill) 

Secret  Societies  of  All  Ages  (C.  W.  Hecklethorn) . 

Selections  from  the  Koran  (Stanley  Lane-Poole) . 

Studies  in  Islamic  Mysticism  (R.  A.  Nicholson). 

Tableau  General  de  l Empire  Ottoman  (d'Ohsson). 

The  Forerunners  and  Rivals  of  Christianity  (Legge). 

The  Gentile  and  the  Jew  (Dollinger). 

The  Jewish  Church  (Stanley's  Lectures  on). 

The  Moors  in  Spain  (Stanley  Lane-Poole). 

The  Mystics  of  Isldm  (R.  A.  Nicholson). 

The  Preaching  of  Islam  (Arnold). 

The  Religion  of  the  Tantras  {"  Arthur  Avalon  "). 

The  Upanishad',  (Tv.  Hume). 

Un  Grand  Maitre  des  A  ssassins  au  temps  de  Saladin  (M.  Stanislas  Guyard) . 

Vie  de  Jesus  (Renan).  Etc. 


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